CHAPTER 2

Atomic Mass Unit

 The mass of a single atom is so small that it is impossible to weigh it directly

 Atomic masses are therefore defined in terms of a standard atom which is called
the unified atomic mass unit
 This unified atomic mass is defined as one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 isotope
 The symbol for the unified atomic mass is u (often Da, Dalton, is used as well)
 1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Relative Masses
Relative atomic mass, Ar

 The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the ratio of the average mass of the atoms
of an element to the unified atomic mass unit
 The relative atomic mass is determined by using the average mass of the isotopes of a
particular element
 The Ar has no units as it is a ratio and the units cancel each other out

Relative isotopic mass

 The relative isotopic mass is the mass of a particular atom of an isotope compared to the
value of the unified atomic mass unit
 Atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons are called isotopes
 Isotopes are represented by writing the mass number as 20Ne, or neon-20 or Ne-20
o To calculate the average atomic mass of an element the percentage abundance is
taken into account
o Multiply the atomic mass by the percentage abundance for each isotope and add
them all together
o Divide by 100 to get average relative atomic mass
o This is known as the weighted average of the masses of the isotopes

Relative molecular mass, Mr

 The relative molecular mass (Mr) is the ratio of weighted average mass of a molecule of
a molecular compound to the unified atomic mass unit
 The Mr has no units

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CHAPTER 2

 The Mr can be found by adding up the relative atomic masses of all atoms present in one
molecule
 When calculating the Mr the simplest formula for the compound is used, also known as
the formula unit
o Eg. silicon dioxide has a giant covalent structure, however the simplest formula
(the formula unit) is SiO2

Relative formula mass, Mr

 The relative formula mass (Mr) is used for compounds containing ions
 It has the same units and is calculated in the same way as the relative molecular mass
 In the table above, the Mr for potassium carbonate, calcium hydroxide and ammonium
sulfates are relative formula masses

Mole & Avogadro Constant

 The Avogadro constant (Na or L) is the number of particles equivalent to the

relative atomic mass or molecular mass of a substance
o The Avogadro constant applies to atoms, molecules, ions and electrons
 The value of Na is 6.02 x 1023
 The mass of a substance with this number of particles is called a mole (mol)
o The mass of a substance containing the same number of fundamental units as
there are atoms in exactly 12.00 g of 12C
 One mole of any element is equal to the relative atomic mass of that element in grams
o One mole of carbon, that is if you had 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon in your hand,
would have a mass of 12 g
o One mole of water would have a mass of (2 x 1 + 16) = 18 g

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CHAPTER 2

Answer 1

The relative atomic mass of Na is 22.99 g mol-1

Therefore, 1 mol of Na has a mass of 22.99 g

1 mol of Na will contain 6.02 x 1023 atoms of Na (Avogadro’s constant)

Answer 2

The relative atomic mass of H is 1.005 g mol-1

Since there are 2 H atoms in H2, the mass of 1 mol of H2 is (2 x 1.005) 2.01 g

1 mol of H2 will contain 6.02 x 1023 molecules of H2

Since there are 2 H atoms in H2, 1 mol of H2 will contain 1.204 x 1024 H atoms

Answer 3

The relative atomic mass of Na and Cl is 22.99 g mol-1 and 35.45 g mol-1 respectively

Therefore, 1 mol of NaCl has a mass of (22.99 + 35.45) 58.44 g mol-1

1 mol of NaCl will contain 6.02 x 1023 molecules of NaCl

Since there are Na and Cl atoms in NaCl, 1 mol of NaCl will contain 1.204 x 1024 atoms in total

Formulae of Ionic Compounds

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CHAPTER 2

 Ionic compounds are formed from a metal and a nonmetal bonded together
 Ionic compounds are electrically neutral; the positive charges equal the negative charges

Charges on positive ions

 All metals form positive ions

o There are some non-metal positive ions such as ammonium, NH4+, and hydrogen,
H+
 The metals in Group 1, Group 2 and Group 13 have a charge of 1+ and 2+ and 3+
respectively
 The charge on the ions of the transition elements can vary which is why Roman
numerals are often used to indicate their charge
 Roman numerals are used in some compounds formed from transition elements to show
the charge (or oxidation state) of metal ions
o Eg. in copper (II) oxide, the copper ion has a charge of 2+ whereas in copper (III)
nitrate, the copper has a charge of 3+

Non-metal ions

 The non-metals in group 15 to 17 have a negative charge and have the suffix ‘ide’
o Eg. nitride, chloride, bromide, iodide
 Elements in group 17 gain 1 electron so have a 1- charge, eg. Br–
 Elements in group 16 gain 2 electrons so have a 2- charge, eg. O2-
 Elements in group 15 gain 3 electrons so have a 3- charge, eg. N3-
 There are also more complex negative ions, which are negative ions made up of more
than one type of atom

Formulae of ionic
compounds table

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CHAPTER 2

Worked Example: Formulae

Answer

Answer 1: Magnesium chloride

 Magnesium is in Group 2 so has a charge of 2+

 Chlorine is in group 17 so has a charge of 1-
 Magnesium needs two chlorine atoms for each magnesium atom to be balanced so the
formula is MgCl2

Answer 2: Iron (III) oxide

 The Roman numeral states that iron has a charge of 3+

 Oxygen is in group 16 so has a charge of 2-
 The charges need to be equal so 2 iron to 3 oxygen atoms will balance electrically, so the
formula is Fe2O3

Answer 3: Aluminum nitrate

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CHAPTER 2

 Aluminium is in group 13 so has a charge of 3+

 Nitrate is a compound ion and has a charge of 1-
 The complex ion needs to be placed in a bracket if more than 1 is needed
 The formula of aluminium nitrate is Al(NO3)3

Remember: compound ions are ions that contain more than one type of element, such as OH–

Balancing Equations

 A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction using chemical

symbols to show the number and type of atom
 A word equation is a longer way of describing a chemical reaction using words to show
the number and type of atom

Balancing equations

 During chemical reactions, atoms cannot be created or destroyed

 The number of each atom on each side of the reaction should therefore be the same
o Eg. the reaction needs to be balanced
 When balancing equations remember:
o Not to change any of the formulae
o To put the numbers used to balance the equation in front of the formulae
o To balance firstly the carbon, then the hydrogen and finally the oxygen
in combustion reactions of organic compounds
 When balancing equations follow the following the steps:
o Write the formulae of the reactants and products
o Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product
o Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
o Use appropriate state symbols in the equation
 The physical state of reactants and products in a chemical reaction is specified by
using state symbols
o (s) solid
o (l) liquid
o (g) gas
o (aq) aqueous

Ionic equations

 In aqueous solutions ionic compounds dissociate into their ions

 Many chemical reactions in aqueous solutions involve ionic compounds, however only
some of the ions in solution take part in the reactions
 The ions that do not take part in the reaction are called spectator ions
 An ionic equation shows only the ions or other particles taking part in a reaction, without
showing the spectator ions

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CHAPTER 2

Worked example: Balancing equations

o This is now showing that 2 moles of magnesium reacts with one mole of oxygen
to form two moles of magnesium oxide

 Step 4: Use appropriate state symbols in the fully balanced equation

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

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CHAPTER 2

Worked example: Equations (balancing & ionic)

A
nswer 2

 Step 1: The full chemical equation for the reaction is

Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

 Step 2: Break down reactants into their respective ions

Zn (s) + Cu2+SO42- (aq) → Zn2+SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)

 Step 3: Cancel the spectator ions on both sides to give the ionic equation

Zn (s) + Cu2+SO42- (aq) → Zn2+SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)

Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

Empirical & Molecular Formulae

 The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and type of each atom in a
molecule
o Eg. the molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H6O2
 The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the elements present in one
molecule or formula unit of the compound
o Eg. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH3O

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CHAPTER 2

 Organic molecules often have different empirical and molecular formulae

 Simple inorganic molecules however have often similar empirical and molecular formulae
 Ionic compounds always have similar empirical and molecular formulae

Empirical & Molecular Formulae Calculations

Empirical formula

 Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the elements present in one
molecule or formula unit of the compound
 It is calculated from knowledge of the ratio of masses of each element in the compound
 The empirical formula can be found by determining the mass of each element present in a
sample of the compound
 It can also be deduced from data that give the percentage compositions by mass of the
elements in a compound
 Worked Example: Empirical formula from mass

Worked Example 2: Empirical

formula from %

Molecular formula

 The molecular formula gives the exact numbers of atoms of each element present in the
formula of the compound
 The molecular formula can be found by dividing the relative formula mass of the molecular
formula by the relative formula mass of the empirical formula
 Multiply the number of each element present in the empirical formula by this number to
find the molecular formula

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CHAPTER 2

Worked example: Calculating molecular formula

Water of Crystallisation

 Water of crystallisation is when some compounds can form crystals which

have water as part of their structure
 A compound that contains water of crystallisation is called a hydrated compound
 The water of crystallisation is separated from the main formula by a dot when writing the
chemical formula of hydrated compounds
o Eg. hydrated copper(II) sulfate is CuSO4∙5H2O
 A compound which doesn’t contain water of crystallisation is called an anhydrous
compound
o Eg. anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is CuSO4
 A compound can be hydrated to different degrees
o Eg. cobalt(II) chloride can be hydrated by six or two water molecules
o CoCl2 ∙6H2O or CoCl2 ∙2H2O
 The conversion of anhydrous compounds to hydrated compounds is reversible by heating
the hydrated salt

Anhydrous to hydrated salt:

CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4∙5H2O

Hydrated to anhydrous salt (by heating):

CuSO4∙5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O

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CHAPTER 2

To calculate the Mr of hydrated salts, the Mr of the salt and water should be
calculated separately and then added together.

Mole Calculations

 The number of moles of a substance can be found by using the following equation:

 It is important to be clear about the type of particle you are referring to when dealing with
moles
o Eg. 1 mole of CaF2 contains one mole of CaF2 molecules, but one mole of Ca2+ and
two moles of F– atoms

Reacting masses

 The masses of reactants are useful to determine how much of the reactants exactly react
with each other to prevent waste
 To calculate the reacting masses, the chemical equation is required
 This equation shows the ratio of moles of all the reactants and products, also called
the stoichiometry, of the equation
 To find the mass of products formed in a reaction the following pieces of information is
needed:
o The mass of the reactants
o The molar mass of the reactants
o The balanced equation

Percentage yield

 In a lot of reactions, not all reactants react to form products which can be due to several
factors:
o Other reactions take place simultaneously
o The reaction does not go to completion
o Reactants or products are lost to the atmosphere
 The percentage yield shows how much of a particular product you get from the reactants
compared to the maximum theoretical amount that you can get:

 Where actual yield is the number of moles or mass of product obtained experimentally
 The predicted yield is the number of moles or mass obtained by calculation

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Worked example: Mass calculation using moles

mass = mol x Mr
mass = 0.10 mol x 64 g mol-1
mass = 6.4 g

 Step 5: Calculate the percentage yield of copper

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CHAPTER 2

Excess & limiting reagents

 Sometimes, there is an excess of one or more of the reactants (excess reagent)

 The reactant which is not in excess is called the limiting reagent
 To determine which reactant is limiting:
o The number of moles of the reactants should be calculated
o The ratio of the reactants shown in the equation should be taken into account eg:

C + 2H2 → CH4

There are 10 mol of Carbon reacting with 3 mol of Hydrogen

 Hydrogen is the limiting reagent and since the ratio of C : H2 is 1:2 only 1.5 mol of C
will react with 3 mol of H2

Worked example: Excess & limiting reagent

Answer

 Step 1: Calculate the moles of each reactant

 Step 2: Write the balanced equation and determine the molar ratio

2Na + S → Na2S

The molar ratio of Na: Na2S is 2:1

 Step 3: Compare the moles and determine the limiting reagent

So to react completely 0.40 moles of Na require 0.20 moles of S and since there are 0.25 moles of
S, then S is in excess. Na is therefore the limiting reactant.

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CHAPTER 2

Volumes of gases

 Avogadro suggested that ‘equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules’
(also called Avogadro’s hypothesis)
 At room temperature (20 degrees Celsius) and pressure (1 atm) one mole of any gas has a
volume of 24.0 dm3
 This molar gas volume of 24.0 dm3 can be used to find:
o The volume of a given mass or number of moles of gas:

volume of gas (dm3) = amount of gas (mol) x 24

 The mass or number of moles of a given volume of gas:

Worked example: Calculation volume of gas using excess & limiting reagents

Answer

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CHAPTER 2

Volumes & concentrations of solutions

 The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent to make 1

dm3 of solution
o The solute is the substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a solution
o The solvent is often water

 A concentrated solution is a solution that has a high concentration of solute

 A dilute solution is a solution with a low concentration of solute
 When carrying out calculations involve concentrations in mol dm-3 the following points need
to be considered:
o Change mass in grams to moles
o Change cm3 to dm3
 To calculate the mass of a substance present in solution of known concentration and
volume:
o Rearrange the concentration equation

number of moles (mol) = concentration (mol dm-3) x volume (dm3)


o Multiply the moles of solute by its molar mass

mass of solute (g) = number of moles (mol) x molar mass (g mol-1)

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CHAPTER 2

Worked example: Calculating volume from concentration

Answer

 Step 1: Write the balanced symbol equation

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

 Step 2: Calculate the amount, in moles, of calcium carbonate that reacts

 Step 3: Calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid required using the reaction’s
stoichiometry

1 mol of CaCO3 requires 2 mol of HCl

So 0.025 mol of CaCO3 requires 0.05 mol of HCl

 Step 4: Calculate the volume of HCl required

Volume of hydrochloric acid = 0.05 dm3

Worked example: Neutralisation calculation

Answer

 Step 1: Write the balanced symbol equation

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CHAPTER 2

Na2CO3 + 2HCl → Na2Cl2 + H2O + CO2

 Step 2: Calculate the amount, in moles, of sodium carbonate reacted by rearranging the
equation for amount of substance (mol) and dividing by the volume by 1000 to convert
cm3 to dm3

amount (Na2CO3) = 0.025 dm3 x 0.050 mol dm-3 = 0.00125 mol

 Step 3: Calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid required using the reaction’s
stoichiometry

1 mol of Na2CO3 reacts with 2 mol of HCl, so the molar ratio is 1 : 2

Therefore 0.00125 moles of Na2CO3 react with 0.00250 moles of HCl

 Step 4: Calculate the concentration, in mol dm-3 of hydrochloric acid

17