Fundamentals of Traffic Management and

Investigation with Driving

Culled and Adapted by:

Ms. Leoniza L. Supilanas, LPT, Reg. Crim.

Instructor

MODULE 1

Historical Background of Land Transportation

Overview

This module presents the historical development of land transportation use by man. It gives information
on the earliest form of travel used by the man on how they transport, carries their goods from one place to another
place and the locomotives in the Philippines and in other Countries, Development of Road, Traffic Lights, and other
road safety requirements, and traffic control devices. It is necessary for us and to the future traffic enforcer to
know the numerous developments and modernizations of the land transformation as to understand the present
traffic problems. For better understanding, it is divided into:

Lesson 1. History of Transportation, Motor Vehicles, and Locomotives in the Philippines and in other
Countries.

Lesson 2. Development of Road, Traffic Lights, and other road safety requirements, and traffic control
devices.

Lesson 1

History of Transportation, Motor Vehicles, and Locomotives in the Philippines and in other Countries

Transportation is the movement or conveying of person and goods from one location to another or that is
any device used to move an item from one location to another.

Generally speaking, transport means any device used to move an item from one location to another. When
people or goods are moved from one place to another it is known as transport.

A vehicle or system of vehicles such as buses, trains, etc. is the means getting from one place to another
(2008, Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary, Cambridge University Press).

The first form of transport was, of course, Shanks pony (the human foot!). However people eventually learned
to use animals for transport. Donkeys and horses were probably domesticated between 4,000 and 3,000 BC
(obviously the exact date is not known). Camels were domesticated slightly later between 3,000 and 2,000 BC.

Why Man Needs to Travel?

Man’s need to travel dates backs as early as the creation of human beings. Biblical passages alleged that
when Adam and Ave ate the fruit of the forbidden tree, they were sent out by God from Paradise of Eden.
“Therefore the Lord sent him froth from the garden of Eden, to till the ground from whence he was taken.”

Since then, humans expanded, and our ancestors constantly move from one place to another to enable them
to survive and others for various reasons. Other biblical passages mentioned that Moses was chosen by God to
speak to the Pharoah, King of Egypt to let his children out of Egypt. So, the children of Israel were gloriously
brought out from Egypt.

Soon, other became nomadic. They constantly migrate from one place to other place according to their own
detailed knowledge of exploitable resources.

The term nomad, from the Greek, “to pasture,” was originally used to refer to pastoralist groups that migrate
in an established pattern to find pasture lands for their domestic livestock.

Early Modes of Transportation:

A. Manpower. Man, who had no domesticated animals, carried his own burdens. More so today, manpower is
important in transportation in many parts of the word.
 1. Walking (Traveling by foot) – It is commonly cited by reference
books and literatures that man first used the power of his own
feet in traveling while a load is either carried or dragged.
Coincidentally, the English word “pedestrian” was coined from
the Latin word “pedester” which means to travel on foot.

2. Carrying Pole – in china and other parts of the east, the carrying
pole, balanced on the shoulder is a popular carrying device. On
island of Pacific, the ends of the pole are supported by the two men,
with goods suspended from the pole between.

3. Back Load and Tumpline – in many parts of the word, goods

are carried on the back. In subtemala, pots are carried on a
wood framework supported by a tumpline across the forehead.
In the Andes, the load is held on the back by a strap passing
over the chest.

B. The sledge: From the beginning of human history people have dragged any load too heavy to be carried. But
large objects are often of awkward shape and texture, liable to snag on any roughness in the ground. The
natural solution is to move them on a platform with smooth runners - a sledge.

1. Sledge on rollers – the moving of heavy

burdens was to place them on sledge which
rested on a series of rollers.

2. Sledge on runners – A simple sledge, probably man-drawn,

was in use at the end of old Stone Age in northern Europe, this
sledge on runners is a vehicle mounted on runners drawn by
work animals, such as horses or dogs, and used for transporting
loads across ice, snow, and rough ground.

3. Travois – a type of sledge formerly used by North American

Indians to carry goods, consisting of two joined poles pulled by
a horse or dog.

C. Animal Power. The domestication of animals greatly increased the potential power available for
transportation. Pack animals were introduces as conveyances mainly to save labor. A man can’t tend several
packs animals together, each of which (except dogs) can carry more than he usually can. Little advantage in
speed is gained unless part of the animal’s carrying capacity and for riding.

The domestication of cattle, and more particularly the discovery that a castrated bull becomes the docile
but very powerful ox, means that humans can transport heavier loads than before. This is done at first on
sledges, which slither adequately over the dry grass of the steppes of southern Russia and on the parched
earth of Mesopotamia. In both regions ox-drawn sledges are in use by the 4th millennium BC.
The following are the Domesticated Animals during the Ancient Time

1. OX – Cattle, which were first domesticated in Mesopotamia, were used as draft animals to draw war
chariots. Oxen are still used as draft animals in many regions of the word. In some parts of Africa, they
are used as pack animals and for riding.

2. Reindeer – These were first domesticated in Siberia in the beginning of the Christian era. In the Altai
Mountains, they draw sledges somewhat like the dog sledges of the north.

3. Dog – The dog, the first animal domesticated, is too slight to carry heavy loads. The plain Indiana
sometimes packed light loads on dogs back, and piled goods on a travois which the dogs dragged. In
the Far North, the dog’s team drawing sledges are the chief means of transportation; and in of Europe,
the dogs are used to draw small carts.

4. Donkey – The donkey or ass, first domesticated in the Middle East. Early dogs came to use as a pack
animal before the domestication of the camel. Donkey caravans carry goods between the cities of
Southwest Asia and Egypt and the donkey is still the chief beast of burden among the farmers of the
Near East, the Mediterranean Area and Mexico, where it was introduce from Spain.

5. Llama – In pre-Columbian America, the Llama was the only new world animal other than dog capable
of domestication for use in transport. In the high Andes, the llama was used as a pack animal by the
Incas and their Spanish conqueror, as it’s by modern Andean people.

6. Elephant – The Carthaginians used African elephant in their war against Rome but in recent centuries,
these animals have not been tamed. In India, elephants were formerly used in war and are still employed
to some extent for ceremonial processions and big game hunting. In Burma and Thailand, these huge
animals are widely used in the lumber industry.

7. Horse – Around 2,000 B.C horse drawn chariots appeared in southwest Asia and 1,000 years later, the
Persians arrived with cavalry which gave mobility and power to the German tribes who invaded Europe
and to the Central Asian conqueror Genghis Khan. In Europe, horses were used to draw wheeled vehicles
and for riding for some time until the introduction of mechanized vehicles.

8. Camel – There are two kinds of camel, the two-humped Bactrian camel of Central Asia and the one-
humped dromedary of Arabia have long been used for transport. The Bactrian camel has plodded along
the caravan routes between China and Iran for at least 2,000 years. It is also used to draw carts. The
dromedary, which has less endurance but it is fleeter and special fast-paced riding camel, is bred by the
Arab nomads.

9. Yak – a long-haired type of cattle that lives at high altitudes on the Tibetan plateau and in the
neighboring Mountain Regions is ridden and used as a pack animal at heights were horses and ordinary
animal could not survive.

Wheeled Transport and Motor Vehicle History

As a man, from ancient times to the 20th century, sought to make their transport facilities more efficient,
they have always endeavored to move people and property with least expenditure of time, effort, and money.

The following are inventions and innovations and important events that lead to Modern Land Transportation:

A. History of Wheeled Transport

Wheel. Was invented by the Sumerians such invention was a milestone and a great step forward in
transportation. As wheel was perfected, crude carts and wagons began to appear in TIGRISEUPHRATES VALLEY
about 3500 B.C and later in CRETE, EGYPT and CHINA. The wheel was one of man’s great inventions. Is enabled
him to transport burden beyond the power of man or animals to carry or drag and permitted much greater facility
of movements than the simple sledge on rollers which had to be continually picked up and moved by hands as the
sledge is advanced.

Wheels perhaps originally for the making of pottery. Their original transport use may have been as
attachments to travois or sleds to reduce resistance. It has been argued that logs were used as rollers under sleds
prior to the development of wheels, but there is no archaeological evidence for this. Most early wheels appear to
have been attached to fixed axles, which would have required regular lubrication by animal fats or vegetable oils
or separation by leather to be effective.

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 The first simple two-wheel carts, apparently developed from travois, appear to have been used in
Mesopotamia and northern Iran in about 3000 BC and two-wheel chariots appeared in about 2800 BC. They were
hauled by onagers, related to donkeys.

The Heavy four-wheeled wagons developed about 2500 BC, which were only suitable for oxen-haulage,
and therefore were only used where crops were cultivated, particularly Mesopotamia.

The Two-wheeled chariots with spooked wheels appear to have been developed around 2000 BC by the
Andronovo culture in southern Siberia and Central Asia. At much the same time the first primitive harness enabling
horse-haulage was invented.

Wheeled-transport created the need for better roads. Generally, natural materials cannot be both soft enough
to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet, and stay intact. In
urban areas it began to be worthwhile to build stone-paved streets and, in fact, the first paved streets appear to
have been built in Ur in 4000 BC.

The following were some of the earliest types of wheeled carts:

1. Solid wheels on fixed axle – this ancient cart represent an early

step in the evolution of wheeled vehicles. Its solid wheels which
were made of a single piece of wood, rotated on single axle.

2. Sumerian chariots with flank wheels – these chariots, of about

2400 B.C had solid wheels built up of three pieces, and so was
more durable than the one-piece wheel.

3. Greek Quadrica with spoked wheels – drawn by four

horses, was a light and elegant vehicle for gentleman about
250 B.C. It had spoked wheels and axles of irons or bronze,
handles for aid in mounting, and seat formed by a board
placed across the handles.

4. Roman Carpentum – a closed, two-wheel cart, was the

favored vehicle when Roman women journeyed outside
the city.

5. Italian Cocchio, 1288 – a traveling wagon in which the

passengers were protected by a covering of leather or cloth
fixed over a wooden framework.

B. The Invention of Bicycle

In the early 19th century served as a nursery of automobile builders. One of the modern ancestors of the
modern bicycle was the Hobby Horse, or dan horse. The wheels were made of wood, with tires of iron, and the
riders push themselves along with their feet on the ground.

• Pierre Michaux - Inventor of First Working Prototype of Bicycle

• The German baron Karl Von Drais in 1817 introduced a steerable wheel, creating the “draisienne
“or dandy Horse.
• In, KIRKPATRICK MACMILLAN, A Scottish blacksmith, made the first machine with pedals, which
were attached to and drove the rear wheel by means of cranks.
C. The Pneumatic Tires (inflated by air)

The pneumatic tire is designed to provide a flexible cover with an impermeable lining to contain and
restrain the compressed air. This cover is provided with a rubber tread portion that is designed to withstand the
cutting and abrasive wear of road contact and to protect the tire against puncture and loss of air. Such a structure
has, as distinct from a solid rubber or cushion tire, no capacity in itself either to carry load or absorb shocks. It is
entirely dependent on the contained compressed air to enable it to function.

Robert William Thomson 1822–1873. (Original inventor of the pneumatic tire: invented the actual first
vulcanized rubber pneumatic (inflatable) tire. Thomson patented his pneumatic tire in 1845, and while his
invention worked well, but it was too costly to catch on.

Charles Goodyear. Invented vulcanized rubber in 1844 that was later used for tires. In 1843, Charles
Goodyear discovered that if you removed the sulphur from rubber then heated it, it would retain its elasticity. This
process called vulcanization made rubber waterproof and winter-proof and opened the door for an enormous
market for rubber goods. On June 24, 1844, Charles Goodyear was granted patent #3,633 for vulcanized rubber.

John Boyd Dunlop (1840–1921). A Scottish invented the first practical pneumatic tire for bicycle. His
patent, granted in 1888, wasn't for automobile tires, however. Instead, it was intended to create tires for bicycles.

In 1895, André Michelin was the first person to use pneumatic tires on an automobile, however, not
successfully.

D. History of Motor Vehicle

The automobile as we know it was not invented by a single inventor. The history reflects on the evolution
that took place worldwide. The automobile was first invented and perfected in Germany and France in the late
1800s, though Americans quickly came to dominate the automotive industry in the first half of the twentieth
century. Starting with the first theoretical plan for a motor vehicle that had been drawn up by both Leonardo da
Vinci and Isaac Newton.

In 1769 the first steam-powered automobile capable of human transportation was built by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot.

Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot. Was a French inventor who built the world's first full-size and working self-
propelled mechanical land-vehicle, the "Fardier à vapeur” ("steam dray") — effectively the world's first automobile.
In 1765 he began experimenting with working models of steam-engine-powered vehicles for the French Army,
intended for transporting cannons.

1801 Steam Locomotive Richard Trevithick British mechanical engineer invented the first steam powered
locomotive (high-pressure steam) designed for roads and constructed the world’s first steam railway locomotive
(1803).

A steam locomotive is a type of railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam
engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material – usually coal, wood, or oil – to produce
steam in a boiler. The steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotive's
main wheels (drivers). Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself
or in wagons (tenders) pulled behind.

In 1803, Hayden Wischett designed the first car powered by the de Rivaz engine, an internal combustion
engine that was fuelled by hydrogen.

François Isaac de Rivaz. He invented a hydrogen-powered internal combustion engine with electric
ignition and described it in a French patent published in 1807. In 1808 he fitted it into a primitive working vehicle
– "the world's first internal combustion powered automobile".

Étienne Lenoir, a Belgian inventor who devised the first commercially successful internal-combustion
engine. In 1862 Lenoir built the first automobile with an internal-combustion engine. It is apparent that he built a
small carriage with his engine. His automobile of 1862 was capable of 3 kilometers per hour. In 1863, Lenoir
demonstrated a second three-wheeled carriage, the Hippomobile, little more than a wagon body set atop a tricycle
platform.

Motorcycle invented in 1867 by Sylvester Howard Roper. The motorcycle is a single-track, two-wheeled
motor vehicle powered by an engine. The earliest motorcycle was a coal-powered, two-cylinder, steam-driven
motorcycle. A motorcycle (also called a motor bicycle, motorbike, bike, or cycle) is a single-track, two-wheeled
motor vehicle.

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 In 1885, a German mechanical engineer named Karl Benz designed and built the world's first practical
automobile powered by an internal-combustion engine. A year later, Benz received the first patent (DRP No. 37435)
for a gas-fuelled car on January 29, 1886. It was a three-wheeler called the Motorwagen or Benz Patent Motorcar.

Benz built his first four-wheeled car in 1891. He started Benz & Company and by 1900 became the world's
largest manufacturer of automobiles. He also became the first legally licensed driver in the world, when the Grand
Duke of Baden granted him the distinction. What's especially remarkable was that he was able to achieve these
milestones despite coming from a relatively modest background.

Nicolaus August Otto and Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler. Pioneered the Manufacture of Gas Engines

Nicolaus August Otto was a German engineer who successfully developed the compressed charge internal
combustion engine which ran on petroleum gas and led to the modern internal combustion engine.

Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler was a German engineer, He was a pioneer of internal-combustion engines and
automobile development. He invented the high-speed liquid petroleum-fuelled engine. And he became a successful
automobile manufacturer.

Rudolf Diesel, a German engineer, developed an internal combustion engine which is similar with gasoline
engine but requires no electrical ignition system or carburettor ant use other form of liquid fuel, the diesel fuel.
In 1908, Henry Ford – introduced the model T, which was proved popular that by 1914, ford had adopted
MASS PRODUCTION methods to meet the demand.

1956, Felix Wankel, a German mathematician, developed an advanced type of engine, named after him,
that operates very differently from gas and diesel engines. It is started by moving crankshaft.

From Ford Era, the demand of vehicles became great for the transportation of goods, products,
communications and people. Hence, man started manufacturing large cargo trucks and buses for mass
transportation.

Development of transportation in the Philippines

During Spanish period (1570 – 1898)

Public transport:

• Before 1850: most Manileño travels on foot, perhaps hitched in private owned horse or caraboa drawn
cart.
• 1850: four types of horse drawn vehicles for hire: the carromata, the quiles, the calesa and the carruaje.
• 1880: the Campania de los Tranvias de Filipinas launched a tranvia-a single horse rawn tramcar, 12-seater
permanent ways.
• 1892: four horse-drawn lines plied Intramuros and the extramuros routes to Malate, Sampaloc and Tomdo:
one steamed-powered line ran from Binondo to Malabon.
• 1898: Ten tranvias were operating in the network; Philippine Revolution.

American Period (1898 – 1946)

• Urban development supported by development of roads by the colonizing government.

• Development of transport network and housing by the private sector.
• Basic form of road network.
• First Master Plan of Metro Manila made by Chicago-based urban planners Daniel Burnham and Piere
Anderson.
• 1933: the transfer of capital city Manila to Quezon City was decided and planning was done but plan did
not materialize due to the outbreak of the World War II.

Public Transport:

• 1903: Manila Electric Railroad and Light Company purchased the streetcar franchise. Converted the system
into electric rail. First class at 6 centavos.
• 1950 April 11: Full commercialization of a fully electric tranvia system. Total of 30 km length of track
between Sta. Ana and Port of Manila. Introduction of first and second class (12 and 10 cents respectively),
based on sitting arrangement. Carried 10.5 million passengers.
• Succeeding years: Meralco expanded operations to cover 90 kilometers of track with over 170 cars.
• 1926: 35 million passengers carried.
• 1927: MERALCO introduced urban passenger’s buses-the autobus.
 • Pacific War: MERALCO is 109 streetcars, 190 autobuses. Carried 59 million passengers (28 million by travia
and 31 million by autobuses.
• Network is supplemented by auto-calesas; smaller Fieras of today of 5 to 6 squeezed in passengers.
• 1941: American Military forces took over Meralco’s operations of the autbuses and even auto-calesas for
military transport. None were put back into service.
• 1942: fragmented efforts by the private sectors attempts to provide public urban transportation. The
carratelas and dokars (occupation era carriages) were resurrected as well as buses each of which was
operated by one franchise holder. The tranvias placed back into operation were barely adequate to serve
the cities growing population. Lack of public transport made regulatory efforts by the authority not so
important.
• 1943: A disastrous flood struck manila inflicting irreparable damage to the tranvia system.
• 1944: before the liberation, about 16 cars of the tranvia system were left operational. Heavy bombing and
shelling during the liberation effort further damaged the tranvia system ending the forty years of an
efficient urban transportation system for Manila.

Post-Wold War II

• Reconstruction of Metro Manila begun in 1946, Quiapo: established as the business and commercial center.
The birth jeepney.
• 1950’s to 1960’s significant increase due to baby boom.
• Significant growth continued till 1970’s further aggravated by rural to urban migration.
• 1975: Metro Manila was established, consisting of 4 cities and 13 Municipalities, aimed to promote an
orderly urban development and solve urban problems such as slums, traffic congestion and garbage among
others.

Public Transportation:

• 1946: MERALCO try to rebuild its bus fleet out of the few trucks obtained from the U.S. Army. Out of the
ruin was born the jeepney classified as either AC’s or PUJ’s. AC’s, acronym for auto calesa, are strike-
anywhere vehicles functioning like that of tricycles todays while PUJ’s operate in a fixed route.
• 1947: AC’s were phased out and all franchised jeepneys were converted to PUJ’s. Together with the
independent bus line that emerged. Jeepneys serve the short but high demend routes.
• 1948: the uncontrolled growth and the fierce and destructive competition of transportation forced
MERALCO to sell out its bus fleet to its major competitor.
• 1973: A transport study conducted by overseas Technical Cooperation Agency of Japan proposed a Metro
Manila wide transportation system which includes subways system from U.P Diliman to Manila
International Airport area.
• 1974: Government was considering putting into service a mass transit system for Metro Manila.

Presently, the introduction of the Light Trail Transit (LRT), the metro Manila Rail Transit (MRT), flyovers,
pedestrian and vehicle culverts, rock sheds and other modern traffic ways contributed to the expeditious
movement of traffic users.

Lesson 1.2.

Development of Road, Traffic Lights, and other road safety requirements, and traffic control devices.

A. History of Roads:

In the land of Mesopotamia, roads with hard surfaces were found and was said to be constructed around
3,500 BC. Ur and Uruk had stone-paved roads on the streets. Another example of old roads can found in the Island
of Crete.

The function of these early road systems were:

a. for armies in line with their defense against any form of invasion;
b. Transportation of goods among the neighboring communities.

Meanwhile, it was the Romans who discovered cement which allowed them to expand road networks.
These road networks are still existing.

Composition of the Romans roads during the Roman Empire?

a. Layer of small crush stones;
b. Over-layered by small stones compacted firmly;

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 c. Massive stone blocks properly set and with cement mortar.

1764, Jerome Tresaguet developed the first scientific method of road construction and maintenance. He
was able to improve the drainage, stone foundation, and grade of road. Because of his accomplishment, Napoleon
was able to build roads and highways in France.

Thomas Telford, Godfather of Civil Engineering, Thomas Telford, a Scottish Engineer and president and
founder of Institute of Civil Engineer improved the construction method proposed by Tresaguet with stones having
3in thickness (min), 7in height, and 5in breadth. He also employed flat sub-grade allowing variety of stones to be
used in the construction.

It is amazing to know that through the course of time, modern engineering technology was able to
transcend and made human activities easier. At this juncture, let us discuss the brief history of national roads in
the Philippines.

In history, roads had also been regulated for such reasons. The early Saxon Laws imposed duties for the
people to perform:

1. Repair roads and bridges;

2. Repair the garrisons and castles;
3. Aid repel invasions.

There was also a decree that was made after the Norman Conquest of England:

The Highway of the king is deemed sacred. Land owners should not exceed their boundaries of the king's
land.

For those who live near the road, they are required to drain the road and refrain from planting flora as it
may cause inconvenience to commuters. It was evident then that the public has the duty to protect and maintain
the roadway.

Roman roads ("Roman way") were physical infrastructure vital to the maintenance and development of
the Roman state, and were built from about 300 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the Roman Republic
and the Roman Empire. They provided efficient means for the overland movement of armies, officials, civilians,
inland carriage of official communications, and trade goods. Roman roads were of several kinds, ranging from small
local roads to broad, long-distance highways built to connect cities, major towns and military bases. These major
roads were often stone-paved and metaled, cambered for drainage, and were flanked by footpaths, bridleways and
drainage ditches. They were laid along accurately surveyed courses, and some were cut through hills, or conducted
over rivers and ravines on bridgework. Sections could be supported over marshy ground on rafted or piled
foundations.

The Romans where the major road builders in the ancient world. The Romans road network reach a total
of about 50,000 miles (80,000kms) with Feeder roads branching out from the main highways. It was costly because
its deep foundation, formed by layer after heavy stones, was necessary to make roads that would carry heavy
traffic for many years.

Macadam roads

John Loudon Mc Adam, the Father of the Modern Road. It was another Scottish engineer, perfected the
macadamized road in England about 1815. Who designed the first modern roads. He developed an inexpensive
paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as macadam). His road building method was simpler than
Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock
were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support the road and traffic upon it, as long as it was
covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear.

B. The Historical Background of Traffic Lights

Traffic Lights. These refers to any power operated traffic control device by which traffic is warned or
directed to take some specific actions. Traffic light signals are used to control traffic at junctions and also to stop
traffic to privide safe crossing points for pedestrians and cyclists.

The color of traffic lights are chronologicaly arranged to give motorist better view of signal lights. From
the top, the series of color is RED, YELLOW, and GREEN. If there is a left or right arrow, the color alternates from
green, yellow to red and is usually installed at the left side of the green, yellow and red lights.
The First Traffic Signal

The purpose of a traffic signal is to regulate the flow of automobiles, traffic signals came into existence long
before automobiles were invented. The idea for developing traffic signals began in the 1800’s, and on December
10, 1868, the first gas-lit traffic lights were installed outside the Houses of Parliament in London. This model was
proposed by a British railway engineer, J.P Knight.
It was implemented later to control the traffic of horse carriages in the area, and to allow pedestrians to
safely cross the roads.The choice of their colors, internationally adopted, was not arbitary. It was the result of
traditions, careful considerations and experience.

1. The Colors. Traffic lights are taken for granted. Few realize the amount of deliberation and the various factors
that lead to their section. To begin with, fundamental conditions had to be met;

A. The colors had to be recognized easily, quickly and unmistakenly.

B. This had to be possible from the cosiderable distance and while in motion.
C. The quality, intensity and contrast of the colors had to be such that they served their purpose in all weather,
day and night.

2. Red for “Stop”. Red was on obvious choice for “Stop.” It had always represented danger. Fire was red; man
had learned early on to keep a safe distancefrom it lest he be burned. Blood was red; to shed it, brought death.
It is no wonder that, therefore, red became associated with emergency and with danger.

Native trbes in many parts of the word made use of red to give warning and strike terror. The Incas in
ancient Peru, for instance, made their messenger carry red beads when they wished to give warning of war.
Hence “red” was best qualified through man’s constanst battle for life. In addition, in the prism of hues it was
vivid and distinct.

3. White for “Go”. Through “give the green light” has become the proverbial permissive signal in many situation,
green was not the original choice for “Go”. White first indicated that the railroad was safe and that the train
could proceed without danger. After all, white had always been regarded. Though unscientifically so, as a pure
and clear color. Consequently, in the language of symbolism it came to express purity. Therefore, it was not
surprising either that initially it was decided upon to make it the signal that the line was “clear.”

Furthermore, a white light was the easily produced. It was “natural” without the need of paint or other
coloring aids. Like red for danger, it seemed the obvious selection.

4. Caution. Two “lights” were to control the running of trains-white for “go” and red for “stop.” It was then
realized that safety would be served better still by introducing a cautionary light to warn the driver of an
imminent change. Its color once again was to be determined by considerations of contrast, distinctiveness and
visibility. The eventual choice was green.

At a meeting of railway officials in Birmingham, Emhland, in 1841, it was finally agreed to make red,
green, and white the standard signals for “danger”, “caution”, and “go ahead”.

5. Green for “Go”. It did not to take long for “white” to prove the wrong color for “Go”. Bitter experience taught
that it was far from ideal. In fact, it could prove fatal and for a very pertinent reason. At that early stage,
kerosene lamps served as the source of light. Any color other than white was produced by fixing a color glass
plate in front of the lamp.
It sometimes happened that the glass plate was smashed or just fell of. In either case, the red warning light
instantaneously changed into the white “go ahead”. An approaching train then had no apparent reason to stop.
Full steam ahead it would rush on, with possibly disastrous consequences.

White had proved unsuitable also for another reason which could cause confusion, if not a collision. After
all, the white lamps were not the eclusive property of railways or used as traffic signals alone.

They served generally and in an ever greater number, as a source of illunination during night. Therefore
how easily could it happen that those in charge of a train could mistake a kerosene lamp put up to shed light
as their signal telling them rhat the “road” was clear.

Green, after all, was a “natural” color. It was the hue of all foliage and growing things. Man knew it so well
environmentally that it spelled out to him life, safety and normality. Like the green sap in a plant, it was symbolic
of motion, drive, and vitality. Therefore, from the very beginning, it shoud have been the obvious color for
signaling permssion to proceed. Thus, green found its rightful placein the scheme of traffic lights. All that was
needed now was to find a replacement color to “caution” drivers. The (second and final) choice fell yellow-
amber.

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 That is how green, yellow, and red became the standard combination of colors for railroad signals. The
New York, New Havens, and Hartford Railroad, USA, was the first to introduce them in 1899.

From Rail To Road Traffic

The increase of road traffic in cities necessitated its regulation. Policemen on point duty did a good job, but
soon were outnumbered by intersections demanding attention. It became clear that only mechanical aids could
ssolve the problem. The traffic authorities did not have to go far in their search. They simply adopted and adopted-
though very gradually and even before their final standardiation – the ready-made and well-tired system of railroad
signals.

In England, primary, consedered consideration was given to Members of Parliament to help them safely
across the street to reach the Houses of Parliament; the Metropolitan Commissioner of Police in London had the
first lights installed at a “danger spot” near Parliament. It was a revolving gas-lit latern mounted on a pole almost
seven meters high, which indicated the red and the green (the latter then still being used for cuation”). A police
stationed at its base controlled it by turningDecember 10, 1868. No one then guessed the hazard they presented.
On January 2, 1869, the gas container supplying the lights with fuel expoded, badly injuring the policeman.

One of the world’s first electric traffic lights was developed in 1912 in salt Lake City, Utah, USA by lester
Wire, a detective on the city police force. A wooden box with a slanted roof, the lights were colored with red an
green dye and shone through circular openings. The box was mounted on a pole and the wires were attached to
the overhead trolley and light wires. It was manually operated.
Cleveland, Ohio adopted a more elaborate electric signal in 1914, which became the prototype of all modern
systems. Its two colors (red and green) could be controlled either by hand or by automatic timer. They were
supllemented by warning buzzers. These could still easily be heard, as traffic then was not as deafening as it is
nowadays.

In 1918, new York City put up the first automatic (three-colored) lights. Britain followed suit as late as
1926 with still manually-operated set in the West end of London. The first English automatic lights were isntalled
– as a one-day experiment in the following year at a busy intersection in Wolverhampton, a town in Staffordshire,
orth-west of Birmingham. The test proved so successful that within a month the new lights were adopted in leeds,
and, subsequently, in Ediburgh, to become eventually and inevitbly a common and essential feature of traffic
controls avery where.

Rationale. Regulating traffic flow at intersections and road crossing is just a matter of altering the GO and STOP
signal so that every driver gets his fair share. As a result of this, traffic lights were invented to relieve the traffic
policemen of the mechanical duties of alterinating traffic to make everybody happy.

During instances wherein traffic officers are directing traffic at a crossing or intersection equipped with
traffic lights, the Instructions of the Police Officer Take Precedence over the traffic lights.

Problems Concerning Traffic Lights. There are several problems arising from intersections controlled by traffic
lights. These are:

1. Failure to respect traffic laws and regalations particularly in the absence of traffic law enforecer. In the
Philippines setting, respect to laws (not necessary traffic laws) needs improvement.

2. When traffic light suddenly becomes inoperative, very seldom of order and a sense of discipline prevail. It
always ends up as massive free for all.

3. Even pedestrians are guilty of disobeying traffic lights by crossing on DON’T WALK signs. This usually halts
traffic.

4. Many times, presence of traffic law enforcers does not deter pedestrians from disobeying laws, rules and
regulations.

Oftentimes, inoprative traffic lights (either due to brownout or out of order) cause traffic jams. In cases like
these, Lichauco advised that IT IS SAFER TO SLOW DOWN OR COME TO A COMPLETE STOP and make certain what
the flow of traffic is. Futher, he noted the common observation that too many accidents have happened with drivers
on both sides ASSUMING that the light on their side is SUPPOSED TO BE GREEN.

Classifications of Traffic signals Lights. Traffic lights ans further classified into three:

1. Traffic Control Signals. These are signal lights designed primarily to control and regualate traffic flows.

2. Special Pedestrian Signals. These signal lights provide regulation for pedestrians like “WALK” and “DO
NOT WALK signal Lights.
3. Train Approach and Gate Signals. These are usually installed on road-rail in intersections designed to
inform motorist of an approaching train on the intersection.
 4. Other Special Traffic Signals. These are installed on traffic ways where special regulations are
emphasized like “YIELD TO VEHICLES COMING FROM THE LEFT”, and other simiar regulations.

Traffic Signal Systems. Traffic Signal Lights use different signaling system which vary according to the needs of
the traffic way.

1. The Fixed-time System. A traffic control signal by which traffic is alternately commanded to stop and
permitted to proceed in accordance with predermined time schedule. This is the most widely used system
of traffic signaling. The duration of the green light remains constant and is set to favor traffic on the main
roadway. Amin-road traffic is halted periodically to permit the side-road traffic to cross the intersection
for a short fixed time before the signal agin favors traffic on the main road. The cycle lenghts of the signal
changes are determined by systematic studies of traffic flow and pedestrian needs. Such cycle legnths can
be set to vary during the day to accommodate chaning traffic patters. Traffic-activated controllers can also
be used. These vayr the length of the green light on a street according to changes in traffic demand.

2. Progresive Sytem. These are used on major arteries of number of cities. Signals at successive intersections
along the artery are timed to change from red to green at staggered intervals. Permitting a vehicle that
mainatins a contasnt speed to proceed without interruption under normal circumstances.

3. Computerized Control of Signal Networks. Signal changes are ordered by the demands of traffic and are
directed by computers that operate on the basisof traffic information relayed from vehicle sensors on the
streets. In this system, traffic detectors are palced at several locations-generally in the pavement. A
computer then selects the best timing for each signal to reduce traffic congestion and minimize delays.

Computerized Traffic Lights “Smart” traffic can sence and respond to traffic because of a wire loop
embedded in the road. Electric current, run through the loop, creates a magnetic field. When can interferes
with this field, a signal is sent to a roadside traffic computers. The computers monitors traffic flows,
coordinating a light change as soon as it is safe.

Specific Meaning of Traffic Lights. To attain more effective and efficient controllng of traffic, each color of the
traffic light has specific meaning and traffic regulation.

1. Steady Red
a. STOP at the designated line.
b. Vehicles will be crossing from the “other side”
c. Expect pedestrains to cross at the pedestrian lane.
d. Unless specified, you can TURN RIGHT after a FULL STOP to clear traffic coming from the left.

2. Steady Green.
a. Go
b. It is trun the vehicles on the other side to STOP.
c. Pedestrians are not allowed to cross in front of you.
d. Unless specified, you can move up to the middle section of the intersection and make a left turn when
clear.
e. Vehicles GOING STRAIGHT have the right of way.
f. DO NOT ANTICIPATE A GREEN LIGHT.

3. Steady Green Arrow.

a. GO
b. Vehicles turning left can do so.
c. On coming straight traffic is still RED to give way for the vehciles turning left.
d. DO NOT ANTICIPATE GREEN ARROW.

4. Steady Yellow.
a. PREPARE TO STOP
b. It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side and will be given the GO signal shortly.
c. DO NOT BEAT A YELLOW LIGHT.

5. Flashing Red.
a. This is the same as a STOP SIGN.
b. STOP at the deignated line.
c. Vehicles will be crossing from the “other side”.
d. Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrians’ lane
e. PROCEED WHEN CLEAR.

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 6. Flashing Yellow
a. This is the same as a YIELD SIGN.
b. Proceed through the intersection with CAUTION.
c. You have the right of way over a flashing RED LIGHT.
d. Vehicles on the other side will proceed after coming to a FULL STOP.

7. Steady Green and Steady Left/Right Arrow.

a. Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the left lane can make a left turn.
b. Vehicles can go straight on the right lane can make a right turn.
c. The RIGHT GREEN signal might ot might NOT have a road sign disallowing rith turn while RED light is
ON.

C. Road Safety Requeirements

Traffic safety equipment provides visible and physical barriers to help control traffic flow. Traffic safety
equipment is used to direct highway traffic in case of an accident or road construction, to mark dangerous curves
or medians, or to provide barriers to traffic in parking lots and garages.

Traffic safety equipment includes:

• cones and barricades

• bollards
• barrels and drums
• sensors
• sensing systems
• refelctive best
• traffic control systems
• signs
• lights
• signals

Uses of Traffic safety equipment

1. Traffic safety equipment is used at accident sites to ensure that oncoming traffic is directed around the
stopped cars and to allow access for emergency response vehicles.

Commonly used items at an accident site include:

• Brightly colored or reflective traffic cones
• flares or flashing lights, barrels and reflective tapes
• Traffic control Barrier

Traffic control barrier can also be used to protect sensitive facilities, such as airports and restricted
buildings this include:
• Delineator posts or sets of interlocking barriers that can close off an entire lane or indicate that a
road is closed to traffic.

• Bollards, benches, and planters - made of reinforced concrete are often used to secure buildings
from an intentional or accidental vehicle impact.

2. Traffic safety equipment is used to manage routine, daily traffic on roadways and highway systems. A traffic
light or signal at an intersection ensures a smooth flow of traffic through certain areas. A traffic signal may
also be timed to control speed and volume of traffic in particular areas. Traffic safety equipment also includes
sensors to detect vehicles or axles for traffic or traffic flow control. The sensor data would be fed into a traffic
control or tolling system. Markers and indicators that are used in deep snow to locate fire hydrants and utility
boxes are another example of traffic safety devices. Snow poles are tall, brightly colored poles that can be
used to indicate a hidden hazard at the shoulder of the road.

3. Traffic safety equipment is also used at road construction sites to direct traffic around maintenance vehicles
and workers. A traffic safety barrier erected around the worksite ensures the safety of the workers and is
typically accompanied by workers with flags or signs to control the flow of oncoming traffic. A traffic safety
sign or paddle indicates to oncoming traffic whether or not it is safe to proceed through the site.
 Other road safety equipments

• Parking curbs, speed bumps, and stop/slow paddles help control traffic speed and flow.

• Traffic warning flags alert people to truck traffic hazards such as wide loads and nearby vehicles.

D. Traffic Control Devices

Traffic Control. supervision of the movement of people, goods, or vehicles to ensure efficiency and safety.
Generally, it refers to procedures, devices, and communication system that help vehicles and vessels safely share
the same roads, rails, waterways, or air space. Traffic control establishes a set of rules and intructions that drivers,
pilots, train engineers, and ship captains rely on to avoid clollisions and other hazards. Safe travel of pedestrian is
an additional goal in high way traffic control.
Road traffic control involves directing vehicular and pedestrian traffic around a construction zone,
accident or other road disruption, thus ensuring the safety of emergency response teams, construction workers
and the general public. Traffic control also includes the use of CCTV and other means of monitoring traffic by local
or state roadways authorities to manage traffic flows and providing advice concerning traffic congestion.

Traffic Control as applied to Land Trasportation. A system of traffic engineering, employing prescribed
traffic rules and regualations and devices such as signals, and markings, to relieve vehicular congestion and air
pollutions, and to promote safety and pedestrian mobility, usually in heavily populated urban areas. In smaller
towns, with lighter traffic, similar but simpler control devices and engineering techniques are used.

Control Techniques. The primary emphasis of traffic control is on the safe and efficient flow of cars, buses,
vans, and lorries over urban streets and highways. The means or promoting this can vary from simple improvement
of local streets by installing traffic signs and road markings to constructing comprehinsivve motorway systems.
These system are:
1. Acces-road meters to monitor and control motorway;
2. Closed-circuit televesion survellance to detect quikly any deterioration in traffic flow; and
3. Emergency services in case of accident and injury.

Other traffic control techniques include:

1. The use of one-way streets
2. Enforcement of traffic flow regulations
3. Channelization (building traffic islands, turning lanes and so on), and
4. The used of traffic signals.

Traffic Control Devices on Highways. Motorist depend on traffic control devices to avoid collisions and travel
safety to their destinations. Traffic control devices fro highway travel include signs, signal lights, pavements
markings, and a variety of devices placed on over, near, or even under the roadway.
1. Traffic Signs. Traffic signs or road signs are signs erected at the side of or above roads to give instructions
or provide information to road users. By using signs, traffic control planners tell drivers what to do, what
to wacth for, and where to drive.

Traffic signs, like traffic signal lights an d road markings are used to convey quickly and accurately
the wide range of information needed by road users, particularly vehicle drivers, and to promote a safe
and efficient use of the road system.
Traffic signs refer to any device mounted on portable support whereby a message is conveyed by
means of words or symbols officially installed for the purpose of regulating, warning, or guiding traffic.

2. Pavement markings. are used to convey messages to roadway users. They indicate which part of the road
to use, provide information about conditions ahead, and indicate where passing is allowed. Yellow lines
separate traffic flowing in opposite directions. Drivers should stay to the right of yellow lines. A solid yellow
line indicates that passing is prohibited. A dashed yellow line indicates that passing is allowed. White lines
separate lanes for which travel is in the same direction. A double white line indicates that lane changes are
prohibited. A single white line indicates that lane changes are discouraged. A dashed white line indicates
that lane changes are allowed.

3. Traffic Signal. traffic signals are signalling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossings,
and other locations to control flows of traffic or to permit movement of vehicles and pedestrians at busy
intersections. the traffic signal lights is probably the most easily recognized traffic control device.

The world's first traffic light was a manually operated gas-lit signal installed in London in December
1868. It exploded less than a month after it was implemented, injuring its policeman operator. Earnest

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 Sirrine from Chicago patented the first automated traffic control system in 1910. It used the words "STOP"
and "PROCEED", although neither word was illuminated.

Traffic signals direct streams of vehicles and pedestrian when to go, stop, or proceed with caution.
The signals increase the traffic handling capacity of most intersections. They can work independently on
timers, or connect to computers-controlled system that operates over several intersections.

4. Priority Control. It is one of the oldest method of traffic control, one from of transportation is given
priority by restricting or banning other forms of transportation. In the 1st century BC, Roman Emperor
Julius Caesar banned wheel traffic from Rome During daytime, which allowed pedestrians and horse riders
to move freely around the city. Some modern cities ban or restrict truck travel through certain
neigborhoods.

Bus-lanes and high-occumancy vehicle lanes exist in many urban areas. Only specified types of
vehicle, primarily those carrying several occupants, can use these lanes. By giving priority to high-
occupancy vehicles, transportation planners ecourage carpooling and reduce congistion.

5. Traffic Restraints. As an alternative to banning traffic, traffic control planners use devices to dicourage
heavy use of route. Island built in the centers of intersections force drivers to proceed slowly. Speed bumps
discourage high-speed commuting through residential neigborhoods. Concrete median strips prevent
vehicles from making turns except at intersections.

E. Pavement Marking and Markers

Pavement Markings and Markers. The pavement of all main highways have ceartian markings to help you
to drive safely. Those include the center lane lines, barriers lines, and directional arrowa, depending upon the type
of highways and the needs for such markings to make the road safe under varying condistions.

Pavement Markings. They are in the form of lines, symbols, messages, or numerals, and may be set into the
surface of, applied upon, or attached to the pavement. In some cases, pavement markings are used as a supplement
to other traffic control devices, such as traffic signals and road signs. It simply guides traffic or gives advance
warning or may impose restrictions supported by traffic regulations.

Similarly, pavement markinga are standardized as to color location to conform to international standards.
Basically, pavement markings are place on the roadway to convey warning or information to the road users without
diverting his attention from the roadway unnder favorable condition.

Knowledge of the purpose and use of each type of marking is important in order for motorist to drive safely.
Failure either intentionally or by ignorance to iobservce the lines can prove disastrous.

Pavement Markings have definte limitations:

• They are subject to traffic wear and require proper maintainance;

• They may not be clearly visible if the road is wet or dusty (e.g., near shoulder edge or dedian);
• They may be obscured by traffic;
• Their effect on skid resistance requires careful choice of materials; and,
• They cannot be applied on unsealed roads.

Types of of Lines

A. Longitudinal Lines (Or Separation Line) – a single white continuous indicates the following:

a. Scrossing of solid white lines requires special care and is

discouraged.

b. Separates traffic moving in opposite direction.

c. Could be found in road sections that are dangerous.

d. Passing and overtaking can be made but ONLY under

circumstances when there is no oncoming traffic.

Lane Line - a single White Dotted Line. This pavement marking indicates the following;
a. On two lanes road, it separate traffic moving in
opposite directions.

b. On a one-way street, separates traffic moving in one

direction
 c. Overtaking is possible when other lane is clear of
oncoming possible.

d. Changing of lane is allowed if it is safe to do so and will

not result to obstruction.

Barrier Line Double Solid Yellow Line or Double White Line. A double yellow or white line a dotted line in
between means.

a. never cross to pass another vehicle unless permitted.

b. Absolutely No Over Taking

c. Overtaking is extremly dangarous.

d. Stay in your lane until you pass the end of the solid
line.

Single Yellow/White Line.

Overtaking is prohibited on both directions.

Broken And Solid Yellow Line - Sovertaking is permitted on the side of the broken line but not on side of solid
line.

Double White lines – where the line nearest to you is broken lines mean you may cross the lines to overtake if it
is safe, provoded you can complete the manoeuver before reaching a solid white line on your side.

Edge Line - used to outline separate the

outside edge of the pavement from the
shoulder.

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Continuity Line- when a driver sees a continuity lines on
the left side means the lane is ending or exiting and that
the driver must change lanes if the driver wants to
continue in the current direction. Continuity lines on the
right mean that the lane will continue unaffected.

Transition Lines- are used to guide the traffic safely past

obstructions on roadways such as islands, median strips, bridge piers
or indicate changes in the width of the traveled portion of the
roadway and an increase or reduction in traffic lanes.

B. Traverse Lines

Stop Lines - vehicles are required to

stop before the white line. Give Way or Holding Lines are markings
consisting of a two adjacent broken white lines
across the carriageway at which drivers must
give way to all traffic in accordance with the
standard sign.
 Pedestrian Intersection

Non-Signalized Signalized

This pavement marking indicates the following:

a. For pedestrian to cross.

b. Stop for pedestrians on an intersection with no traffic light.
c. DO NOT STOP on pedestrian on an intersection with no traffic light.
d. Depestrians should ALWAYS cross a street on a crosswalk.

Roundabout Holding Lines - vehicle within the

rotunda have the right-of-way over vehicles which are
just about to enter.

C. Other Lines

Parking Bay is used to park but take note

Turn Line is F used to guide vehicles through a turning of PWD parking spaces.
movement at intersections

Loading and Unloading Bay Lane Line. Is An

Unbroken White Line Used To Indicate The Proper
Location Of Loading And Unloading Zone Of Public
Utility Vehicles Preferably With Parking Restriction.

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 Do Not Block Intersection lines consist of yellow box within
the intersection and yellow diagonal lines forming an "X"
inside the box. The box should be open, or no vehicle should
stay inside the box to avoid obstruction to other vehicles.

Bus And PUJ Lane Line is an unbroken yellow line used to

separate other vehicles from buses and PUJ's and
supplemented by raised pavement markers on concrete
pavements.

D. Object Markings. These are markings placed on objects on the road or beside the road like humps, rocks or
similar hazardous objects on the side of the road.

E. Other Markings
F.
Chevron markings are often used to guide
traffic into the right turning lanes separated by
an island, such as a corner island at a
signalized intersection.

Rumble Strips are thermoplastic lane

marking designed to aid and provide motorist
with visual , audio and motion warnings on the
road . Rumble Strips are highly visible
horizontal lines on the road that produce a
humming sound and ample bumpy ride to the
motorists when ran over.

Motorcycle Lanes - lane designated for motorcycle riders

and can be shared by other vehicles. Riders are not allowed
to stay on other lanes unless instructed by enforcers or the
rider is turning into an intersection and must signal his/her
intention within 100 meters.

Bus Lane - designated lanes for buses. Bus drivers are not
allowed to use other lanes exept when instructed by
enforcers or when turning into an intersection.

For Bicycles Only - painted in the pavement by a solid white line

along either side of street.

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Pavement Arrows - used for lane control and in white color.

Speed Limit At 60kph - A Speed Limit Of Pavement

Markings To Supplement The Speed Limit Posted On The
Road Side.

F. Traffic Island

Traffic Island. These are areas within the

roadway constructed in a manner to establish
physical channels through which vehicular traffic is
guided.

Function of Traffic Island. Traffic islands as part of traffic control devices are designed to:

1. Segregate pedestrians and vehicles; and

2. Control streams of traffic in order to minimize conflict, expedite traffic flow or increase safety.

Classifications of Traffic Islands. Traffic island are classified according to the design, place or installation, and
purpose of construction.

1. Pedestrian Island (Pedestrian Barriers). These are contructed between the pedestrian sidewalk and the
road pavement to prevent pedestrian from using the roadway in passing and to prevent motor vehicles
from using the side walk for parking and passing purposes.

2. Traffic Islands. These are the raised portion in the middle of the traffic way constructed to separate the
streams of motor vehicles traversing on opposite directions and at the same time preventing motorist from
using the opposite lane for overtaking.

Traffic islands are futher sub-classified into three:

a. Division Islands. These are constructed primarily to divide the streams of the motor vehicles.
b. Channelizing Island. These are constructed to channellize or direct the flow of traffic.

c. Rotary Islands. These are constructed along intersections

or “rotundas” for purposes of turning around. The functions
are:

1) Prohibit pedestrians from crossing major

thoroughfares at points where such crossing are
exceptionally hazardous,
2) Minimize imprudence and delays to vehicular
traffic, and
3) Channelize and control pedestrians.

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