Critical Thinking & Reflective Practices Col.

Javed Khan
(Week 1)
Unit 1: Introduction to Critical Thinking
1.1 Origins of critical approaches in social sciences
1.2 Critical theory in Education
DEFINING CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking is reflective reasoning about beliefs and actions.
It is a way of deciding whether a claim is always true, sometimes true, partly true, or false.
Critical thinking can be traced in Western thought to the Socratic Method of Ancient Greece.
Socrates was a Philosopher, born c. 470 BCE…c.399 BC, in Athens Greece.
The Socratic tradition in which probing questions were used to determine whether claims to
knowledge is based on authority and whether it could be rationally justified with clarity and logical
consistency.
‘The unexamined life is not worth living.’ Socrates
Socratic Questioning is disciplined questioning that can be used to pursue thought in many
directions and for many purposes; to explore complex ideas, to get to the truth of things to open up
issues and problems, to uncover assumptions, to analyze concepts, to distinguish what we know
from what we don't know, to follow out logical implications of thought or to control the discussion.
Socratic method is defined as "a prolonged series of questions and answers which refutes a moral
assertion by leading an opponent to draw a conclusion that contradicts his own viewpoint.
Socrates established the fact that one cannot depend upon those in "authority" to have sound
knowledge and insight.
He demonstrated that persons may have power and high position and yet be deeply confused and
irrational.
He established the importance of asking deep questions that probe deeply into thinking before we
accept ideas as worthy of belief.
He established the importance of seeking evidence, closely examining reasoning and assumptions,
analyzing basic concepts, and tracing out implications not only of what is said but of what is done as
well.
His method of questioning is now known as "Socratic Questioning" and is the best known critical
thinking teaching strategy.
In his mode of questioning, Socrates highlighted the need in thinking for clarity and logical
consistency.
Socrates set the agenda for the tradition of critical thinking, namely, to reflectively question
common beliefs and explanations.
Carefully distinguishing those beliefs that are reasonable and logical from those which — however
appealing they may be to our mind.
However much they serve our vested interests, however comfortable or comforting they may be —
lack adequate evidence or rational foundation to warrant our belief.
Socrates’ practice was followed by the critical thinking of Plato (who recorded Socrates’ thought),
Aristotle, and the Greek skeptics, all of whom emphasized that things are often very different from
what they appear to be and that only the trained mind is prepared to see through the way things
look to us on the surface (delusive appearances) to the way they really are beneath the surface (the
deeper realities of life).
A need emerged for anyone who aspired to understand the deeper realities, to think systematically,
to trace implications broadly and deeply, for only thinking that is comprehensive, well-reasoned,
and responsive to objections can take us beyond the surface.
Critical thinking is the analysis of facts to form a judgment.
The subject is complex and several different definitions exist, which generally include
the rational, skeptical, unbiased analysis, or evaluation of factual evidence.
Critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking.
It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use.
It entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities as well as a commitment to
overcome egocentrism and sociocentrism.
Importance of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is a term used by educators to describe forms of learning, thought, and analysis
that go beyond the memorization and recall of information and facts.
In common usage, critical thinking is an umbrella term that may be applied to many different forms
of learning acquisition or to a wide variety of thought processes.
In its most basic expression, critical thinking occurs when students are analyzing, evaluating,
interpreting, or synthesizing information and applying creative thought to form an argument, solve
a problem, or reach a conclusion.
Critical thinking involves intellectual skills for example:
Developing well-reasoned, persuasive arguments and evaluating and responding to
counterarguments
Examining concepts or situations from multiple perspectives, including different cultural
perspectives
Questioning evidence and assumptions to reach conclusions
Devising imaginative ways to solve complex problems,
Formulating and articulating thoughtful, penetrating questions
Identifying themes or patterns and making abstract connections across subjects
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by,
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.
In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter
divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth,
breadth, and fairness.
It requires the examination of structures of thought: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue;
assumptions; concepts; empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions; implications and
consequences; objections from alternative viewpoints; and frame of reference.
Critical thinking is interwoven in modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical
thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking, and
philosophical thinking.
Conceptualization of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest
level of quality in a fair-minded way.
People who think critically consistently attempt to live rationally, reasonably, empathically.
They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of human thinking when left unchecked.
They strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies.
They use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and principles that enable
them to analyze, assess, and improve thinking.
They work diligently to develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual
humility, intellectual civility, intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of justice and confidence in
reason.
They realize that no matter how skilled they are as thinkers, they can always improve their
reasoning abilities and they will at times fall prey to mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality,
prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted social rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested
interest.
They strive to improve the world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational,
civilized society. At the same time, they recognize the complexities often inherent in doing so.
They avoid thinking simplistically about complicated issues and strive to appropriately consider
the rights and needs of relevant others.
They recognize the complexities in developing as thinkers, and commit themselves to life-long
practice toward self-improvement.
They embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined life is not worth living , because they realize
that many unexamined lives together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world.
Why Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is that mode of thinking - about any subject, content, or problem - in which the
thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures
inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them.
Critical Thinking in education is one of the most powerful teaching approaches that can be used to
guide students in generating thoughtful questions, thus fostering their CT skills.
Critical Thinking approach stimulates students’ minds by continually probing into the subject with
thought- stimulating questions.
Through the use Critical Thinking of penetrating (thought-provoking) questions,
Critical Thinking helps students gain deeper insight and understanding through reasoning on which
to base thoughts.
The goal of critical thinking is to establish an additional level of thinking to our thinking, a powerful
inner voice of reason, to monitor and to assess our thinking, feeling, and action.
(Week 2)
Revision
Critical thinking...the awakening of the intellect to the study of itself.
Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the past 2,500 years.
The term "critical thinking" has its roots in the mid-late 20th century.
Critical thinking...the awakening of the intellect to the study of itself.
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by,
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.
It is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy,
precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness.
Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking at the highest level of quality in a fair-
minded way.
People who think critically consistently attempt to live rationally, reasonably, empathically.
They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of human thinking when left unchecked.
They strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies.
Critical thinking uses intellectual tools that offers – concepts and principles that enable them to
analyze, assess, and improve thinking.
They work to develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual humility,
intellectual civility, intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of justice and confidence in reason.
They realize that no matter how skilled they are as thinkers, they can always improve their
reasoning abilities and they will at times fall prey to mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality,
prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted social rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested
interest.
They strive to improve the world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational,
civilized society.
At the same time, they recognize the complexities often inherent in doing so. They avoid thinking
simplistically about complicated issues and strive to appropriately consider the rights and needs of
relevant others.
They recognize the complexities in developing as thinkers and commit themselves to life-long
practice toward self-improvement.
They embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined life is not worth living, because they realize
that many unexamined lives together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world.
Kinds of mental acts and mental events in critical thinking process.
i. Observing: Noticing something in one’s immediate environment
ii. Feeling: One feels puzzled or uncertain about something
iii. Wondering: One formulates a question to be addressed
iv. Imagining: Thinking of possible answers
v. Inferring: What would be the case if a possible answer were assumed
vi. Knowledge: Use of stored knowledge of the subject-matter
vii. Experimenting: designing and carrying out an experiment
viii. Consulting: Get information from source and makes judgment
xi. Identifying and analyzing arguments: Producing argument and works out structure and
content
x. Judging: Make a judgment on the basis of accumulated evidence and reasoning,
xi. Deciding: One makes a decision on what to do or on what policy to adopt
Importance of Critical Thinking in Teaching and Learning
Critical thinking is examining, questioning, evaluating, and challenging taken-for-granted
assumptions about issues and practices and critical action as action based on critical thinking.
By adopting this definition of critical thinking and applying their learning in education contexts,
students can:
become broad and adventurous thinkers
generate innovative solutions
use their reasoning skills to analyse and evaluate
plan and think strategically
Critical thinking enables students to:
Think about and evaluate their own thinking and behaviour on issues related to health education,
physical education, and home economics
Make reasonable and defensible decisions about issues related to individual and community well-
being
Challenge and take action (individually and collectively) to address social, cultural, economic, and
political inequalities
Understand the role and significance of the movement culture and its influence on our daily lives
and the lives of people in our community
In order to help their students to develop critical-thinking skills and to take critical action, teachers
need to:
1. Have a sound knowledge base from which to support students as they delve more deeply into
content
2. Remain open to challenge by students, not representing themselves as the sole source of
knowledge
3. Encourage students to look at the big picture by engaging them in critical-thinking processes that
have relevance beyond the classroom
4. Prepared to listen to voices that originate in the classroom and use students' personal
experiences for gathering information
5. Encourage students to question challenge beliefs and practices. In order to help their students to
develop critical-thinking skills and to take critical action, teachers need to:
6. Avoid offering 'how to do it' approaches
7. Encourage students to be sensitive to the feelings of others
8. Provide opportunities for inquiry by giving students time for planning, processing, and debriefing
9. Structure lessons so that students can work safely and co-operatively and develop creative forms
of shared responsibility
10. Encourage students to take critical action. When students learn to use democratic processes
inside the classroom, they can transfer these to situations outside the classroom
(Week 3)
i. Essential aspects of critical thinking
ii. Teacher as Critical thinker
DEFINING CRITICAL THINKING
Revision
Critical thinking is reason oriented, perceptive thinking process, open minded and strong justifiable
arguments.
Critical thinking respects other people's opinion.
It involves rational and insightful thinking centered or based on making a decision on what to
believe or act on.
It leads the thinker to be very broad minded and receptive to alternative ways of thought and also
very well informed.
It demands that the thinker examines credibility of information sources and does not accept things
at face value.
Critical thinking is an organised, logical thinking required to understand issues and solve problems.
Students are can improve their thinking skills if they are taught how to think.
Students need to be taught how to think more effectively, that is more critically,
coherently, and creatively.
Students have a natural ability to think critically, yet it is important for teachers to guide
them in order to refine their skills.
Critical thinking was first highlighted by Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy.
It was perceived that a higher level of cognitive ability involving critical thinking was a
feature in the analysis, synthesis, and evaluation levels while lower levels of cognitive ability
that is knowledge, comprehension, and application only involved remembering, relating and
applying information respectively.
Critical thinkers as those who are able to analyze and evaluate information.
Critical thinkers are those who are able to - Raise vital questions and problems, formulate them
clearly, gather and assess relevant information, use abstract ideas, think open-mindedly,
and communicate effectively with others.
Critical thinking is a complex process that requires higher levels of cognitive skills in the
processing of information.
The art of thinking about thinking.
Critical thinking focuses on deciding what to believe or do.
Critical thinking is a mode of thinking about any subject, content or problem in which the thinker
improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillful analyzing, assessing and reconstructing it.
Critical thinking is purposeful, self-regulatory, judgment which results in interpretation,
analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual,
methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based”.
Active, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in
the light of the grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends.
Critical thinking is the ability to apply reasoning and logic to new or unfamiliar ideas, opinions, and
situations.
Critical thinking prompts the thinker to identify conjectures, bases and inferences.
Critical thinking propagates the judging of the quality of an argument, including the credibility of its
reasons, substantiation and theory.
Armed with the power of critical thinking, a person can develop and justify a reasonable stand very
well, as it is backed by well planned experimentation and suitable premises.
When judging another person's stand, an adherent of critical thinking will ask relevant questions.
Critical thinking advocates context specific definitions and draws conclusions only when necessary
with great prudence, integrated by an adherent of critical thinking.
Critical thinking causes the thinkers to be concerned about the fact that what they believe is the
truth.
This is what makes critical thinking very flexible, as critical thinkers are open to other points of
view, hypotheses, descriptions, judgments and sources of information.
Critical thinkers sanction a stand only to the extent of their knowledge of it, and keep themselves
well informed.
Critical thinking encourages thinkers to seriously take into concern other opinions than their own..
Critical thinking also advocates the presentation of a stand truthfully and precisely - whether the
position is the thinker's or another person’s.
The wished for connotation of what is being held, written or communicated in any other way
should be as accurate as the circumstances demand according to the standards that critical thinking
sets.
The main focus of a critical thinking oriented argument is the question or conclusion at hand, and in
this process, reasons are sought as well as offered.
Critical thinking demands that the total situation should be considered, while thinkers should be
aware of their own fundamental values.
Critical thinking also promotes the value and self-respect of every individual, including the
dispositions to find out about other people's reasons and values.
Critical thinking prowess should never be used to patronize, coerce or confuse other people,
because critical thinkers must always take into account the other person's sentiments and
understanding of the world.
Critical thinkers must be considerate towards other people and care about their well being.
Critical thinking abilities include being able to focus on an issue, evaluate opinions, being able to
ask and challenge as well as offer clarification, being capable of judging the reliability of the source,
be able to monitor and also judge the reports of observation, infer as well as judge inference,
persuade and judge orientation as well as make and judge value conclusions.
Adherents of critical thinking are also able to attribute unspoken postulations.
Depending on this approach to problem-solving, there are three important characteristics of
Critical Thinking;
Quick Thinking − It is the quality that enables a few people to give quick and accurate answers in a
flawless manner when they face unexpected questions, while others might be caught mumbling and
fumbling over words.
This quality needs a lot of practice and depending on the amount of practice you put into thinking
fast under time-bound circumstances, your answers will be prompt and satisfactory.
Creative Thinking − Many problem-solvers can find out the solution to the problems by the
traditional method, however when they are faced with a unique problem, they tend to stop
functioning.
The reason behind this is they think this new situation is not their problem and they can save the
time needed to solve this new problem in completing more tasks of the kind they can handle.
On doing this, they restrict their thoughts and analytical skills which is extremely important to hone
creative thinking.
Analytical Thinking − Despite facing numerous problems and situations daily in our life, we don’t
receive any formal training on how to handle these situations using logical and scientific methods.
Analytical thinking involves defining the problem and generating a list of possible solutions for a
problem. After that, the best solution is determined of the entire list of problems.
Critical thinking teaches that open-mindedness is the most important requirement for learning, as
it helps people to step out of their comfort zone, and draw effective conclusions.
Critical thinking has many benefits, such as improving persuasion skills, enhancing communication
skills, and improving problem solving skills.
Critical Thinking helps us evolve our Emotional Intelligence.
Critical thinking requires a person change his approach to problem-solving by changing his
perspective while analyzing data.
Fundamental aspects of critical thinking
Critical thinking recognises various behaviours and dispositions that a critical thinker must
possess.
i. Abilities
Analysing arguments, claims or evidence
Judging or evaluating based on evidence
Making inferences using inductive or deductive reasoning
Making decisions and solving problems through reasoning.
Fundamental aspects of critical thinking
ii. Dispositions
Open-mindedness
Searcher of truth
Inquisition
Fair and balanced view of one’s work and that of others.
iii. Subject Matter
A well-informed educationist is always in a good position to
offer better insights on the subject matter from an informed
position.
It is important to emphasize that critical thinking and
analysis is not simply related to subject knowledge.
Teacher as Critical Thinker
i. Ask Questions
Asking questions, especially open-ended questions, gives elementary school students a chance to
apply what they’ve learned and build on prior knowledge.
It also allows them to problem-solve and think on their feet, and boosts self-esteem by providing an
opportunity for students to express themselves in front of their peers.
ii. Encourage Decision-making
Since a large part of teaching critical thinking skills revolves around applying knowledge and
evaluating solutions, elementary school teachers should encourage decision-making as much as
possible.
This enables students to apply what they’ve learned to different situations, weigh the pros and cons
of a variety of solutions, then decide which ideas work best.
iii. Work in Groups
Group projects and discussions are another excellent way for elementary school teachers to
encourage critical thinking skills.
Cooperative learning not only exposes students to the thought processes of their classmates, it
expands their thinking and worldview by demonstrating that there’s no one right way to approach
a problem.
iv. Incorporate Different Points of View
Some of the very best critical thinking exercises for elementary school students involve exploring a
concept from multiple perspectives.
This tactic not only establishes that an idea should be assessed from different points of view before
an opinion is formed, it gives students a chance to share their own viewpoints while listening to and
learning from others.
v. Connect Different Ideas
Connecting different ideas is key to teaching critical thinking.
For example, elementary school teachers can ask students if they know anyone who has to take a
bus to work, and if so, why it would be important for that person to also have a train schedule.
Questions like these help children consider different situations (delayed buses, for example) and
potential solutions (taking the train instead), helping them apply prior knowledge to new contexts.
vi. Inspire Creativity
Imagination is key to teaching critical thinking in elementary school.
Teachers should seek out new ways for students to use information to create something new. Art
projects are an excellent way to do this. Students can also construct inventions, write a story or
poem, create a game, sing a song—the sky’s the limit.
vii. Brainstorm
Brainstorming, a time-honored tradition in elementary education, is an excellent learning tool.
It’s also an excellent critical-thinking exercise, especially when paired with visual elements that
bring original thinking and classroom discussions to life.
(Week 4)
i. Teacher as Critical Thinker
ii. Self Assessment
Revision
Critical thinking is reason oriented, perceptive thinking process, open minded and strong justifiable
arguments.
It involves rational and insightful thinking centered or based on making a decision on what to
believe or act on.
It leads the thinker to be very broad minded and receptive to alternative ways of thought and also
very well informed.
It demands that the thinker examines credibility of information sources and does not accept things
at face value.
The main focus of a critical thinking oriented argument is the question or conclusion at hand, and in
this process, reasons are sought as well as offered.
Critical thinking demands that the total situation should be considered, while thinkers should be
aware of their own fundamental values.
Critical thinking abilities include being able to focus on an issue, evaluate opinions, being able to
ask and challenge as well as offer clarification, being capable of judging the reliability of the source,
be able to monitor and also judge the reports of observation, infer as well as judge inference,
persuade and judge orientation as well as make and judge value conclusions.
Adherents of critical thinking are also able to attribute unspoken postulations.
Fundamental aspects of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking recognises various behaviours and dispositions that a critical thinker must
possess.
i. Abilities
 Analysing arguments, claims or evidence
Judging or evaluating based on evidence
Making inferences using inductive or deductive reasoning
Making decisions and solving problems through reasoning.
Fundamental aspects of Critical Thinking
ii. Dispositions:
Open-mindedness
Searcher of truth
Inquisition
Fair and balanced view of one’s work and that of others.
iii. Subject matter
A well-informed educationist is always in a good position to offer better insights on the subject
matter from an informed position.
It is important to emphasize that critical thinking and analysis is not simply related to subject
knowledge.
Self-Assessment
Student self-assessment occurs when learners (students) assess their own performance and is
primarily used to help students develop specific learning skills that they will need for professional
competence.
This process assist students to be more aware of and more responsible for their own learning
process.
Skilled self-assessment is grading own performance.
Key Benefits of Student Self-Assessment
Helps to develop important meta-cognitive skills that contribute to a range of important graduate
capabilities.
All professionals must be able to evaluate their own performance, so this practice should be
embedded in higher education learning as early as possible.
Increases self-awareness through reflective practice, making the criteria for self-evaluation explicit,
and making performance improvement practices intrinsic to ongoing learning.
Contributes to the development of critical reviewing skills
Enabling the learner to more objectively evaluate their own performance and others.
Helps students to take control of their own learning and assessment and giving them the chance to
manage their own learning and development independently.
It enriches students learning.
Student self-assessment involves students in evaluating their own work and learning progress.
It is a valuable learning tool as a part of assessment process.
Through self-assessment, students can:
identify their own skill gaps, where their knowledge is weak
see where to focus their attention in learning
set realistic goals
revise their work
track their own progress
This process helps students stay involved and motivated and encourages self-reflection and
responsibility for their learning.
Set clear expectations for student performance.
Students need to be taught on assessment criteria and how to apply them in grading their work.
Students’ self-assessment can be a potent next step in actively promoting their own learning and
achievement.
The Importance of Student Self Assessment
The importance of students self assessment Clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning
intentions and criteria for success– getting the students to really understand what their classroom
experience will be and how their success will be measured.
Engineering effective classroom discussions, activities, and learning tasks that developing effective
classroom instructional strategies.
Providing feedback that moves learning forward.
It provides students to better understand problems and solutions.
Activating learners as instructional resources for one another– getting students involved with each
other in discussions and working groups can help improve student learning.
Activating learners as owners of their learning– self-regulation of learning leads to student
performance improvement.
Critical thinking achieves the best possible outcomes in any situation.
It involves gathering and evaluating information from different sources.
Critical thinking requires a clear assessment of your personal strengths, weaknesses and
preferences and their possible impact on decisions making.
Critical thinking requires the development and use of foresight.
Critical thinking must take into account an assessment of possible outcomes and ways of avoiding
potentially negative outcomes, or reducing their impact.
Critical thinking involves reviewing the results of the application of decisions made and
implementing change where possible.
Self-assessment is a universal process for improving learning skills.
Learning to learn is a metacognitive competency which increases in proportion to improvements in
reflection, self assessment, and mentoring.
Self-assessment “is an integral part of real-world project development.”
Students are not the only beneficiaries of self-assessment practices.
Faculty should also strive to become selfgrowers.
Selfgrowers have defining characteristics which include an enduring interest in assessment and
self-assessment in order to maximize performance in every aspect of life.
Every faculty member should have an annual professional self-growth plan.
(Week 5)
Critical Theory and Pedagogy
Politics of Education (Marginalization)
Revision
Critical thinking is reason oriented, perceptive thinking process, open minded and strong justifiable
arguments.
It involves rational and insightful thinking centered or based on making a decision on what to
believe or act on.
It leads the thinker to be very broad minded and receptive to alternative ways of thought and also
very well informed.
It demands that the thinker examines credibility of information sources and does not accept things
at face value.
Critical Theory and Pedagogy
Politics of Education (Marginalization)
Increasing political inclusion is the objective of modern education.
Democracy develop all segments of a society.
They are free to participate and influence political outcomes.
But in many new and emerging democracies, large portions of the population are excluded from
politics based on their ethnicity, religion, age, disability, gender or sexual orientation.
It rejects the idea that knowledge is politically neutral.
It argues that teaching is an inherently political act, whether the teacher acknowledges it or not.
They insist that issues of social justice and democracy are not distinct from acts of teaching and
learning.
The goal of critical pedagogy is liberation from oppression through an awakening of the critical
consciousness.
Critical consciousness encourages individuals to affect change in their world through social critique
and political action in order to achieve self-actualize.
What is critical pedagogy?
It is a prism that reflects the complexities between teaching and learning. It is a prism which sheds
light on the hidden subtleties that might have escaped our view previously.
The prism has a tendency to focus on shades of social, cultural, political, and even economic
conditions, and it does all of this under the broad view of history.
Why does critical pedagogy matter? Kids matter—that’s why. Our future matters—that’s why.
We, in education, are a mirror of society.
Critical pedagogy challenges our long-held assumptions and leads us to ask new questions, and the
questions we ask will determine the answers we get.
Critical pedagogy gives voice to the voiceless; gives power to the powerless.
Change is often difficult, and critical pedagogy is all about change from coercive to collaborative;
from transmission to transformative; from inert to catalytic; from passive to active.
Critical pedagogy leads us to advocacy and activism on behalf of those who are the most vulnerable
in classrooms and in society.
Such groups need voice in the political process to achieve a greater level of equality, understanding
that political participation is a fundamental means of addressing the social and economic inequities
associated with marginalization.
Marginalization can be understood as persistent inequality and adversity resulting from
discrimination, social stigma and stereotypes.
From inaccessibility to information unavailable in minority languages to discriminatory laws to a
lack of access to information, are barriers to entering the political process for those at the margins.
Marginalisation is a global problem that impacts negatively upon societies across the world.
Marginalised population face:
Social exclusion, arising from a lack of equal opportunities and barriers to learning and
participation;
Social injustice and inequality, seen through the lens of cultural and social capital; Critical
The quest for ‘inclusion for all’; specific groups perceived to be specially vulnerable to exclusion
and stigmatisation social and relational aspects of poverty and the need to give marginalised
groups a voice.
It is also perceived as ‘identity work’ and resistance; as expressed through ‘clauses of
conditionality’ in public policy; and as being contextually related (pertaining to the concepts of
relativity, agency and dynamics).
Marginalization in education is a form of acute and persistent disadvantage rooted in underlying
social inequalities.
It represents clear injustice.
Education is a basic human right.
It is also a an agent for change in poverty reduction, economic growth and social mobility.
Ensuring that all citizens receive a good quality education should be one of the central priorities of
all governments.
Most countries endorse the principle of equal opportunity in education.
At the heart of that principle is the idea that what children achieve should reflect their efforts and
their talents, not their social circumstances.
Deep and persistent inequalities based on wealth, gender, ethnicity, language, and location point to
marked disparities in life chances.
Millions of children are denied human right to education for the simple reason that their parents
cannot afford to keep them in school.
Social and cultural barriers to education form another formidable obstacle.
In many countries, the education of girls is widely perceived as being of less value than that of boys,
with traditional practices such as early marriage adding another layer of disadvantage.
Members of ethnic minorities often face obstacles to equal opportunity.
None of these disadvantages operates in isolation.
Poverty, gender, ethnicity and other characteristics interact to create overlapping and self-
reinforcing layers of disadvantage that limit opportunity and hamper social mobility.
The interaction between marginalization in education and wider patterns of marginalization
operates in both directions.
Being educated is a vital human capability that enables people to make choices in areas that matter.
The lack of an education restricts choices.
It limits the scope people have for influencing decisions that affect their lives.
People lacking literacy and numeracy skills face a heightened risk of poverty, insecure employment
and ill health.
Poverty and ill health, in turn, contribute to marginalization in education.
Marginalized have only a weak voice in shaping political decisions affecting their lives.
Reaching marginalized children requires political commitment backed by practical policies.
Marginalization in education is driven by social inequalities.
Being born into poverty is one of the strongest factors leading to marginalization in education.
Some 1,4 billion of the world’s people survive on less than US$ 1,25 a day.
Many are parents struggling to keep their children in school.
Child Labour is another corollary of poverty that hurts education. There are an estimated 166
million child labourers in the world.
Many of these children are locked in a losing battle to combine work with education.
With labour activities taking up an average of 37 hours a week, most of these children do not attend
school.
Language and ethnicity lead to marginalization in education through complex channels.
Poverty is an important part of the equation.
Stigmatization is a potent source of marginalization that children bring with them to the classroom.
From Aboriginals in Australia to the indigenous people of Latin America, failure to provide home
language instruction has often been part of a wider process of cultural subordination and social
discrimination.
Caste systems in South Asia also disadvantage many children.
Conflict is a potent source of marginalization in education.
Worldwide, around 14 million children aged five to 17 have been forcibly displaced by conflict,
often within countries or across borders, into education systems lacking the most basic education
facilities.
Less easy to measure than the impact on school attendance are the effects on learning of trauma
associated with armed conflict.
Reaching and teaching the marginalized
There is no single blueprint for overcoming marginalization in education.
Policies need to address underlying causes such as social inequality, gender disparities, ethnic and
linguistic disadvantages, and gaps between geographic areas.
In each of these areas, equalizing opportunity involves redressing unequal power relationships.
The inequalities that the marginalized face start in early childhood and continue through school age
years.
They are deeply engrained and highly resistant to change.
Yet progress is possible with sustained political commitment to social justice, equal opportunity
and basic rights.
Overcoming marginalization in education is an imperative for human rights and social justice.
It is also the key to accelerated progress towards the Education for All goals set at Dakar.
No government seriously committed to the goals can afford to ignore the deep social disparities
that are stalling progress in education.
Nor can it ignore the wider consequences of marginalization in education for social cohesion and
future prosperity.
There is an urgency of all countries to develop strategies for more inclusive education linked to
wider strategies for overcoming poverty, social discrimination and extreme inequality.
Overcoming marginalization must be at the heart of the Education for All agenda.
Education should be a driver of equal opportunity and social mobility, not a transmission
mechanism for social injustice.
(Week 6)
Unit 2: Critical Theory and Pedagogy
Social Class Theory and Education
Revision
Critical thinking is reason oriented, perceptive thinking process, open minded and strong justifiable
arguments.
It involves rational and insightful thinking centered or based on making a decision on what to
believe or act on.
It leads the thinker to be very broad minded and receptive to alternative ways of thought and also
very well informed.
It demands that the thinker examines credibility of information sources and does not accept things
at face value.
Why does critical pedagogy matter? Kids matter—that’s why. Our future matters—that’s why.
We, in education, are a mirror of society.
Critical pedagogy challenges our long-held assumptions and leads us to ask new questions, and the
questions we ask will determine the answers we get.
Critical pedagogy gives voice to the voiceless; gives power to the powerless.
Critical Theory and Pedagogy
Politics of Education (Marginalization)
Change is often difficult, and critical pedagogy is all about change from coercive to collaborative;
from transmission to transformative; from inert to catalytic; from passive to active.
Critical pedagogy leads us to advocacy and activism on behalf of those who are the most vulnerable
in classrooms and in society.
Marginalisation is a global problem that impacts negatively upon societies across the world.
Marginalised population face:
Social exclusion, arising from a lack of equal opportunities and barriers to learning and
participation;
Social injustice and inequality, seen through the lens of cultural and social capital;
Marginalization in education is a form of acute and persistent disadvantage rooted in underlying
social inequalities.
It represents clear injustice.
Education is a basic human right.
It is also a an agent for change in poverty reduction, economic growth and social mobility.
Ensuring that all citizens receive a good quality education should be one of the central priorities of
all governments.
Millions of children are denied human right to education for the simple reason that their parents
cannot afford to keep them in school.
Social and cultural barriers to education form another formidable obstacle.
In many countries, the education of girls is widely perceived as being of less value than that of boys,
with traditional practices such as early marriage adding another layer of disadvantage.
Members of ethnic minorities often face obstacles to equal opportunity.
None of these disadvantages operates in isolation.
Poverty, gender, ethnicity and other characteristics interact to create overlapping and self-
reinforcing layers of disadvantage that limit opportunity and hamper social mobility.
Poverty and ill health
Social inequalities.
Child Labour
Language and ethnicity
Poverty
Stigmatization
Conflict
The inequalities that the marginalized face start in early childhood and continue through school age
years.
They are deeply engrained and highly resistant to change.
Yet progress is possible with sustained political commitment to social justice, equal opportunity
and basic rights.
Nor can it ignore the wider consequences of marginalization in education for social cohesion and
future prosperity.
There is an urgency of all countries to develop strategies for more inclusive education linked to
wider strategies for overcoming poverty, social discrimination and extreme inequality.
Social Class Theory and Education
It explains and evaluates the impact of social class inequalities on education and its outcomes.
Sociologists see society as a stratification system that is based on factors such as; hierarchy of
power, privilege and wealth, which leads into social inequalities. Inequality is about who gets what,
how they get it and why they get it.
Social inequality is about class, gender and ethnicity, it is characterised by the presence of unequal
opportunities and rewards for different social groups.
There are two main views of social inequalities in education within sociology; the Functionalists
and the Marxists.
Karl Marx saw class divisions as the most important source of social conflict.
Class is one dimension of the social structure.
Social status, or "social honor," is another.
Both are significant contributors of social difference.
In order to fully understand stratification, we need to be familiar with a few general concepts:
(i) power
(ii) domination
(iii) communal and societal action
Power
It is defined as the ability of an actor to realize his will in a social action, even against the will of
other actors.
Power relates to the ability to command resources in a particular domain.
Economic power is the ability to control material resources: to direct production, to monopolize
accumulation, to dictate consumption.
Societal power includes economic power, social power, legal or political power, and so forth.
Although the control of these domains of resources usually go together, they represent different
mechanisms of power, and are conceptually distinct.
Domination
It is the exercise of authority.
Possession of power in a sphere results in dominance.
There are three ideal types of domination: charisma, tradition and rational-legal. Charismatic
domination rests on the character of the leader.
Through inspiration, force, communication and leadership, an individual may succeed in occupying
a central role in the planning and co-ordination of social action.
Charisma emerges in times of social crisis.
People lose confidence in existing forms of authority, and the charismatic leader takes advantage of
the crisis.
Because it is a personalized form of authority, it tends to be unstable.
It does not normally survive the death of the original leader, and it often abandons the leader while
he or she is alive.
For charismatic authority to be sustained.
Traditional authority is based on the belief in the legitimacy of well-established forms of power.
Tradition
Traditional authority is based on loyalty to the leadership.
Power is exercised by commands issued from the leader or leadership group.
Officials are obedient to that person or group, and the lines of authority are often unstated.
Traditional authority tends not to distinguish between public and private affairs.
Communal & Societal Action
A communal action is oriented on the basis of a shared belief of affiliation.
Actors believe that they belong together in some way.
Their action are co-ordinated by this sentiment.
Societal action is oriented to a rational adjustment of interests.
The motivation is not a sense of shared purpose, but rather, a recognition of shared interests.
The possession of property defines the main class difference.
The owners of property have a definite advantage, and in some cases a monopoly on, action in the
market of commodities and, especially, labor.
They have privileged access to the sources of wealth creation, by virtue of ownership and control of
the markets.
The subdivision among property owners based on the means of their wealth creation.
Entrepreneurs use wealth in commercial ventures.
Rentiers profit by interest on their property, through investments or rent of land.
Both forms of ownership yield advantages resulting from the ability to convert property to money.
The property-less class is defined by the kinds of services individual workers provide in the labor
market.
Workers are classified as skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled.
These distinctions are based on the value of different kinds of labor.
Different wages result in different qualities in terms of the standard of living.
Class interests do not lead to uniformity in social action.
Communal or societal action may develop from a common class situation in certain conditions.
(Week 7)
2.3 Race, Religion and Minority Issues in Education
Revision
Critical thinking is reason oriented, perceptive thinking process, open minded and strong justifiable
arguments.
It involves rational and insightful thinking centered or based on making a decision on what to
believe or act on.
It leads the thinker to be very broad minded and receptive to alternative ways of thought and also
very well informed.
It demands that the thinker examines credibility of information sources and does not accept things
at face value.
Why does critical pedagogy matter? Kids matter—that’s why. Our future matters—that’s why.
We, in education, are a mirror of society.
Critical pedagogy challenges our long-held assumptions and leads us to ask new questions, and the
questions we ask will determine the answers we get.
Critical pedagogy gives voice to the voiceless; gives power to the powerless.
Change is often difficult, and critical pedagogy is all about change from coercive to collaborative;
from transmission to transformative; from inert to catalytic; from passive to active.
Critical pedagogy leads us to advocacy and activism on behalf of those who are the most vulnerable
in classrooms and in society.
Race, Religion and Minority Issues in Education
Diversity in Society
Heterogenous elements
Diversity in Education
Race describes physical characteristics, and ethnicity, which encompasses cultural traditions such
as language and religion, play pivotal and socially significant roles in people's lives.
People embrace racial and ethnic diversity, developing tolerance and respect for human
differences, minority communities in the
People continue to suffer from inequality, injustice, and exclusion.
The adverse personal, political, economic, and psychological implications of this discrimination and
marginalization include societal rejection, fewer job and educational opportunities, lower-quality
medical and mental-health care, etc.
Minority group is a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are
singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment,
and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination.
The term minority connotes discrimination, and in its sociological use, the term subordinate
group can be used interchangeably with the term minority, while the term dominant group is often
substituted for the group that’s in the majority.
These definitions correlate to the concept that the dominant group is that which holds the most
power in a given society, while subordinate groups are those who lack power compared to the
dominant group.
Minority group as one that lacks power and is marginalized, often due to physical traits.
The right to education is described by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as
‘both a human right in itself and an indispensable means of realizing other human rights.’
It is a basic right guaranteed by a variety of international instruments, as set out further below.
The right to education should be accorded without distinction and should be accessible for all.
However, despite international obligations to make education readily accessible, minority groups
are not always afforded this right. Although they may attend school, classes may be in a language
they are unfamiliar with.
Curriculums may also exclude information about their history, tradition and language, thus failing
to protect their identity.
Children facing such problems may be unable to participate fully due to linguistic problems and
may face potential expulsion either for lack of participation or failure to attend classes in which
they feel unable to contribute.
In addition, there may be physical restrictions to education due to a lack of accessibility.
Children from minority groups may have to travel large distances to attend school and this can be
both time consuming and expensive, and/or the costs of school uniforms and textbooks can be
prohibitive.
Failure to address these problems also prevents access to education.
The inclusion of minority groups in the decision-making process would allow for education
authorities to better understand the needs of these groups and to adjust the curriculum
appropriately.
(Week 8)
Roots of Critical Pedagogy
Critical Pedagogy is a progressive teaching philosophy that challenges students to examine power
structures and patterns of inequality within the status quo.
By questioning authority, students can take control of their own learning and critically evaluate the
opinions they have been taught to have.
Critical pedagogy takes a sociological conflict perspective in examining power structures.
Conflict Theory is a perspective in sociology that criticizes imbalances of power and income as a
source of conflict within society.
By teaching from this radical perspective, instructors can encourage their students to think
critically about the way things are and who benefits from oppression.
The concept of critical pedagogy is traced back to Paulo Freire’s 1968 work, The Pedagogy of the
Oppressed.
Freire, at the Federal University of Pernambuco in Brazil, sought to develop a philosophy of adult
education that demonstrated a solidarity with the poor in their common struggle to survive by
engaging them in a dialog of greater awareness and analysis.
Although his family had suffered loss and hunger during the Great Depression.
His intimate discovery of class and their borders led to rejection of a class-based society".
The influential works of Freire made him the most celebrated critical educator.
He seldom used the term "critical pedagogy" himself when describing this philosophy.
His initial focus targeted adult literacy projects in Brazil and later was adapted to deal with a wide
range of social and educational issues.
Freire's pedagogy revolved around an anti-authoritarian and interactive approach aimed to
examine issues of relational power for students and workers.
The center of the curriculum used the fundamental goal based on social and political critiques of
everyday life.
Freire's praxis required implementation of a range of educational practices and processes with the
goal of creating not only a better learning environment but also a better world.
Freire himself maintained that this was not merely an educational technique but a way of living in
our educative practice
Freire endorses students' ability to think critically about their education situation; this method of
thinking is thought by practitioners of critical pedagogy to allow them to "recognize connections
between their individual problems and experiences and the social contexts in which they are
embedded".
Realizing one's consciousness is then a needed first step of "praxis", which is defined as the power
and know-how to take action against oppression while stressing the importance of liberating
education.
"Praxis involves engaging in a cycle of theory, application, evaluation, reflection, and then back to
theory. Social transformation is the product of praxis at the collective level."
Critical pedagogy explores the dialogic relationships between teaching and learning. Its proponents
claim that it is a continuous process of what they call "unlearning", "learning", and "relearning",
"reflection", "evaluation", and the effect that these actions have on the students, in particular
students whom they believe have been historically and continue to be disenfranchised by what they
call "traditional schooling".
The educational philosophy has since been developed by Henry Giroux and others since the 1980s
as a praxis-oriented "educational movement, guided by passion and principle, to help students
develop a consciousness of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect knowledge to
power and the ability to take constructive action".
Freire wrote the introduction to his 1988 work, Teachers as Intellectuals: Toward a Critical
Pedagogy of Learning.
Another leading critical pedagogy theorist who Freire called his "intellectual cousin", Peter
McLaren, wrote the foreword.
McLaren and Giroux co-edited a book on critical pedagogy and co-authored another in the 1990s.
Among its other leading figures in no particular order are Gloria Jean, Joe Kincheloe, Patti Lather,
Antonia Darder, Gloria Ladson-Billings, Peter McLaren, Joe Kincheloe, Howard Zinn, Donaldo
Macedo, Sandy Grande, Michael Apple, and Stephanie Ledesma.
Educationalists including Jonathan Kozol and Parker Palmer are sometimes included in this
category.
Other critical pedagogues known more for their Anti-schooling, unschooling, or deschooling
perspectives include Ivan Illich, John Holt, Ira Shor, John Taylor, and Matt Hern.
Critical Pedagogy has several other strands and foundations.
Postmodern, anti-racist, feminist, postcolonial, and queer theories all play a role in further
expanding and enriching Freire's original ideas about a critical pedagogy, shifting its main focus on
social class to include issues pertaining to religion, military identification, race, gender, sexuality,
nationality, ethnicity, and age.
Much of the work is drawn from Wilhelm Reich, Edward Said, Antonio Gramsci, Gilles Deleuze and
Michel Foucault. Many contemporary critical pedagogues have embraced
Role of the Instructor
The role of the instructor begins as a facilitator or guide.
The instructor will help the learner to develop and grow as a person, but the main expectation is
that the learner is primarily responsible for their own learning.
While many of the proponents of the Humanistic Learning theory feel that the learner will ideally
be self-directed, I feel that an environment using a directed style wouldn’t prevent the learner from
achieving the same growth.
Self-actualization is generally accepted as the motivating force that drives people to realize their
full potential, to be a better person and be a contributing member of society, to seek knowledge and
enlightenment, etc. “For Maslow self- Humanist Learning Theory 5 actualization is the goal of
learning, and educators should strive to bring this about”.
When the instructor is acting as a guide, the learner has greater control over his/her learning and
carries a greater responsibility for their own success.
That type of learning may work well for students with high motivation, high interest levels, and the
ability to self-direct/self-actualize, but some students may require a more directed learning style.
These students my need the structure of a ready-designed, lock-step type of program.
So despite the generally accepted concept of the role of the instructor as a guide or facilitator, the
situation or the individual may dictate a more formalized environment.
Additionally, some adult learners may find the directed approach more comfortable due to
traditional expectations about the learning process.