TOWN PLANNING AND GREEEN BUILDING (21CI5P2) WEEKLY ASSESSMENTS

WEEK 5
CASE EXERCISE 1
VARIOUS UTILITIES AND SERVICES REQUIRED FOR A TOWN
What is Infrastructure?

The "Merriam Webster" Dictionary defines infrastructure as:-

1. The underlying foundation or basic framework (as of a system or organization).

2. The system of public works of a country, state, or region

 The term "Public Works" is applied to facilitates that usually require substantial
capital investment; provide services or solve problems perceived to the public's
responsibility; and are planned, designed, constructed, and proposed by or under the
auspices of government agencies. Private companies may also construct and/or operate
public works, to serve their own manufacturing or other need, or for profit

What is Infrastructure Planning and Management?

“Process of integrating, design, construction, maintenance and rehabilitation to maximize
the benefits to the users and minimize the cost to the owners and users.”
“Systematic, coordinated, planning and programming of investments or expenditures,
design, construction, maintenance, operation and in-service evaluation of physical facilities.”

Attributes of Infrastructure

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Rather than describing infrastructure through a single definition, it might be more helpful to
describe infrastructure through a set of characteristics that are attributed to it. Some of these
characteristics that are popularly associated with infrastructure are:
 Infrastructure facilities are generally available to large groups of People
 Infrastructure helps deliver essential services for the function of an organization or
society
 Infrastructure helps achieve economic and social objectives
 Infrastructure is the base upon which society and its activities rest
 Examples of infrastructure are waterways, roads, etc.
Types of Infrastructure

Several systems can be characterized as infrastructure (including Computer Systems that

network and serve data and applications). For the purpose of this course, we will narrow down
our perception of infrastructure and restrict it to PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE of the
following types:

 Transportation Infrastructure
Roads, Bridges, Airports, Ports, Waterways, Tunnels, Parking

 Water and Sanitation Infrastructure

Water Supply Systems, Sewage treatment systems

 Energy Infrastructure
Dams, power plants, power distribution facilities

 Telecommunication Infrastructure
Mobile phone towers, Telephone networks

 Housing and Recreational Infrastructure

Swimming pools, Sports facilities
The Role of Infrastructure

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Greater focus needs to be placed on QUALITY NOT QUANTITY of Infrastructure services.

It is important from mainly following perspective:

1As a key driver for all round growth with enhancement in the efficiency level

2.Most infrastructure utilities touch the population at all levels.

3. Up keeping of environment for safe living.

4. Poverty alleviation as a consequence of overall development of productive sectors.

5. Easy and cost-efficient access to markets both for inputs and outputs is possible out of
infrastructure developments.

The availability of adequate infrastructure is imperative for the overall economic development
of the country. Infrastructure adequacy helps determine success in diversifying production,
expanding trade, coping with population growth, reducing poverty and improving
environmental conditions.

 Common utility services are water, sewer, electric, gas, garbage, cable TV, internet, and
mobile services
.

Objectives of utilities and services: -

• concentrating longer distance flow onto routes in less sensitive locations;

• ensuring land uses and activities that are incompatible

with traffic flow are restricted from routes where traffic

movement should predominate;

• preserving areas where through traffic is discouraged;

• ensuring activities most closely related to frontage

development, including social interaction and parking, can

be given more space within precincts where environmental

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and access functions should predominate.

• orderly planning of heavy vehicle and dangerous goods routes;

• planning and provision of public transport routes;

• planning and provision of pedestrian and bicycle routes;

Water supply system: -

In ancient times every individual or family was responsible to arrange for their water supplies.
There was no collective effort by the whole community for it. But as the community
develops it becomes essential to have

public water supply. During all the ages the people of the towns were always concerned with
their water supplies. When the inhabitants found that their local sources of water supply such
as shallow wells, springs, cisterns etc. are inadequate to meet the demand of the town, they
started to collect the water from distant large source and conveyed it to the town through
aqueducts, canals etc.

water supply system, infrastructure for the collection, transmission, treatment, storage, and
distribution of water for homes, commercial establishments, industry, and irrigation, as well as
for such public needs as firefighting and street flushing. Of all municipal services, provision
of potable water is perhaps the most vital. People depend on water for drinking, cooking,
washing, carrying away wastes, and other domestic needs. Water supply systems must also
meet requirements for public, commercial, and industrial activities. In all cases, the water
must fulfil both quality and quantity requirements.

 Location and space requirements for water distribution system

1.1 Water Distribution System

Extensive water distribution system is needed to deliver water to the individual consumer in
the required quantity and under a satisfactory pressure.

This water distribution system is often the major investment of a municipal waterworks.

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After complete treatment of water, it becomes necessary to distribute it to a number of houses,

estates, industries and public places by means of a network of distribution system. The
distribution system consists of pipes of various sizes, valves, meters, pumps, distribution
reservoirs, hydrants, stand posts etc. The pipe lines carry the water to each and every street,
road Meters are provided to measure the quanted to connect the water to the firefighting
equipment Valves control the flow of water through the Hydrants are water consumed by ins
well as by the town. of during fire. Service connections are done to connect the individual
building with the water line passing through the streets. Pumps are provided to pump the
water to the elevated service reservoirs or directly in the water mains to obtain the required
pressure in the pipe lines. The following are the requirements of a good distribution system:

 degree of purity.
 pressure head.
 Sufficient quantity of treated water should reach for the domestice
 It should convey the treated water upto the consumers with the same
 The water should reach to every consumer with the requiredand industrial use.
 The distribution system should be economical and easy to maintain and operate.

 It should be able to transport sufficient quantity of water during emergency such as fire-
fighting.
 It should be reliable so that even during or repairs of one line water should reach that
locality from other line.
 During repair work, it should not cause obstruction to the traffic. (viii) It should be
safe against any future pollution. The pipe lines as far as possible should not be laid below
the sewer lines.
 The of the pipes laid should be good and it should notburst.
 It should be water-tight and the water losses due to leakage should be minimum as far as
possible.
5.1.1 Distribution System

For efficient distribution it is required that water should reach to every consumer with
required rate of flow. Therefore, some pressure in pipe lines is necessary, which should force
the water to reach at every place. Depending upon the methods of distribution, the distribution

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system is classified as follows:

(i) Gravity system

(ii) Pumping system

(iii) Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system.

5.1.2 Gravity System

When some ground sufficiently high above the city area is available, this can be best utilized
for the distribution-system in maintaining pressure in water pipes. This method is also much
suitable when source of supply such as lake, river or impounding reservoir is at sufficient
height than city. The water flows in the mains due to gravitational force. As no pumping is
required, therefore it is the most reliable system for the distribution of water.

In this system usually pumping is not required at any stage. In case the source of water supply
is lake situated at the hill, low lift pumping may be required to lift the water upto the water
treatment units The water will flow under gravitational force in the treatment units, and will
be finally collected to the town again under gravitational force.

The designs of the distribution system pipes are done in such a way that water head available
at the consumer's door is just minimum required, and the remaining head is fully consumed
in frictional and other losses. This will reduce the leakage and wastes to the minimum. But in
this case the water will have to be pumped during fires.

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5.1.3 Pumping System

In this system water is directly pumped in the mains. Since the pumps have to work at
different rates in a day, the maintenance cost increases. It is preferred to have number of
pumps and only the required numbers may work at various times to meet the varying demand,
in place of providing pump of variable speed. High lift pumps are required and their
operations are continuously watched. If the power fails, the whole supply of the town will be
stopped. Therefore, it is better to have diesel pumps also in addition to the electric pumps as
stand bye. During fires, the water can be pumped in the required quantity by the stand-by units
also. But this system is not preferred than other systems. The required pressure maintained in
the line is by direct pumping.

5.1.4 Dual System

This is also known as combined gravity and pumping system. The pump is connected to the
mains as well as to an elevated reservoir. In the beginning when demand is small the water is
stored in the elevated reservoir, but when comes from both the pumping station as well as
elevated reservoir. As in this system water comes from two sources one from reservoir and
second from pumping station, it is called dual system. This system is more reliable and
economical, because it requires uniform rate of pumping but meets low as well as maximum
demand. The water stored in elevated reservoir meets the requirements of demand during
breakdown of pumps and for firefighting.

(a) The balance reserve in the storage reservoir will be utilized during fire. In case the fire
demand is more, and if requred the water supply of few localities may be closed.

(b) This system is overall best system. It is economical, efficient and reliable.

(c) This system has the advantages that during power failure, the balance water stored in the
water will be supplied to the town.

(d) The pumps have to work at constant speed, without any variation in their speed. This
increases the efficiency of the pumps and reduces the wear and tear of the pumps. The
supervision, operation and maintenance of these pumps is much less as compared with the

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5.1.5 Dead End or Tree System

It is suitable for irregular developed towns or cities. In this system one main starts from
service reservoir along the main road. Sub-mains are connected to the main in both the
directions along other roads which meet the main road. In streets, lanes and other small
roads which meet the roads carrying sub-mains. From these branches service connections
are made to individual houses.

5.1.6 Grid-Iron System

This system is also known as reticulated system and is most convenient for towns having
rectangular layout of roads. Actually, this system is an improvement over dead-end
system. All the dead ends are interconnected with each other and water circulates freely
ends are interconnected with each other and water circulates freely throughout the system.
The layout of this system. Main line is laid along other minor roads and streets. From these
sub-mains branches are taken out and are inter-connected. This system removes all the
disadvantages of dead-end system.

5.1.7 Methods of Supplying Water

The water can be supplied to the consumers by the following two systems

(a) Continuous system This is the best system and the water is supplied for all the twenty
four hours. This system is possible when there is adequate quantity of water for supply. In
this system ample water is always available for fire-fighting and due to continuous
circulation water always remains fresh.

(b) Intermittent system. If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided
into zones and each zone is supplied with water for the fixed hours in a day. As the water
is supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent system.

5.1.8 Pressures in the Distribution System

When the water enters in the distribution main, the water head continuously is lost due to
friction in pipes, at entrance of reducers, due to valves, bends, meters etc. till it reaches
the consumer's tap. The net available head at the consumer's tap is the head at the entrance
of the water main minus all the losses in the way. The effective head available at the
service connection to a building is very important, because the height upto which the

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reach the upper storeys (ie. 2nd, 3rd, 4th etc.) To overcome this difficulty the required
effective head is maintained in the street pipe lines.

5.1.9 Distbibution Reservoirs

These are also known as service reservoirs, and are mainly provided for storing the treated
water, for supplying water to the town or city. These reservoirs are also provided for
meeting the water demand during fires, breakdown of pumps, repair etc. the reservoirs
absorb the hourly fluctuations in the water demand. Following are the main functions of
the storage and distribution reservoirs :

(1) To store the treated water till it is distributed to the city.

(ii) To absorb the hourly variation in the water demand, and thus allowing

the treatment units and pumps to work at the average constant rate. This will reduce the
running maintenance operation costs of the treatment units as well as also improve their
efficiency."

(iii) To maintain the constant pressure in the distribution mains, because when the
pressure in pipe lines decreases demand of water is fed by these reservoirs, and the
pumps continue their work at constant speed

(iv) Distribution reservoirs lead to an overall economy be reducing thesizes of pumps,

pipe lines and treatment units,

(v) By providing distribution reservoirs, the pumping of water in shifts is possible,

because trated water will continuously flow in these reservoirs.

Generally distribution reservoirs are located near the central portion of the distribution
area. It is always better to construct them on high ground of city or at such place where it
can be constructed economically

Distribution reservoirs may be classified according to their position as surface or Elevated

reservoirs. These are also classified according to their materials of construction eg Steel,
R.C.C. or masonry The capacity of distribution reservoir depends on the maximum
pumping capacity, minimum safe yield of source of supply, requirements for the fire
extinguishing and maximum rate of consumption.

 Legal and government policy for urban and rural water supply

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The objective of the Karnataka Urban Water Supply Modernization Project is to improve
water service quality to a continuous supply across the three project cities of Hubli-
Dharwad, Belgaum and Gulbarga in the state of Karnataka, through the establishment of
sustainable service delivery arrangements at Urban Local Body (ULB) level. Some of the
negative impacts and mitigation measures include: ensure that displaced persons
without

titles to land or any recognizable legal rights to land are eligible for resettlement assistance
and compensation for loss of non-land assets at replacement value; improve the standards of
living of the displaced poor and other vulnerable groups, including women, to national
minimum standards or standard before displacement whichever is higher; carry out
meaningful consultations with displaced persons, host communities, and concerned
nongovernment organizations. Inform all displaced persons of their entitlements and
resettlement optionSocial Infrastructure: -

The Social Infrastructure in India includes the education system in India, health care, the
management of the education and health services in India that form the basic social
infrastructure definition. The India government looks after the social development in India
by careful infrastructure planning and handling the social issues in close coordination.

The infrastructure development of any country includes both economic infrastructure

development that is the development of various sectors like Energy, Power, Telecom,
Transport (Railways, Roadways, Aviation and Shipping), Infotech, Finance, etc. and also
the social infrastructures including education and health issues.

India development is incomplete without social development and that would require focus
on the infrastructure strategy for social research India. The infrastructure policy of India
needs to be made more comprehensive with major changes in the infrastructure projects
taken up in the past and more research behind the project infrastructure so as to yield
maximum developmental results.

The infrastructure research work includes the current issues that require immediate
attention in a proper infrastructure report and then formulation and planning of projects in
sync with the infrastructure industry.

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The metro cities in India including Bangalore, Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi and smaller cities
in Maharashtra like Pune and Nagpur have a very well developed economic as well as
social infrastructure. The leading one still remains Goa followed in close second by
Kerala. The social infrastructure in India needs to reach the standards these states have
reached individually. The health and education system of Goa and Kerala is the most
developed one in India with the maximum literacy rates in both general literacy as well as
health literacy.

Education: -

Education in India: -

Imparting education on an organized basis dates back to the days of 'Gurukul' in India.
Since then, the India education system has flourished and developed with the growing
needs of the economy. The education in India statistics are however in a sad state
showing a below average literacy rate. The education ministry in India

ormulates education policy in India and also undertakes education programs designed
especially for kids, for women, for the people in prisons and other special projects for
social development of India.

Education system India: -

Education in India until 1976 was the responsibility of the state governments; it was then
made a joint responsibility of both centre and state. The centre is represented by the
Education Ministry a subsidiary of the Ministry of Human Resource Development India.
The Education Ministry India decides the India education budget allocating education
grants for projects to upgrade the education levels in India.

The education system in India consists of primarily six levels:

 Nursery Class
 Primary Class
 Secondary Level
 Higher Secondary Level
 Graduation
 Post-Graduation.

Education Institutions India: -

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Education in India follows the 10+2 pattern. For higher education there are various state
run as well as private institutions and universities providing a variety of courses and
subjects. The accreditation of the universities is decided under the universities grant
commission act that has formed autonomous institutions that have the right to provide
accreditation to universities and 'Vishwavidyalaya’s'. The education department consists of
various schools, colleges and universities imparting education on fair means and
education for all sections of the society.

Education Problems and Reforms in India:-

The main problem of the education system in India is that the targets set by the centre or
the ministry of education to achieve a 100% literacy rate has never been achieved except
for Kerala state. Also, the unorganized education sector with many state and national level
education boards operating like the SSLC, ICSE, CBSE, IB and IGCSE having different
curriculum and study patterns provides a non-uniformity to the India education system.
The education reforms taken up include a compulsory and free education for all
children below the age of 14

Health in India is a state government responsibility with the national health policy laying
down the necessary health policy in India. The central council of health and welfare
formulates the various health care projects and health department reform policies. The
administration of health industry in India as well as the technical needs of the health sector
are the responsibility of the ministry of health and welfare India. Health care in India has
many forms. These are the ayurvedic medicine practice, Unani or Galenic Herbal Care,
Homeopathy, Allopathy, Yoga, and many more. Each different healthcare form has its
own treatment system and practice patterns. The medical practicing in India needs a proper
licensing from the health ministry.

Health Department in India :-

The health ministry in India takes care of the health department. The main responsibility of
the health ministry India is to provide hygienic health care solutions for all, supervision of
the basic health infrastructure development in India by construction of hospitals, nursing
homes and dispensaries as per the needs of the area.

Health Care Services in India:-

The health care services in India are mainly the responsibility of the health ministry and

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also the private companies in the health industry in India collectively. Provision for
adequate medical facilities for all including enough hospitals and other healthcare
institutions to cater to the healthcare needs of the people, medicines and drugs supply,
medical equipment’s and other medical products and ser vices required in the health
department.

SECURITY :-

Equipment, and systems that underpin social activity by people and economic activity by
business. It provides the public with government, finance, healthcare, and other services,
including electric power, gas, water, and railways (see Fig. 1). Accordingly, social
infrastructure is expected to operate non-stop, 24 hours a day and 365 days a year, or to
provide core essential services under all circumstances. This is one of the key
characteristics of social infrastructure systems.

Furthermore, rather than existing independently within the social infrastructure, these
services are inherently interdependent. For example, railways need electric power to
operate, while the staff of power companies commute to work by rail. In this way, the
infrastructure of society constitutes a single enormous interlinked system, with active use
being made of information and communication technology (ICT) to ensure its smart.

PUBLIC SERVICES :-
Public infrastructure and services, such as health care, transportation, and education, are
cornerstones for the well-being of citizens. Ø Before installation of tower, the licensee
company obtains siting clearance from DoT to ensure that no interference with other
wireless users, no aviation hazards and no obstruction to any other existing microwave
links. Ø Telecom service providers have to obtain the necessary permission from the

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concerned local authorities/ municipal corporation before installation of tower.

Telecommunication services Location criteria for mobile phone towers Wireless telephone
network :-

 The popularity of cell phone and wireless communication devices has resulted in a
proliferation of cell towers across the country 736 K mobile towers in the country
with about 10 Service Providers in each of 22 Licensing Service Areas.
 There has been public concerns on possible health hazards and impact on biota &
environment due to EMF radiation from Mobile Towers /Handsets

Revised radiation norms: -

Based on the Recommendations of an Inter Ministerial Committee constituted by DoT in
the year 2010, limiting reference levels of Electromagnetic Radiation from Mobile towers
is reduced to 1/10th of the limit prescribed by the ICNIRP with effect from 01.09.2012

Setting up telecom tower :-

 Before installation of tower, the licensee company obtains siting clearance

from DoT to ensure that no interference with other wireless users, no aviation
hazards and no obstruction to any other existing microwave links
 Telecom service providers have to obtain the necessary permission from
the concerned local authorities/ municipal corporation before installation
of tower.
 Ensure that no nearby buildings right in front of the antenna with height
comparable to the lowest antenna on tower at a distance threshold as specified

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EMF radiation (Electric and magnetic forces)

 Identifying critical areas.

 GIS mapping for quick view and visual analysis
 Medical study to analyse possible harmful effects from mobile tower & handsets
 Population living in the vicinity of towers
 Age based Mobile Usage analysis

High Usage of mobile phones by population.

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Transportation Systems-
The road hierarchy categorizes roads according to their functions and capacities. While sources
differ on the exact nomenclature, the basic hierarchy comprises freeways, arterials, collectors, and
local roads.
WHAT IS A ROAD HIERARCHY?
Roadways serve a variety of functions, including but not limited to the provision of direct access to
properties, pedestrian and bicycle paths, bus routes and catering for through traffic that is not
related to immediate land uses. Many roads serve more than one function and to varying degrees,
but it is clear that the mixing of incompatible functions can lead to problems.
A road hierarchy is a means of defining each roadway in terms of its function such that appropriate
objectives for that roadway can be set and appropriate design criteria can be implemented. These
objectives and design criteria are aimed at achieving an efficient road system whereby conflicts
between the roadway and the adjacent land use are minimized and the appropriate level of
interaction between the roadway and land use is permitted. The road hierarchy can then form the
basis of ongoing planning and system management aimed at reducing the mixing of incompatible
functions.

B4 design provides freeway-to-arterial ramps without traffic lights.

A productive urban way system, accompanies an order. The hierarchy of road is dependent upon
the function that the street is required to perform, and the kind of movement and the way users
present. The outline speeds , way widths and other geometric characteristics are adapted to suit the
way work. These guidelines are dependent upon the accompanying characterization of urban way:
1. Arterial Roads: They are the primary roads & are on top in hierarchy of roads for
guaranteeing versatility capacity. They convey the biggest volumes of movement and
longest treks in a city. These are characterized by through movement with confined access
from carriageway to the side. In such cases, unique provisions ought to be acquainted with
decrease clash with the through movement. These roads have the most extreme right of way
around the four classes and cater speed of 50-60 km/h and a ROW of 50-80 m.

2. Sub Arterial Roads: This class of street takes after all the capacities of an Arterial Urban
way and are portrayed by portability, and indulge through movement with confined access
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from carriageway to the side. It conveys same movement volumes as the arterial roads.
Because of its overlapping nature, Sub arterial roads can function as arterials. This is setting
particular and is dependent upon the capacity and the area use advancement it passes
through and caters to a velocity cutoff of 50 km/h(same as arterial roads) .The ROW of this
classification of streets changes from 30-50 m.

3. Distributor/collector Roads: As the name recommends, these are connector ways which
circulate the activity from access lanes to arterial and sub arterial roads. They are portrayed
by portability and access just as. They are portrayed by a speed limit of 30km/h and have a
ROW halfway of access lanes and two sorts of arterials i.e. 12-30m. It conveys moderate
movement volumes contrasted with the arterial roads. Because of its covering nature,
merchant streets can go about as a sub arterial roads and as access lanes, contingent on the
capacity and the area utilization of the surroundings

4. Access Streets: These are utilized for access capacities to bordering lands and regions. A
greater part of excursions in urban regions normally begin or end on these streets. They
cater to velocity of 15-30km /h and have a ROW of 15m-30m. They convey generally lower
volumes of movement at low speeds. They are described by access prevalently; they could
be utilized for gatherer capacities.

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CASE EXERCISE 2
Transportation Systems- Hierarchy of roads and its legal policies in planning
Transport Planning and Governance
1. The Purpose of Planning
“Long-range plans engender the dangerous belief that the future is under control.”

Max Gunther

Transport planning usually addresses specific problems or broad transport concerns at a local level
and has been traditionally a preoccupation of lower-tier governments (state, county, municipal).
Because of this fact, transport planning is most developed in the urban sphere, and it is there
where most experience has been gathered. The planning process, however, has several similarities
with the policy process. Identifying a problem, seeking options, and implementing the chosen
strategy are also essential steps in planning. Because it deals with localized problems, the solutions
adopted in transport planning tend to be much more exact and specific than policy directives.

The common perspective is that planning is the realm of the public sector, although the private
sector owns and operates substantial transportation assets. This implies that planning can be
undertaken by private transport actors, such as carriers, to manage their assets at a scale beyond
that of the public sector. The time horizon is an important part of the planning process:

 Strategic planning. A high-level long-term planning horizon that relies on strategic plans
implementing a vision. They tend to be capital-intensive and focus on developing large
transport infrastructures like highways and terminals. Strategic planning recognizes a
problem, such as the lack of capacity, and elaborates remediation policies and strategies.
Policies can evolve due to economic and technological changes, so an adaptable strategic
planning environment is necessary.
 Tactical planning. Involves both financial and strategic planning, often reported
through business plans. Budgeting for allocating resources to specific activities and
projects is part of the financial planning process. The time horizon usually involves three to
five years and allocates resources to different activities to meet specific objectives. This
assumes a competitive environment in which the allocation of resources will affect the
structure and level of demand.
 Operational planning. Involves decisions solving practical problems related to transport
operations, usually within a year. The time horizon is too short to allow significant changes
in the transport supply, such as by infrastructural investments, but allows for the allocation
of mobile assets such as vehicles.

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Three basic approaches can be identified concerning the hierarchical decision structure of
the planning process:

 Top-down planning. The government or a related authority sets the strategic goals and
prepares plans. On the positive side, such an approach can offer a comprehensive and long-
term perspective to transport planning. The main issue is the potential for conflicts with
stakeholders as they may not agree with the nature, the allocated resources, or the
implementation of the planning goals.
 Bottom-up planning. Stakeholders such as carriers and operators are the main drivers of
the planning process by providing actionable input. The government or related authority
uses these inputs to create a strategic plan with limited oversight. One advantage is that the
planning process effectively reflects the goals of the core stakeholders and market potential,
leading to support. However, such an approach may be subject to capture by special interest
groups and opportunistic behavior taking advantage of public funds to develop projects of
limited value.
 Hybrid planning. The government or related authority sets the strategic intent of the
planning process and asks stakeholders to propose projects supporting the main goals. The
process involves a form of consensus, which can be a structured confrontation between
different interests. Hybrid planning seeks a balance between macroeconomic objectives and
microeconomic goals.

The
Time Horizon and Decision Structure of Transport Planning

Conventionally, planning was a field dominated by engineers who gave it a distinctly mechanistic
character. The planning process was considered a series of rigorous steps to measure likely
impacts and propose engineering solutions and their financing. For instance, there were four major
steps in this standard approach applied to urban transport planning; trip generation, trip
distribution, modal split, and route selection. Planning evolved to rely on mathematical models,
including regression analysis, entropy-maximizing models, and critical path analysis that are part
of custom-designed software or, more generally, used as components of Geographic Information
Systems.

There are many reasons why the results of these models should be treated with caution:

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 They are only as good as the data they manipulate, and often the data is inaccurate or
incomplete. The requirement for data has led to complex and costly collection processes,
often delaying decisions.
 They are based on assumptions that the mathematical relationships between variables
remain constant. Socioeconomic and technological changes often change assumptions.
 They can be manipulated to produce the outcome that would be the most preferred by the
actors promoting policy or a project. For instance, only specific scenarios can be
considered, and negative conditions are not allowed to be data points.
 Because the predictions were rarely subjected to subsequent evaluation, their validity is
largely questioned. In this context, models will attempt to predict the future since projections
rarely question the validity of the methodology, even when they turn out to be highly
inaccurate.

The Prediction of Future Outcomes

Common Flaws in Forecasting

Vicious Circle of Congestion

The predictions of future traffic levels produced by the four-stage sequence are then used to
identify urban planning options. Since the most common prediction of the modeling is that present
capacities will be unable to cope with expected traffic growth, the tendency has been to produce
planning solutions that call for expanding capacity. This has been referred to as predict and
accommodate. It is the solution that has typified much of the urban transport planning from the
1940s to the 1980s. It has given rise to the expansion of highway construction that reinforced the
dominance of the automobile. Rarely postmortems of the prediction models are undertaken. As it
was learned through empirical observations, the issue of induced demand has distorted traffic
outcomes since additional capacity incites additional traffic.
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2. Contemporary Transport Planning

Planning is commonly scale-specific and multidimensional. In cities, traffic problems have

increased significantly since the 1970s, despite a great deal of urban transport planning. There is a
growing realization that perhaps planning has failed, and the wrong questions have been asked.
Rather than estimate traffic increases and then provide the capacity to meet the expected growth, it
is now accepted that what is required is better management of the transport system, particularly
maintenance, through new approaches to planning. Just as urban planning requires the input of
many specialists, transport planning uses a multi-disciplinary perspective to broaden the scope of
the planning process. Planning is still a multi-step process, but it has changed considerably:

 Goals and objectives. While the goal of traditional transport policy, improving
accessibility, is still valid, it must be considered in the context of other desirable goals. For
instance, improving safety and health, reducing vehicle emissions, improving equity,
enhancing economic opportunities, improving community livability, and promoting
mobility are all valid. But the prioritization of goals results in a very different planning
process. Defining goals becomes a much more complicated stage in contemporary planning
and can lead to conflicts. Increasingly, goals have turned to consider managing demand
rather than trying to build capacity.
 Options. Given the possible range of goals that transport planners must consider, providing
a set of possible options becomes necessary. Several objectives may be desirable, and thus
it is important to consider what they imply. Several scenarios may have to be considered,
and they must become important components of the planning process.
 Identification of actors, institutions, and stakeholders. Given that transport planning has
the potential to influence so many elements of society, it is important that those affected by
the transport problem and its potential resolution should be identified so that they can be
engaged. This would be a much broader list of affected parties than those involved in
transportation activity and requires recognizing a role for citizen participation. Failure to do
so runs the risk of a project meeting significant opposition from stakeholders perceiving
that they have been left out or can be negatively impacted.
 Predicting outcomes, identifying benefits, and assessing costs. The stage of predicting
the outcomes for each of the options is a critical step in the process. Models continue to
play an important role, but whereas the traditional models were based on the number of
trips, increasingly, modeling is becoming more activity-based. Urban transport is seen in the
context of scheduling household decisions in time and space. Demographic and social data
are used extensively, and mathematical models have become more sophisticated.
Nevertheless, there are roles for other types of analyses, including non-objective forecasts.
The predicted outcomes must then be assessed as to their benefits and costs. These may be
expressed in monetary terms, but many transport planning situations call for measurement
in other terms, such as visual effects, environmental externalities, and employment impacts.
 Choosing a course of action. Evaluation of the scenarios must consider the costs and
benefits from the frequently conflicting perspectives of the stakeholders and actors.
Extensive public consultation may be required, potentially creating delays. The information
must be disseminated and explained so an informed public can participate in the debate.
Ultimately it will be the politicians who decide. Still, they are swayed by the strength of the

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arguments presented by the transport professionals and, in publicly contentious cases, by

pressure from interest groups.

The
Transport Planning Process

The vast preponderance of transport planning, particularly at the urban level, has been devoted to
passengers involving road transportation and public transit. The automobile and public transit
issues have preoccupied planners since individual mobility can be highly political; drivers and
users are also voters. Yet, the mobility of freight represents a significant part of many problems
that planning seeks to address. Planning for freight movements, such as city logistics, is emerging.
As a large private sector activity, it is difficult to control, and the industry itself makes many of the
decisions that affect trucking. The emergence of large distribution centers on the outer fringes of
metropolitan areas is taking place without much public control or oversight. This also involves
large freight transport terminals such as ports, rail yards, and airports with freight activity, often
under the jurisdiction of a separate authority responsible for planning.

The models and data used in transportation planning are of limited relevance when applied to the
mobility of freight. For example, demographic data, such as household size, the backbone of
passenger analysis, are irrelevant to freight flows within the manufacturing sector. However, it
matters for home deliveries. The bi-polar daily peak of traffic movements applies only to
passengers, freight movements being distributed in a different profile over a 24-hour
period. Therefore, a more comprehensive freight planning process is emerging. In many cities,
there is limited data on freight traffic, so planning takes place ad hoc. A much greater focus on
freight planning is required since freight distribution is an important component of urban mobility
and activities, with facilities such as distribution centers, ports, airports, and rail yards important
components.

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Typic
al Car and Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day

Trips
by Public Transport in the United States, 1903-2019
3. Transport Demand Management

In questioning the paradigm of building capacity, transport planners have turned increasingly
to managing both demand and the transport system. Building roads has produced a car and
truck-oriented society that can constrain modal alternatives. Car ownership is beyond the ability of
the transport planner to control directly, and the question remains if this should be the case. Still,
land use and density affect car use and ownership, both elements that planners can affect. High
population densities favor walking, bicycling, and public transit use. This is why reason that a great
deal of attention in planning is being paid to densification and integration. This includes
concentrating development along well-served transport corridors (transit-oriented development)
and increasing densities in areas undergoing rehabilitation.

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Managing the demand for transport is made up of a large number of small interventions that
cumulatively can impact demand but, in particular, improve the livability of cities. A sample of
well-practiced and successful interventions includes:

 Park and ride. Parking spaces are provided, usually close to an expressway, where drivers
can board public transit (e.g. buses or light rail) that provide service to the city center. This
has become a staple feature in the outer zones of many North American and European
cities. Its success is variable, however, and there is some evidence that park and ride may
increase car use, as people who may have used regular bus services now use their cars to
drive to the car parks.
 Traffic calming. Measures that seek to reduce the speed of vehicles in urban areas, such as
speed bumps and street narrowing. For residential streets, the goal is to make their use by
drivers unattractive because of the obstacles. For thoroughfares, the objective is to reduce
the average speeds. The measures indicate the need for much greater attention to street
design and layout.
 Priority lanes for buses and high occupancy vehicles and truck routes. Lanes on major
thoroughfares and expressways can be reserved for buses, taxis, and passenger vehicles
with several occupants. This has become an essential feature of transport planning in North
America, where major highway expansion projects offer priority lanes. The goal is to
encourage the use of buses and high occupancy vehicles that can be seen to travel at higher
speeds along the reserved lanes by other drivers who may be stuck in traffic jams. The
setting of truck routes allows for better segregation between passengers and freight traffic
and more fluidity in traffic flows.
 Teleworking and alternate work schedules. Encouraging work hours other than the
dominant 9 to 5 schedule. One of the most salient problems in transport planning is that
demand is concentrated in two main peak periods. In the past, efforts were made to meet
this demand by increasing road capacity, which resulted in the under usage of the off-peak
capacity. Promoting flexible schedules and encouraging teleworking are policies that seek
to spread out the demand for transport over more hours and even reduce the demand
altogether. The Covid-19 pandemic underlined the potential and feasibility of teleworking,
particularly in roles requiring information technologies.
 Promoting micro-mobility. In some countries, particularly the Netherlands, the bicycle is
an important mode of travel. Walking, cycling, and other forms of micro-mobility, such as
electric bikes and scooters, are energy efficient and encourage physical activity. However,
in automobile-dependent cities, micro-mobility is difficult to integrate with trucks and cars.
Encouraging greater use of micro-mobility requires significant planning adjustments, such
as providing sidewalks, reserved lanes, charging stations, and bike stands.
 Car or ride-sharing. Conventionally, such schemes encouraged drivers to share car use
with neighbors or co-workers when their mobility coincided. Information technologies have
enabled the extension of car-sharing schemes to a wider base of ride-sharing through
platforms that reconcile drivers offering mobility and users.
 Enhancing pedestrian areas. In many areas of high population density, the quality of life
(enhanced safety, less pollution, etc.) and the visual attractiveness of streetscapes can be
enhanced by excluding vehicles from streets altogether or limiting access to public transport
vehicles. In Europe, this has become a distinctive feature of the historic cores of many
cities.

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 Improving public transit. Public transit use has declined in most cities. Yet it is the only
alternative to the car in these cities, and thus enhancing the use of transit has become a
major planning objective. Improvements include making transit more attractive by
improving bus schedules and the appearance and comfort of transit vehicles and stations. At
the same time, efforts are underway to widen the range of transit alternatives. These include
extending commuter rail services and constructing new systems such as light and heavy rail
modes.
 Parking management. Restricting on-street parking and charging higher rates for parking.
This also applies to the parking of delivery vehicles, which has become an important issue
with the growth of e-commerce and the associated home deliveries.

4. Pricing

While planning interventions may positively affect transport demand, a more direct approach
involving imposing more stringent cost measures on users can be an option. For instance, it is
widely accepted that car users pay only a small proportion of the actual costs of their vehicle use.
Economists argue that users should bear the external costs of their mobility. As rational as this
argument may be, there are several problems with its application:

 First, there are difficulties in measuring externalities, with considerable variations in

estimates between different studies. Different types of use, speeds, engines (internal
combustion engines and electric), vehicle weight, or driving conditions, make it challenging
to produce broadly accepted values. Decision-makers have difficulty in agreeing to impose
charges when there is a diversity of evidence about external costs.
 Second, there are practical difficulties in collecting these costs. One of the easiest and
most widely used methods is a gasoline tax. It is a crude approach, however, because it
imperfectly distinguishes between driving conditions and engine type. A fuel-efficient
vehicle may have just as high consumption in heavy urban traffic as a less efficient vehicle
in a rural setting. The growth in alternative fuels, such as electric vehicles, will further
challenge fuel taxes.
 Third, is the political difficulty of imposing such additional costs on the public. Free
access to roads tends to be seen as a right, and it is intensely unpopular to propose any new
forms of revenue generation that hint at additional taxation.

The use of pricing mechanisms trends towards the greater application of some forms of tolling is
accelerating. Congestion pricing (or cordon pricing) has been applied in several jurisdictions
where access to certain areas, usually the CBD, is tolled. A seminal application was the decision to
charge private vehicles for entry into Central London in early 2003. Despite a great deal of
opposition, this program has proved successful. Other cities, such as Stockholm (2007) and Milan
(2012), implemented similar schemes. However, such strategies can be unpopular, as in the case of
New York, which was initially proposed in 2007 and approved in 2019 but subject to delays in its
implementation. As of 2023, it was still to be implemented. The commonality of congestion pricing
applied to central areas concern high density and limited transport capacity, such as parking
spaces (high cost of parking), creating high demand and the willingness of users to pay for access.
An even more drastic example is Singapore, where extreme measures limiting car purchases, high

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vehicle licenses, electronic tolls on highways, and cordon pricing in the downtown area have
restrained car use.

Another form of charging is the imposition of tolls on new highways and bridges. In North
America, the public had become used to the notion that highways are free of access, a legacy of the
Interstate Highways Act, primarily funded by Congress. The legislation now permits private
companies to build and operate private roads and bridges and to collect tolls to cover costs. A
similar trend applies to developing economies such as China, where many new highways and
bridges are toll-based to recover capital investments. A common trend, irrespective of the context,
is that any new highway project will likely include tolls.

With congestion pricing, certain lanes of a highway are tolled at variable rates. When traffic is
moving freely, there are no charges for the tolled lanes. But as traffic builds up and speeds are
reduced, such as during peak hours, the costs of using the reserved lanes increase. The collection of
the tolls is electronic, and drivers are informed of the current charges by large signs. Therefore,
drivers are given a choice to stay in the slower lanes for free or move to the tolled lanes at a cost
that is proportionate to the speed on the congested lanes. In the ride-sharing sector, congestion
pricing mechanisms are also applied (surge pricing), particularly when demand exceeds supply.
As fares increase, more drivers are incited to provide ride-sharing services, and users consider
postponing their trips until an equilibrium is reached.

Congestion pricing schemes are not just the purview of road transportation. Early in its history,
commercial aviation saw the implementation of higher landing fees at congested airports,
particularly during peak hours. An outcome was to use higher capacity aircraft, push general
aviation away to smaller airports, and generate more revenue to improve facilities. Ports, canals,
and waterways can also use forms of congestion pricing, such as the Panama Canal, that offers the
opportunity to book a certain number of daily passage slots at a higher rate to be guaranteed a
specific time window. There is even an opportunity to book a high-priority passage at a very high
cost compared with the regular toll.

5. Governance in Transportation

Transport policy and planning require governance, which is associated with the practical usage of
existing resources as well as the allocation of new resources, such as investments. Like all sectors
of activity, transportation has a unique set of characteristics about its governance as both the public
and private sectors are actively involved.

Governance concerns the ownership and management of assets and resources to fulfill goals such
as profit or welfare through the exercise of authority and institutional resources. It concerns the
public as well as the private sectors but tends to apply differently depending on if public or private
interests are at stake. In both cases, a significant concern is performance, which is how effectively
available assets are used.

The governance of transport infrastructure is particularly relevant because of its strategic,

economic, and social importance and the cross-jurisdictional character of many infrastructures,
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such as highways, rail, and telecommunication networks. Transport is not a mere convenience but a
fundamental infrastructure that must systematically and continuously be available to its users. This
is where governance plays the important role of ensuring continuity in operations. Effective
governance is complex to assess since it is not linked with a specific governance structure, but
generally conveys several advantages:

 Confidence. It provides confidence that an activity, such as a terminal, a transit system, or a

logistics zone, is effectively managed. This can involve daily operations as well as the
planning, design, and funding of new infrastructure. Effective governance is linked with
consistent and reliable services as well as a good level of responsiveness and feedback
when an unexpected issue arises.
 Capital costs. Lowers capital costs as investors and financial institutions have confidence
that the allocated capital will be effectively used to develop and expand productive assets,
generating returns. Avoiding wasteful investments and practices tends to attract private
capital.
 Competitiveness. Improves the capability to compete through the retention of existing
users and the attraction of new ones. This can take many forms, such as lower costs, but
factors such as clear expectations and transparency are also significant. Keeping market
considerations constant, organizations with better governance are usually more competitive
than organizations with less effective governance.
 Stability. It confers long-term resilience in the organization, providing stability in capital
markets and the financial institutions supporting them. Many transportation infrastructures
have a long life span that can be more effectively managed with a stable long-term
governance structure.

For transport infrastructures such as port terminals, airports, highways, inland ports, or logistics
zones, many different forms of governance are in place, which shape modes of financing,
operations, functioning, and external relationships. This includes mechanisms and options for
the respective roles of public and private actors in the ownership, management, and operation of
transport infrastructure and terminals. This is particularly important as large transport infrastructure
involved in global flows of passengers and freight that are complex, capital intensive, and of
strategic importance to the economic welfare of regions. Therefore, the capital intensiveness and
the long life span of transportation infrastructures underline the need for effective governance to
ensure that the infrastructures are adequately funded, maintained, operated, and expanded.

There are two main components of transport governance; ownership and

operations. Ownership involves who is the owner of the terminal site and facilities (including
equipment):

 Public ownership. Common because of the economic and strategic importance of many
terminals. In several jurisdictions, passenger railroads are owned by the national
government, and the passenger stations are thus under the control of the state-owned
railway company, as is the case in China, Europe, and North America. Public ownership of
ports and airports is also prevalent and can occur at the state or municipal levels of
government. Under public ownership, investment in infrastructure and planning future
expansion is carried out by the public authority using public monies or public guarantees
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for capital borrowed from private markets. The private sector is then offered leasing
opportunities through concessions in which terms and duration can be negotiated.
 Private ownership. Less evident in transport terminals, but there are numerous exceptions
for specific modes. Examples include road freight (distribution centers), rail freight
transport in North America (terminals and rights of way), and where privatization has taken
place in ports and airports in the United Kingdom and New Zealand. Here, private capital is
used to provide infrastructure.

Operations involve the day-to-day management and carrying out of terminal activities:

 Public control. This is typical in many ports, state-controlled railroads, and publicly-owned
airports. In these cases, the public authority provides the handling equipment, contracts with
the labor force, and operates the rail, airport, and port terminals.
 Private companies. Manage and carry out operations in privately owned terminals. They
are also active operators in many publicly owned facilities under a concession agreement.
The latter is a growing trend in ports and airports, where facilities are leased to terminal
operators for fixed terms. The types of concessions vary considerably in terms of duration
and conditions. Some are short-term, a few years or so; more typically, they are long-term
concessions of 15 to 30 years. In some, the owner provides equipment, such as gantry
cranes in ports. In others, concession holders are expected to invest in equipment. In some,
they are required to use public employees, while in others, they may use their own workers.

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Lifesp
an Life Cycle of Main Transport Assets

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Public and Private Roles for Transport Infrastructure and Terminals

Conta
iner Terminals of the Worlds Major Port Holdings 2019

Public ownership and operations have been important in many modes because of the strategic
importance of transport and the long-term investments required that the private sector may be
incapable or unwilling to make. In this way, the terminals can be owned and operated as public
goods and integrated with regional and national economic policies. On the other hand, public
facilities are seen as slow to respond to market conditions, with a propensity to over-invest in non-
economic developments, and with high user costs. The default commonly leaves the governance
structure as it is since inertia is the usual norm for managing large infrastructures

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Case Exercise 3

Water supply systems- Location and space requirements for water distribution systems, Legal and
government policy for urban and rural water supply, Familiarizing to CPHEEO manual and
guidance-

2.0 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Water system improvements proposed for inclusion into Western’s service area shall be
designed in accordance with all appropriate AWWA standards, include all landscape demands
for non-residential common areas, (i.e., landscape slopes, medians, parks, detention basins,
etc.), have those demands integrated into the demand calculations, and maintain the following
criteria:

2.01 SYSTEM DEMAND CRITERIA FOR TRACT DEVELOPMENT

Western’s staff reserves the right to determine criteria for each water system or sub-system
based upon conditions that may exist for that particular location, anticipated level of
development, planned use or other criteria. In general, however, water pipelines, tanks, pump
stations, pressure reducing stations and appurtenances shall be sized to handle the highest
demand on the system within the sphere of influence and shall provide capacity for the
following conditions:

1. The peak hour demand.

2. The maximum daily demand plus fire flow.
3. Tank refill, if required.

Average day domestic demand shall be 200 gallons per capita per day (gpcd) on annual average,
with 3.8 residents per house for 1140 gpd/unit. Assume maximum daily flow of 175% of average
day flow and maximum hour flow of 300% of average day flow.

Fire flow requirements shall be in accordance with the specification of the Fire Protection
Agency having jurisdiction, e.g. Riverside County, City of Riverside, or City of Murrieta.

Commercial and industrial development proposed use and demand requirements should be
reviewed and approved by Western prior to any system analysis being performed.

Water pipelines to all service areas shall be looped to provide dual direction supply and system
flexibility. Dead end mains are undesirable, but can be considered on a case-by-case basis.

2.02 SYSTEM ANALYSIS

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The proposed water system shall be analyzed for the following three conditions:

1. Peak hour demands with wells/booster pumping plants on.

For the peak hour demand flow analysis, the pressure at each node shall be a minimum of 40 psi
and a maximum of 120 psi.

2. Maximum day demand plus fire flow with wells/booster pumping plants off.

For the maximum day demand plus fire flow analysis, fire flow should be selected for the
worst-case scenario (typically the hydrant furthest from the connection(s)
to Western's distribution system, at the highest system elevation) and as directed by Western’s
staff. The pressure at each node shall be a minimum of 20 psi and the maximum velocity in the
pipelines shall be 7.5 feet per second, (certain exceptions may apply).

3. Minimum hour demands (10% of maximum day demand) with wells/boosters on.

For the minimum hour demand analysis, the maximum velocity in the pipelines shall be 5.0 feet
per second and the maximum pressure at each node shall be 120 psi.

The Developer’s engineer will be required to submit an analysis of anticipated flow demands;
average, maximum hour flow, and maximum day plus fire flow. Western shall accept or
request modifications to the submitted analysis.

2.03 WATER PIPELINE SIZING CRITERIA

Minimum size water pipeline is 8-inch nominal diameter, 10”, 14”, and 20” pipelines are
no longer utilized by Western.

For maximum hourly flow; pipeline to be sized to provide head losses not to exceed 3.5 feet per
1000 feet of water pipeline.

For maximum daily flow plus fire flow; pipeline to be sized to provide head losses not to exceed
5 feet per 1000 feet of water pipeline.

For all cases, mainline velocities are not to exceed 7.5 feet per second.

Use a “C” valve of 130 for polyvinyl chloride pipe and 120 for cement mortar lined steel pipe
in the Hazen-Williams formula.

Provide a minimum of 40-psi pressure at the meter to each and every customer service using the
pad elevation of the water tank, at half-full, serving the area as the starting hydraulic grade line.
Fire hydrants are to have 20-psi minimum residual pressure at design capacities.

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If any service at the meter is proposed to be less than 50 psi Engineer shall submit calculations
demonstrating actual pressure at all fixtures being supplied by that meter. Services less than 40
psi at meter will require a low pressure service agreement.

Commercial and industrial developments are to be analyzed by Developer’s Engineer for

review by Western’s staff. Western’s staff shall accept or modify the proposed pipe sizing.

Western’s staff reserves the right to specify sizing of any water pipeline.
Due to master planning, Western’s staff may require a larger size pipeline than normally
required for a particular project to satisfy Western’s design standards for system distribution
requirement purposes. Western’s Board of Directors may authorize participation and payment
of increased cost of such water pipeline in accordance with Western’s criteria.
2.04 WATER PIPELINE LOCATION

Unless otherwise approved by Western’s staff, all water pipelines shall be located on the
southerly or westerly side of the street, 6 - 8 feet from curb face or berm. The curb face or berm
location shall be per the Riverside County Transportation Department or City of Riverside
design standards. Location shall not interfere with other existing utilities.

The cover over the water pipeline shall be a minimum of 30” from rough grade and 36” from
finished surface to provide protection of the water pipeline and for the operation of the
appurtenances. The depth shall be 3.0 feet from the ground surface (pavement, graded travel
way, or open ground) to the top of the water pipeline for 8-inch pipe or smaller. For water
pipeline 12-inch or larger, the depth shall be 4.0 feet. 10-inch water pipe is no longer utilized.
Western’s staff may increase or decrease this required depth as necessary to cover non-
standard conditions. Minimum slope of water pipelines shall be 0.5% unless otherwise
authorized by Western’s staff.

In no case shall a pipeline depth to top of pipe be greater than 60” without written approval by
Western.

If any service at the meter is proposed to be less than 50 psi, the Engineer shall submit
calculations. Services with less than 40 psi at the meter will require a low pressure agreement.

All projects will be required to extend water pipeline facilities across the full extent of the
project parcel.
2.05 CURVE DATA

Water pipeline joints shall not be pulled more than the manufacturer’s recommended offset.
Directional changes for PVC pipe may be accomplished by curvature of the water pipeline itself.
The minimum bending radius for water pipelines are as follows:

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PVC (20' JTS)

Min. Radius (ft.)
Diamete
r
8" 259'
12" 374'

Where a smaller radius of curvature is required, fittings shall be used.

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2.06 WATER PIPELINE MATERIALS

Unless otherwise authorized by Western’s staff, all 8" and 12" water pipelines shall be in
accordance with AWWA standards, C-900 Polyvinyl Chloride Pipe (PVC) unless conditions
dictate the use of current standard CML/CMC welded steel pipe and all fittings for PVC shall be
ductile iron. All water pipelines 16" and larger shall be CML/CMC welded steel pipe and fittings
in accordance with AWWA standards.
2.07 RESTRAINED JOINTS

2.08.01 Pipeline calculations shall demonstrate adequacy of thrust protection.

Restraint locations must be indicated on improvement plans.

Adequate means of restraints in order of preference:

1. Restrained joints and fittings
2. Fully welded joints for steel pipeline
3. Concrete thrust block
4. Concrete thrust ring

2.08.02 Thrust restraint for existing pipeline in order of preference:

1. Documentation (E.G. as-built) of restraint
2. Physical verification (E.G. pot-holing) of restraint
3. Modifying existing pipeline to meet restraint requirements (See 2.08.01)

2.08 VALVES

Location:
 Large water pipelines (16-inch diameter and larger): To be determined for each system
to meet operational requirements.
 Small water pipelines (12-inch diameter and smaller): To provide flexibility of
operation, generally located on discharge side of pipeline connections; 4 at crosses, 3 at
tees and at beginning of dead end mains.
 If one of the options above does not apply, valves shall be spaced at 1,320-foot
maximum intervals or as directed by Western.
 Valve spacing shall be that no more than 20 lots are to be out of service at one time.
 At all times the maximum spacing to in service hydrants shall not exceed 700 feet.
Size:
 Full line size gate valves through 12-inch. For 16-inch and larger, use full line size
butterfly valves. Maximum velocity through valves normally limited to 12 feet per
second, never to exceed 20 feet per second.

Unless otherwise provided for, all valves 2” through 12” shall be resilient seat gate valves in
accordance with AWWA Standard C509.

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Valves shall be installed with valve can and cover as shown on Western’s Standard Drawings.

Pressure class rating shall be the same as the water pipe on which the valve is being installed.

2.10 COMBINATION AIR VACUUM AND AIR RELEASE VALVES

Air valves shall be located at all high points of water pipelines; however, air valves shall not be
installed at the end of cul-de-sacs unless the slope of the water pipeline is 5% or greater.
Minimum size of air valves shall be 1" and shall be sized as follows:

Pipeline Diameter Air Valve

Size 8" 1"
12”, 16", 24" 2"
30" 4"
> 30" Consult with Western

In phased tract development, air valves are often located at the end of the pipeline as dictated by
the phasing plan. When additional phases are constructed, the air valve shall be removed unless
it is required by one of the criteria listed above.

Provide 4-inch bollard on either side per Western’s Standard Drawings and paint all above
ground material with 2 coats of safety yellow.

BLOW-OFF VALVE ASSEMBLIES

Blowoffs shall be in accordance with Western's Standard Drawings, located behind the curb face
at right angles to the water pipeline. Blowoffs shall be located at all low points of the pipeline,
and at all dead-ends or terminal points. Other valves may be required for system maintenance
during the plan check process based on water quality requirements. Where possible, fire hydrants
shall be used in place of blowoffs. Minimum size of permanent blowoffs shall be 4".
Minimum size of temporary blowoffs shall be 2". Where possible, isolated low points shall be
located at fire hydrant tees; otherwise, blow-off valves are required.

Minimum size of blowoff assemblies to be 2” for temporary end of line and 4” for permanent
side outlet wharfheads.
FIRE HYDRANTS

Design per requirements of the fire protection agency having jurisdictional authority.
Developer’s engineer should obtain hydrant location and spacing information from the
governing fire protection agency. Developer shall provide hydrant cap painting per fire
protection agency having jurisdiction.

Fire hydrants shall be in accordance with Western's Standards Drawings, installed behind the
curb face at right angles to the water pipeline.

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2.11 APPURTENANCE LOCATION

All above ground appurtenances shall be placed at property line, a minimum of 18” back from
the curb.

2.12 SERVICE INSTALLATIONS

Services shall be in accordance with Western’s Standard Drawings unless otherwise approved in
writing by Western’s staff. All service installations larger than 2" shall be approved by
Western’s staff in writing.

Saddles for PVC pipe are only acceptable for services 2-inches in diameter and smaller with tees
being required for pipe outlets larger than 2-inches.

CORROSIVE SOIL

Where pipelines are to be constructed in known or likely to be corrosive soil conditions,

corrosion test stations shall be provided in accordance with Western’s Standard Drawings at
locations determined by Western’s staff. If required, Developer will be required to install
sacrificial anodes, etc. utilizing Western’s Standard Drawings and approved materials list.

Cathodic protection stations are required to be installed every 500 feet on all pipelines.

PRESSURE REDUCING STATION

Where required by Western’s staff, pressure reducing stations, including various types of control
valves, pressure relief valves, and other unique valves shall be individually designed specifically
for each installation utilizing Western’s Standard Drawings.

BACKFLOW PREVENTION

Where Western’s Domestic Water System has the potential of becoming cross-connected to
other water supplies or sources, an approved backflow prevention device is required by Title 17,
Drinking Water Supplies, of the California Administrative Code, and shall be installed in
accordance with Western’s Standard Drawings and approved materials list. A certified backflow
tester shall test the backflow device and submit the report for final approval by Western prior to
use of the service. An approved backflow prevention device is required for any fire service
connection except for fire protection system of Classes 1 and 2. For further information, see
Western’s backflow ordinance. All non-residential water services shall have a Western approved
backflow prevention device installed adjacent to meter unless otherwise approved by Western.

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Western’s Standard Drawings and Approved Materials List. If SCADA is required, connection
points to existing cable are required to be shown on plans.

2.13 CONSERVATION REQUIREMENTS

To promote water-efficient landscaping, water use management and water conservation through
the use of water-efficient landscaping, wise use of turf areas and appropriate use of irrigation
technology and management.

At least one model home within a tract development shall demonstrate a water conserving
landscape per the City or Riverside’s Ordinance 6234 and the County of Riverside’s
Ordinance 859.

Riverside County Ordinance 859

a. In residential subdivisions, all model homes in the project shall comply with the
provisions of Article XIXf of this ordinance.
b. The project applicant shall provide home buyers with sample water-efficient landscape
and irrigation plans and additional educational material as approved by the Planning
Director upon the sale of each dwelling unit within the project. The plans shall include a
key identifying the common names of the plants used in the landscaping.
c. The project applicant shall distribute outdoor water conservation pamphlets provided by
local water purveyors, if available, to buyers upon the sale of each dwelling unit with the
development. Western can provide these at no cost.
d. A sign shall be displayed in the front yard of each model home which is clearly visible
to home buyers. The sign shall indicate that the model home features water-efficient
landscape irrigation design
and approved materials list and consult with Western’s staff for requirements.

City of Riverside Ordinance 6234 § 3, 1995 and 6032 § 1, 1993 Chapter 19.67
a. In each project consisting of eight or more homes, at least one model home that is
landscaped shall demonstrate via installed landscaping and irrigation, the principles of
water efficient landscaping and irrigation described in chapter 19.67.
b. The water efficient landscaped and irrigated model home site shall be identified as such
by signs posted which identify such water efficient elements as hydrozones, irrigation
equipment and others which contribute to the overall water efficient theme.
c. The developer shall provide information at the model home site about designing,
installing, and maintaining water efficient landscaping and irrigation.

Western can make available brochures on our water conservation education garden for your
model homes and inclusion in your new buyer packets. The one-acre garden exhibits water-
wise landscaping, showcases more than 250 water-efficient plants, opens daily at 10 a.m.
closing at 4 p.m. and is free to the public. Additionally, anyone can take a virtual tour of the
garden at Western’s website – www.wmwd.com - where they’ll discover lots of valuable water
conservation information.

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Case Exercise 5
Social Infrastructure-Education, health, safety, security and other public services.
Telecommunication services Location criteria for mobile phone towers

TELECOMMUNICATIONS TOWERS REGULATIONS

SECTION 1 BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Recent advances in wireless communications technology have resulted in a new generation

of telecommunication services. These new services transmit electromagnetic waves of such a
frequency and power that will likely require numerous antenna locations. These antennas
may be located on buildings, water towers and other similar structures but will also
frequently be located on new or
enlarged towers. This requires that the village / town of regulate these
wireless communication system facilities in a different manner than conventional television
and radio transmission towers which are able to transmit their signals at much greater
distances.

The Federal Communications Commission has recently licensed a number of providers of

wireless communication services and additional providers are expected to be licensed in the
near future. These firms are expected to pursue antenna sites
within the village/town of and these efforts are expected to include
requests to construct new communication towers and/or structures as well.

The intent of this proposed regulation is to provide for the establishment and/or expansion of
wireless telecommunication services within the village/town of
while protecting neighborhoods and minimizing the adverse visual and
operational effects of wireless telecommunications facilities through careful design, siting
and screening. More specifically this regulation has been developed in order to:

 Maximize use of existing and approved towers and other structures to accommodate new
antennas and transmitters in order to reduce the number of communication towers needed
to serve the village;

 Encourage providers to co-locate their facilities on a single tower;

The Town, City, Village of has undertaken a deliberate process to establish

policy, standards and procedures related to the siting of tower structure and antenna arrays
for wireless telecommunications as contained herein. In doing so, the municipality attempted
to:

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 Preserve property values and development opportunities

 minimize the visual impact of towers
 minimize the number of towers and their heights
 promote safety, general welfare and quality of life
 assure adequate access to wireless communication service for the community

SECTION 2 DEFINITIONS

ANTENNA: A system of electrical conductors that transmit or receive radio frequency

waves. Such waves shall include, but not be limited to, radio, television, cellular, paging,
personal communication services, and microwave communications. The frequency of
these waves generally range from 10Hertz to 300 megahertz , but can be higher as
technology advances.

BTS (base transceiver station): the central cell facility that contains all the receivers,
transmitters and other apparatus needed for cellular/PCS operation.

CAPACITY: The number of mobile users that can realistically be serviced by a BTS.

COVERAGE: The general term that describes the ability of a BTS to send and receive
wireless signals of sufficient strength to provide reliable cellular/PCS service

CO-LOCATION means locating wireless communications facilities from more than one
wireless communications services provider on a single site.

EAF: Environmental Assessment Form

EPA: The Environmental Protection Agency

FAA: The Federal Aviation Administration

FCC: The Federal Communications Commission

GUYED TOWER: A construction technique that uses stabilizing cable to provide lateral
support for a tower.

HEIGHT OF TOWER: means the vertical distance measured in feet from the average
existing level of the ground surrounding the tower and within 10 feet thereof to the top
point of the tower including any antenna or other appurtenances. The existing elevation
shall mean the actual or approved elevation of the property at the time of application.

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INTERFERENCE: Any electromagnetic radiation or noise that is not the desired signal.

LATTICE TOWER: Description of the type of tower construction typified by cross-

bracing between three posts that constitute a rigid antenna support structure.

MONOPOLE TOWER: A unified self-supporting structure typified by a smooth tapered

steel pole similar to roadway light supports.

NETWORK: The general term used to describe all the BTS facilities and equipment
required to provide cellular/PCS services.

NIER: Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Radiation

PATH LOSS: The attenuation experienced by the radio waves as they propagate from the
BTS to the mobile phone or from the mobile phone to the BTS. Path loss will be the
same for either direction over short periods of time.

SATELLITE ANTENNA: Shall be any parabolic dish, antenna or other device or

equipment of whatever nature or kind, the primary purpose of which is to receive
television, radio, light, microwave, or other electronic signals, waves and/or
communications from space satellites.

SEQR: State Environmental Quality Review as described in 6 NYCRR Part 617.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS: The transmission and reception of audio, video, data, and

other information by wire, radio, light, and other electronic or electromagnetic systems.

TELECOMMUNICATION TOWER: A structure intended to support wireless

communications equipment used to receive and/or transmit electron magnetic waves.
Design examples of towers might include but may not be limited too (a) self-supporting
lattice (b) guyed and (c) monopoles structures (d) water towers.

TOWER OPERATOR: The owner, manager and/or management firm of a

telecommunication tower.

WIRELESS TELECOMMUNICATION SERVICES means licensed wireless

telecommunications services including, but not necessarily limited to: cellular, personal
communications services (PCS), specialized mobilized radio (SMR), enhanced
specialized mobilized radio (ESMR), paging and other types of telecommunications
services that are or may be marketed to the general public.

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WIRELESS TELECOMMUNICATION SITE means a facility operated by a licensed

wireless telecommunication service provider which consists of the equipment and
structures involved in receiving or transmitting electromagnetic waves associated with
wireless telecommunications services.

SECTION 3 APPLICATION PROCEDURES

A. No communication installation, transmission tower, telecommunication tower,

communication tower, accessory facility or structure, free-standing tower and/or pole
or transmission reception antenna shall henceforth be erected, moved, changed or
altered other than replacement in kind except after the approval in conformance with
the provisions of these regulations.

B. No existing structure shall be modified to serve as a transmission tower,

telecommunication tower, communication tower accessory facility or structure
freestanding tower, antenna and/or pole unless in conformity with this local law and
other laws of the Town/Village/City.

C. Applicant must provide a copy (in applicants name) of the certificate of need OR
appropriate FCC License issued by the FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS
COMMISSION to provide the telecommunication services that the proposed tower is
designed to support. If the appropriate applicant FCC license has not been issued,
applicant must show proof that the application has been filed and accepted by
the Federal Communications and is under review for the granting of applicants
license. “Speculative” applications of any type shall not be considered or acted upon
by the town or village planning board.

D. All applications for installation of a new telecommunications tower shall be

accompanied by a report containing the information hereinafter set forth. The report,
shall be signed by the tower operator, and contain the following information:

1. Name (s) and address (s) of person(s) preparing the report

2. Name (s) and address (s) of the property owner, operator and the
applicant

3. Postal address and tax map page, block and lot or parcel number of the
property

4. Zoning District in which the property is situated

5. Size of the property on which the proposed construction is to occur and

the location of all adjoining lot lines within 500 feet.

6. Location of nearest residential structure measured in feet;

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7. Location of nearest occupied residential structure measured in feet.

8. Location of all structures existing and proposed on the property, which is the
subject of this application.

9. Location, size and height of all proposed and/or existing antennae and all
appurtenant structures;

10. Type, size and location of all proposed and existing mitigating landscaping

11. The number, type, and design of the tower and antenna (e) proposed and the
basis for the calculations of tower and system capacity.

12. The make, model and manufacturer of the Communications Tower and
antenna(e) with supporting construction details.

13. A description of the proposed tower and antenna(e) and all related fixtures,
structures, appurtenances and apparatus, including but not limited to, height
above grade materials, color and lighting.

14. The frequency, modulation and class of service of radio equipment

15. Applicant's proposed tower maintenance and inspection procedures and

records systems.

16. Certification that NIER levels at the proposed site are within threshold levels
adopted by the FCC

17. Certification to the Town/Village/City that the tower and attachments both are
designed and constructed ("As Built") to meet all State and Federal structural
requirements for loads, wind, ice, etc.

18. A professionally prepared contour radio propagation map showing anticipated

coverage from the site proposed.

D. The applicant shall submit a complete long EAF, pursuant to SEQR, Type I/II and a
complete Visual Environmental Assessment form (visual EAF addendum). The Town
/ Village Planning Board, as lead agency may require submission of a more detailed
visual analysis based on the results of the Visual EAF. In addition the applicant shall
address the environmental flight path of area species.

SECTION 4 SITING PREFERENCES

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A. Shared use of existing towers

At all times, shared use of existing towers shall be preferred to the construction of
new towers. An applicant shall be required to present an adequate report inventorying
existing towers within a reasonable distance of the proposed site and outlining
opportunities for shared use of existing facilities as an alternative to a proposed new
tower.

1. An applicant proposing to share use of an existing tower shall be required to

document intent from an existing tower owner to allow shared use.

2. The Board shall consider a new telecommunication tower where the applicant
adequately demonstrates that shared usage of an existing tower or other
structure is impractical. The applicant shall be required to submit a report
demonstrating good-faith efforts to secure shared use from existing towers as
well as documentation of the physical and/or financial reasons why shared
usage is not practical. Written requests and responses for shared use shall be
provided.

B. Shared usage of site with new tower (clustering)

Where shared usage of an existing tower is found to be impractical, the applicant shall
investigate shared usage of an existing tower site for its ability to accommodate a new
tower and accessory uses. Documentation and conditions shall be in accordance with
Subsections A (1) and A (2) above.

C. New Tower at a New Location

The Board shall consider a new telecommunications tower on a site not previously
developed with an existing tower. The applicant shall adequately demonstrate that
shared usage of an existing tower site is impractical and shall submit a report
demonstrating good-faith efforts to secure shared use from existing tower, as well, as
documentation of the physical and/or financial reasons why shared usage is not
practical. (Written requests and responses for shared use inquiries shall be provided.)
Information regarding the required need for the new telecommunications tower shall
be required to the form of empirical data illustrating said need.

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D. Future shared usage of new towers

The applicant must examine the feasibility of including a telecommunication tower in

his proposed plan that will accommodate future demand for reception and
transmitting facilities.

The Board reserves the right to impose reasonable conditions regarding reservation of
tower space for future antennae including height, orientation and power and
restriction or elimination of restrictive use covenants as part of tower use contracts
and preservation of reasonable fee structures as part of the contract.

SECTION 5 STANDARDS APPLICABLE TO NEW TOWERS

A. Siting Considerations

There will be no approval granted to proposals to construct new telecommunications

towers and/or accessory structures or facilities within 1500 feet of the following areas of
County-wide and inter-community significance:

1. Seaway Trail (measurement from the road centerline)

2. NYS Wildlife Management Areas (measurement made from property line or

official designation boundary.)

3. State or County Forests (measurement made from property line or official

designation boundary.)

4. Federal/State designated Historic Districts (measurement made from property

line or official designation boundary.)

5. Shorelines of the St. Lawrence River, Racquette Lake, Oswegatchie River,

Grasse River, Racquette River, Black Lake or Cranberry Lake (measurement
made from the shoreline, as determined on USGS 7.5" quadrangle
topographic maps.)

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B. Lot size and setbacks for new towers

1. All proposed telecommunication tower and accessory structures shall be

located on a single parcel and a set back from abutting residential parcels,
public property or street lines a distance sufficient to contain on-site
substantially all ice-fall or debris from tower failure and preserve the privacy
of the adjoining residential properties.

2. Lot size of parcels containing a tower shall be determined by the amount of

land required to meet the setback requirements; If the land is to be leased,
the entire lot required shall be leased from a single parcel.

3. All tower bases shall be located at a minimum setback from any property line
a minimum distance equal to one and one half (1-l/2) time the height of the
tower.

Accessory structures shall comply with the minimum setback requirements in the
underlying zoning district.

C. Visual impact assessment

The Board shall require the applicant to undertake a visual impact assessment of any
proposed new towers or any proposed modification of an existing tower. The visual
impact assessment shall include:

1. A "Zone of Visibility Map ", provided in order to determine location where

the tower may be seen.

2. Pictorial representatives of "before and after" views from key viewpoints

both inside and outside of the town, including but not limited to state
highways and other major roads, state and local parks, and areas of aesthetic
interest.

3. Alternative tower designs and color schemes.

4. Description of visual impact of the tower base, guy wires and foundations,
accessory buildings and overhead utility lines from abutting properties and
streets/roads.

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D. New tower design

Alternative designs shall be considered for new towers, including lattice and single
pole structures. The design of a proposed new tower shall comply with the following:

1. Towers and antennas shall be designed to withstand the effects of the wind
according to the standards designated by the American National Standards
institute as prepared by the engineering departments of the Electronics
Industry Association and Telecommunications Industry Association.

2. Unless specifically required by FAA or APA regulations, all towers shall have
a finish compatible with the surrounding area that shall minimize the degree
of visual impact.

3. The maximum height of any tower intended to be used as a

telecommunication tower, shall not exceed that which shall permit operation
without artificial lighting of any kind or nature in accordance with municipal,
state and/or federal law and/or regulation.

4. The Board may request a review of the application by a qualified engineer for
the evaluation of need for the design of any new tower.

5. Facilities shall maximize the use of building materials, colors and textures
designed to blend with the ambient surroundings.

6. No portion of any tower or related structure shall be used for advertising

purposes

E. Screening

Deciduous or evergreen tree plantings may be required to screen portions of the

tower and accessory structures from nearby residential property as well as from
public sites known to include important views or vistas. Where a site abuts a
residential property or public property, including streets, screening shall be required.

F. Access

Adequate emergency and service access shall be provided. Maximum use of existing
roads, public or private, shall be made. Road construction shall, at all times,
minimize grounds disturbance and vegetation cutting to within the toe of fill, the top
of cuts or no more than ten (10) feet beyond the edge of

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any pavement. Road grades shall closely follow natural contours to assure minimal
visual disturbance and reduce soil erosion potential.

G. Fencing

Sites of proposed new towers and sites where modifications to existing towers are
proposed shall be adequately secured to prevent unauthorized access by the general
public. Specifically:

1. all antennae communication towers, antenna towers, monopoles and other

supporting structures including guy wires, shall be made inaccessible to
children and constructed or shielded in such a manner that they cannot be
climbed or run into and

2. transmitters and communication control points shall be installed such that they
are accessible only to persons authorized by the licensee to operate or service
them and

H. Signage:

1. Telecommunication towers/facilities shall be permitted one sign no larger than

two (2) square feet to provide adequate notification to persons in the
immediate area of the presence of an antenna that has transmit capabilities.
The sign shall also contain the names (s) of the owner(s) and operator (s) of
the antenna(e) as well as emergency phone number(s).

2. The sign shall be located so as to be visible from the primary access point to
site. No other signage shall be permitted on any antenna(e), antenna(e)
supporting structure, monopole, or communication tower, structure unless
required by Federal or State regulation.

I. Color, Shape and Camouflage

1. In scenic or historic area, companies are required to camouflage each tower,

for example by putting it inside an artificial tree, a clock tower, a church
steeple, silos or a flag pole.

2. Wireless towers are required to paint wireless devices or supporting structures

in a neutral color designed to blend in with the background. Large dish
antennas (e.g. over six feet in diameter) are prohibited. Existing trees must be
left as a buffer and additional trees may be required to be planted around the
entire facility in order to provide screening.

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J. Health Concerns – Testing and Reporting

Section 704 of the federal Telecommunications Act of 1996 allows localities to

regulate wireless facilities on the basis of environmental or health effects. The tower
company may be required to pay for regular inspections (annually) if such structure is
located within 1000 feet of a residence or occupied structure and provide the local
governments with a copy of the inspection report to assure continued compliance with
FCC emissions standards.

K. NOTIFICATION

Applicants must notify landowners within a mile of proposed towers and/or antennas.
Areas within 1,500 feet of the Seaway Trail, the applicant must notify the Seaway
Trail Organization. Towns and villages having an approved Waterfront
Revitalization Law must be notified prior to any discussions with landowners that
own a site being considered within the Waterfront Overlay Area.

SECTION 6 REVIEW PROCESS AND DECISIONS

A. PROCEDURE

Within 62 days of receipt of a complete preliminary application as defined above, the

Planning Board may approve the preliminary application or schedule a public
hearing. If a public hearing is held, the Planning Board shall within 62 days of the
completion of the hearing approve, approve with modifications or disapprove the
preliminary application. Under the referral provisions of Section 239 of General
Municipal Law, the Planning Board may not take final action on the application until
a copy of the application has been forwarded to the St. Lawrence County Planning
Board and that Board has taken action on it pursuant to Section 239-m of New York
State General Municipal Law.

If a preliminary application is approved, the applicant and the Enforcement Officer

shall be notified in writing by the Planning Board and a building permit issued within
10 days of receipt thereafter of a request from the applicant. The applicant shall
not have to file a final site plan if the preliminary site plan is approved without
modifications.

If the Planning Board approves the preliminary application with modifications the
applicant shall submit a final detailed site plan to the Planning Board for final
approval. Within 62 days of receipt of the application for final site plan approval, the
Planning Board shall render a written decision to the applicant and Enforcement
Officer, and such decision shall be signed by the Chairperson of the Planning Board.

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B. PUBLIC HEARINGS

All public hearings shall be conducted in compliance with the provisions of the
NYS Open Meeting Laws.

C. TIME LIMITATIONS

The time periods within which Planning Board actions are required to act are the
maximum times allowable. The Planning Board shall make every effort to act as
quickly as possible in reviewing applications in order to minimize delays to the
applicant.

D. JUSTIFICATION AND NOTICE

1. The Planning Board shall apply all of the review standards described in this Local
Law in reviewing site plans.

2. Decisions of the Planning Board shall be in writing and may include reasonable
conditions to further the intent of this Local Law. Reasons for disapproval shall be
clearly stated.

3. Decisions of the Planning Board shall be filed within five days in the office of the
Town Clerk and a copy mailed to the applicant by certified mail, with return receipt
requested.

4. Approval of a Site Plan by the Planning Board shall be valid for a period of one year
from the date thereof for the purpose of obtaining a building permit. Failure to secure
a building permit during the period shall cause the Site Plan approval to become null
and void. No building permit shall be issued and no site work shall commence until
all necessary permits and approvals from Town, County and State agencies are
obtained and any required performance bond is filed with the Town Clerk.

SECTION 7 COMPATIBILITY WITH APPLICABLE STATE OR FEDERAL LAWS

All towers approved must comply with all other regulations of the State or Federal
government, including Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations applicable
to environmental and health effects of both transmitters and receivers.

SECTION 8 REMOVAL OF TOWERS

The applicant will provide a bond equal to the estimated cost of construction for the removal
of such tower(s) due to nonuse for a period of six months or for noncompliance or
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discontinuance of use as determined by the municipality.

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SECTION 9 EXCEPTIONS

Residential accessory uses (e.g. television antennae, satellite dishes, ham radio, citizens band
radio) under 60 feet in height are not affected. Specifically, exceptions to these regulations are:

1. new use that are accessory to residential uses; and

2. approved uses existing prior to the effective date of these regulations.

SECTION 10 PENALTY FOR NON-COMPLIANCE

The burden will be placed upon the applicant to prove the facility clearly meets all the
requirements of this local law. Monetary penalties for noncompliance will be imposed of up to
$100.00 per day. In addition the facility could be subject to closure after due process. Any
modifications to the use or configuration of a tower shall constitute the need to obtain a new
permit (this includes increases in tower height or installation of bulky antennas or work
platforms on a tower). The company must provide evidence of general liability and property
damage insurance.

CASE EXERCISE 6

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Recreation- Play grounds, Parks, Religious centers, Club house, Theaters, Stadiums, Swimming
polls etc.

In this section, we take a look at the latest trends among respondents from parks and recreation
agencies, including park departments, park districts, state park districts and similar organizations.
The largest cohort covered in the survey, these respondents made up 31.5% of the survey
respondents, representing virtually no change from 2022, when 31.6% of the survey respondents

were from parks agencies.

Park respondents were most likely to be from the Midwest or the West. Nearly three in 10 park
respondents said they were located in the Midwest (29.9%), and a similar number (28.6%) said
they were located in the West. Another 18% were from the Northeast, while 14.3% were from
the South Atlantic region, and 9.2% were from the South Central states.

Park respondents were most likely to be from suburban communities, with 44.2% indicating they
call the suburbs home. Around a third (34%) were located in rural communities, and 21.8% said
they were located in urban areas.

On average, park respondents said they serve 310,000 people, though the median for these
respondents was 10,000.

On average, park respondents said they manage 13.3 individual facilities, up from nine in 2022
and 11.1 in 2021. The maximum number of facilities managed by a park respondent is 51, and
the median is six. Nearly four in 10 (37.6%) park respondents said they manage 10 or more
facilities, up from 26% in 2022. This compares with just 15.1% of non-park respondents. On the

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other hand, while 44.6% of non-parks respondents said they have just a single facility to manage,
only 15.7% of parks respondents manage just a single facility. Another 15.7% said they manage
two to three individual facilities, while 18% have four to five facilities to manage, and 13.1%
manage six to nine separate facilities. (See Figure 43.)

Park respondents were most likely to report that their audience was made up of all ages. In fact,
nearly two-thirds (64.3%) of park respondents said they reach all ages, compared with just a
third (33.6%) of non-park respondents. Another 19.2% of park respondents said their primary
audience was made up of children ages 4 to 12, and 10.5% primarily served adults. Much smaller
numbers said their primary audience was made up of seniors (3.8%), or teens or college students

(2.2%).

A majority of park respondents (93.4%) said that they have partnered with outside organizations,
representing virtually no change from 2021, when 93.8% of park respondents worked with
outside organizations. This compares with just 80.6% of non-park respondents in 2023 who said
they partner with other organizations.

The most common partners for parks were local schools, with more than three-quarters (76.2%)
of park respondents indicating they had partnered with them, up from 75% in 2022. They were
followed by nonprofit organizations (66%, up from 58.5%), local government (63%, down from
71%), and corporations and local businesses (52.6%, up from 32.4%). (See Figure 44.)

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Revenues & Expenditures

While in most years, around half (a little more or a little less) of park respondents see their
revenues increase year-over-year, the coronavirus pandemic obviously had a major impact, with
nearly two-thirds (65.5%) of park respondents seeing their revenues fall, as facilities closed and
attendance fell. Things turned around quickly for parks, though, and in 2021, just 23.5% saw
declining revenues while 54.2% saw their revenues increase. 2022 saw numbers continuing to
return to normal, with 50.2% of park respondents reporting that their revenues had increased and
32.3% reporting no change. Still, 17.5% of park respondents reported that their revenues in 2022
fell from 2021. (See Figure 45.)

Looking forward, park respondents are more optimistic, with 55.9% expecting their revenues to
be higher in 2023 than in 2022, and 57.3% expecting their revenues to be even higher in 2024.
At the same time, the percentage who expect their revenues to decline falls to 10.4% for 2023

and just 4.9% for 2024.

In 2022, park respondents spent an average of $3,102,000 on their operating expenses. The
highest reported operating expense was $132 million, while the median was $695,000. In other
words, while one park respondent spent $132 million, half of all park respondents spent
$695,000 or less on their annual operating budget.

Park respondents expect lower overall operating costs in 2023 and 2024, compared with 2022,
spending $2,523,000 in 2023, and $2,986,000 in 2024. At the same time, the median operating
cost increases 0.7% from 2022 to 2023, from $695,000 to $700,000, and then increases a further
4.7% in 2024, to $733,000.

Park respondents report a wide range of cost recovery rates, with the greatest number—18.1%—
reporting that they earn back 20% to 40% of their operating costs via revenues. This compares

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with 10.4% of non-park respondents. Another 17.3% of park respondents earn back between 0
and 20% of their operating cost via revenues (vs. 12.6% of non-park respondents), while 14.5%
earn back between 40% and 60% (compared with 12.9% of non-park respondents). Another
17.3% of park respondents said they earn back 60% to 80% of their operating costs via revenues
(vs. 15.5% of non-park respondents), and just 6% of park respondents earn between 80% and
100% of their operating costs via revenues (compared with 9.7% of non-park respondents).
Around one-quarter (26.6%) of park respondents did not know their cost recovery rate.

When it comes to sources of funding for their facilities, rentals and private events, membership
or admission fees, and municipal/city taxes were the most common for park respondents. More
than seven in 10 (71.5%) said that rentals and private events were a source of funding for their
facilities, representing virtually no change from 2022 (71.9%). Another 64.6% received funding
from membership or admission fees (64.9% in 2022), and 58.8% received funding through city
or municipal taxes (down from 62.6%). More than half of park respondents (53.3%), also rely on
government grants to fund their facilities, up from 43.3%. (See Figure 46.)

Park respondents were far more likely than other respondents to rely on facility rentals and
private events, with 71.5% of parks using rentals and events as a source of funding, compared
with 52.9% of non-park respondents. Municipal and city taxes were also far more likely to be a
source of funding for park respondents (58.8%) than for non-park respondents (13.6%).

Park respondents in 2023 were less likely than in 2022 to indicate that they had taken action over
the past several years to reduce their operating costs. Some 80.3% of park respondents had taken
such action, down from 84.1% in 2022 and 91.2% in 2021. This compares with 85.5% of non-

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park respondents in 2023 who had taken action to reduce their expenses, virtually unchanged
from 2022 (85.6%). The most common measures park respondents had employed to reduce their
operating expenses include: increasing fees (53.2%, up from 42.9% in 2022); improving energy
efficiency (35.9%, up from 27.1%); putting construction or renovation plans on hold (34.2%, up
from 33.5%); reducing their hours of operating (29.9%, down from 42.9%); or reducing staff
(29.6%, down from 41.2%).

Park Facilities
After seeing a dramatic decrease in the number of

people using their facilities amidst

the beginning of the pandemic in 2020, attendance at park facilities has been getting back to
normal ever since. In 2022, more than two-thirds (67.8%) of park respondents said the number of
people using their facilities increased over the previous year. Another 20.2% reported no change,
and 12% said the number of people using their facilities decreased in 2022. (See Figure 47.)

In 2023, more than seven out of 10 park respondents (70.7%) expect the number of people using
their facilities to increase, while 27% expect no change, and 2.3% expect a decrease.
Expectations for 2024 are fairly similar, with 68.2% expecting the number of people using their
facilities to increase, 31.2% expecting no change, and just 0.6% expecting a decrease.

Nearly three-quarters (74.3%) of park respondents indicated that they have plans for construction
over the next several years, down from 82%. This compares with 62.4% of non-park
respondents. More than half (54%) of park respondents were planning renovations to their
existing facilities, down from 62.9% in 2022. More than one third had plans to make additions to
their existing facilities (36.7%, up from 31.5%), or build new facilities (34.3%, down from
40.4% in 2022). (See Figure 48.)

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Park respondents in 2023 were planning to spend an average of $9,180,000 on their construction
plans. The highest reported construction budget was $275 million, and the median construction

budget was $1 million.

There was little change in the features most commonly found among park respondents’ facilities
from 2022 to 2023. The 10 most common park features in 2023 include: playgrounds (83.7% of
park respondents have playgrounds); park shelters such as gazebos and picnic shelters (80.7%);
park restroom structures (79.3%); outdoor sports courts for sports like basketball, tennis and, of
course, pickleball (73.6%); walking and hiking trails (71.2%); bleachers and seating (70.4%);
natural turf sports fields (69.6%); open spaces like gardens and natural areas (67.9%); concession
areas (63.3%); and classrooms and meeting rooms (62.5%). Classrooms and meeting rooms rose
into the top 10, switching places with community or multipurpose centers.

Park respondents in 2023 were far more likely to report that they had plans to add features at
their facilities over the next few years than non-park respondents. In fact, 62.6% of park
respondents in 2023 said they were planning to add features at their facilities, up from 53.4% in
2022 and 48.6% in 2021. This compares with just 39.3% of non-park respondents in 2023 who
have plans to add features at their facilities, up from 32.5% in 2022 and 29.8% in 2021.

The most commonly planned additions for park respondents in 2023 include:

1. Splash play areas (planned by 29.2% of park respondents who will be adding features)

2. Park restroom structures (24%)

3. Dog parks (21.9%)

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4. Park shelters (21%)

5. Playgrounds (19.7%)

6. Walking and hiking trails (18.5%)

7. Bike trails (18%)

8. Outdoor sports courts (17.6%)

9. Outdoor fitness areas and fitness trails (16.3%)

10. Synthetic turf sports fields (15.5%)

Programming
Park respondents were a bit more likely than non-park respondents to indicate that they provide
programming of any kind at their facilities. While 94.8% of non-park respondents said they host
programming at their facilities, 98% of park respondents do so, up from 97.7% in 2022.

The most common programs found in park respondents’ facilities include: holidays and other
special events (87.8% of park respondents host special events and holiday events); youth sports
teams (74.2%); day camps and summer camps (66.8%); arts and crafts (62.3%); programs for
active older adults (62.3%); educational programs (62%); group exercise programs (60.8%);
fitness programs (59.3%); adult sports teams (56.7%); and festivals and concerts (56.7%).

Programs that saw an increase for park respondents in 2023 include: holidays and other special
events (up 6.2 percentage points from 81.6%); youth sports teams (up 4.1 from 70.1%); fitness
programs (up 3 from 56.3%); educational programs (up 2.2 from 59.8%); festivals and concerts
(up 2.2 from 54.5%); and programs for active older adults (up 1.4 from 60.9%).

Park respondents were much more likely than non-park respondents to report that they had plans
to add programming options at their facilities over the next several years. More than half (50.6%)
of park respondents said they had such plans (up from 49.4% in 2022 and 44.8% in 2021),
compared with 37.5% of non-park respondents (up from 29.4% in 2022 and 29.7% in 2021).

The most commonly planned program additions in 2023 for parks include:

1. Teen programming (up from No. 5)

2. Environmental education programs (no change)

3. Educational programs (up from No. 8)

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4. Programs for active older adults (did not appear in the top 10 for parks in 2022)

5. Fitness programs (down from No. 1)

6. Arts and crafts (did not appear in 2022)

7. Group exercise programs (down from No. 4)

8. Adult sports teams (down from No. 7)

9. Mind-body balance programs such as yoga (down from No. 3)

10. Special needs programs (down from No. 9)

Programs for active older adults and arts and crafts programs replaced performing arts programs
and day camps and summer camps.

Outreach, Conservation & Other Initiatives

We asked Industry Report respondents about their involvement in a variety of initiatives related
to inclusion and outreach, conservation and wellness, and in every case, park respondents were

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the most likely to be rising to the challenge. Some 93.9% of park respondents said they were
involved in at least one initiative on the list.

The initiatives park respondents were most commonly involved in include: wellness initiatives
(48.9% of park respondents vs. 44.2% of non-park respondents); inclusion for those with
physical disabilities (48.3% vs. 35.8%); inclusion for those with developmental disabilities
(41.8% vs. 31.9%); providing a connection to nature (41.5% vs. 25.6%); and outreach to
economically disadvantaged communities (36.5% vs. 33.3%).

Beyond the most common initiatives, park respondents were much more likely than non-park
respondents to be involved in: disaster recovery assistance (35.9% vs. 19.4%); conservation
initiatives (33.1% vs. 14.5%); and climate resilience initiatives (19.2% vs. 8.4%). (See Figure
49.) RM

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CASE EXERCISE 7

Provision of gas and oil pipelines

Regulatory bodies
Who regulates the exploration and production of oil and gas?
Oil
Under the Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules 1961, hydrocarbon exploration
and exploitation business is transacted through the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
(MoPNG).
MoPNG has set up the Directorate General of Hydrocarbons under its administrative control
with the aim of promoting sound management of Indian petroleum and natural gas resources,
with balanced regard for the environment, safety, technological and economic aspects of
petroleum activity.
The Mines Act 1952 regulates the safety, welfare and health of workers employed in mines. The
act is administered by the Directorate General of Mines Safety which is a regulatory agency
under the Ministry of Labour and Employment, which aims to attain risk and hazard free
conditions of work for persons employed in mines.
Natural gas
See above, Oil.
The regulatory regime
What is the regulatory regime for onshore and offshore oil and gas exploration and
production?
India has a federal government structure under which the Indian government and governments at
state level can enact legislation on the subjects reserved for them under the Constitution of India.
Under the Constitution, the regulation and development of oilfields, mineral oil resources,
petroleum and petroleum products falls within the jurisdiction of the parliament, that is, the
central legislative body in India.
The Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Act 1948, deals with issuing petroleum exploration
licences (PEL), petroleum mining leases (PML) and collection of royalties. The Petroleum and
Natural Gas Rules 1959 (PNG Rules) regulate the grant of PELs and PMLs for petroleum and
natural gas that belongs to government, and for their conservation and development. In addition,
the Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and the Maritime Zones Act
1976 provides for granting licences by the government to explore and exploit the resources of the
continental shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone.

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Enforcement of regulation

What are the regulator's enforcement powers?

Orders
The Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH) has been delegated powers by the government
to monitor upstream operations exploration programmes and enforce production and revenue
sharing contracts. Under a revenue sharing contract, the government, acting through the DGH,
can grant extensions for execution of the minimum work programme, accept or reject change of
operator and impose liquidated damages.
In the midstream and downstream sector, the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board
(PNGRB) can adjudicate on complaints and resolve disputes in relation to refining, processing,
storage, transportation, marketing and distribution.
Fines and penalties
Violations of revenue or production sharing contracts can lead to their termination. The rules
under Oilfield (Regulation and Development) Act 1948 provides imprisonment for up to six
months or with a fine up to INR1,000, or both for their contravention. For example, the PNG
Rules provide for a penalty where an interest holder in a contract area does not maintain all
apparatus, appliances and wells capable of producing hydrocarbons in good repair and condition,
or does not execute prospecting or mining operations in a proper and workman-like manner.
For the downstream sector, the PNGRB can investigate and impose penalties. A fine up to
INR250 million can be levied for contravening the directions of the PNGRB. Continuing a
contravention is punishable with an additional fine of up to INR1 million for every day it goes
on. Wilful failure to comply with an order of the Appellate Tribunal for Electricity, is punishable
with fine up to INR10 million. Subsequent offences are punishable with fine up to INR20 million
and a continuing contravention is punishable with an additional fine up to INR2 million for every
day the default continues.
Is there a right of appeal against the regulator's decisions?
In the upstream sector, the courts at Delhi have jurisdiction over all matters arising out of or
relating to a revenue sharing contract. A dispute between a contractor and the government under
a revenue sharing contract that is not amicably settled can be submitted for conciliation or
arbitration under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996. The grounds of challenging the
arbitral award include lack of impartiality or independence of the arbitrator and conflict with the
public policy of India.
In the downstream sector, any person aggrieved by a decision made by the Petroleum and
Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB) has a right to appeal to the Appellate Tribunal for
Electricity (APTEL). An appeal to APTEL must be made within 30 days from the date of receipt
of a copy of the direction from the PNGRB by the aggrieved party. An appeal against APTEL's
decisions lies to the Supreme Court of India unless the decision was made with the consent of the
parties. An appeal to Supreme Court of India must be made within 90 days from the date of

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APTEL's decision. APTEL and the Supreme Court of India can entertain an appeal after expiry
of this period if they consider that there is sufficient cause for delay.

Rights to oil and gas

Ownership
How are rights to oil and gas held?
The rights to explore and produce oil and gas have been granted by the Indian government to
private contractors under the production sharing contract regime, which sets out the rights and
obligations of the parties. Under the new Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy, the
Indian government will enter into revenue sharing contracts (RSC) with private contractors.
Apart from nominated blocks, production sharing contracts (PSC) are awarded by the
government to successful private contractors under the NELP after an international competitive
bidding process. After the blocks are awarded, the contractors are issued with petroleum
exploration licences and petroleum mining licences under the Oilfields (Regulation and
Development) Act 1948 (read with PNG Rules). The duration of these exploration and mining
licences has the same term as the PSC or RSC (as the case may be).
Nature of oil and gas rights
What are the key features of the leases, licences or concessions which are issued under the
regulatory regime?
Lease/licence/concession terms
Under the model revenue sharing contact issued according to the Hydrocarbon Exploration and
Licensing Policy, an exploration period of eight years is provided for onshore (including coal bed
methane) and shallow water blocks, and a period of ten years is provided for forward area, deep
water area and ultra deep water blocks. In certain circumstances the period can be extended by
six months. Requests for extensions beyond six months will be decided by the Directorate
General of Hydrocarbons, based on the policy for extension of exploration phases set out by the
government.

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