Channel development; channel widening; valley shape; stream terraces; alluvial flood plains; deltas

and alluvial fans; channel morphology; channel patterns and the river basin; geology and
geomorphology of Bangladesh;

STREAM SYSTEM
The stream in a drainage system or basin can be assigned as orders. It is a measurement of the
positions of the streams in the hierarchy of tributaries. There are several methods to co-relate
between stream orders, various drainage basin, geometric & hydrological parameters.

Methods of ordering:

i) Horton’s Method
ii) Strahler’s Method
iii) Consistent Method

State the fundamental criteria to satisfy the Horton’s method.

1. The first order is those which have no tributaries.

2. The second order streams receive discharge or how forms 1st order streams only.
3. Each 2nd order stream is considered to extent headword to the tip of the longest tributaries,
when it drains.
4. The 3rd order streams receive only 1st& 2nd order streams.

For example:

Determination of different orders of floor patterns

a) 1st order stream= 16

 b) 2nd order stream=5
c) 3rd order stream=4
d) 4th order stream=1
e) 5th order stream=1

Constant of channel maintenance:

a) Drainage Density: It is the ratio between the cumulative length of all the streams in a
drainage basin and the total drainage area of the basin.
i.e.; Drainage Density= sum of length, L
Total drainage Area, A
b) Stream Frequency: It is the number of stream in the drainage basin divided by the area of
the drainage basin.

∑𝑁 1𝑠𝑡 + 2𝑛𝑑
= =
∑𝐴𝑑 ∑𝐴𝑑

c) Bifurcation Ratio: The ratio between the number of streams in one order to the number of
streams to the next highest order.
BR= 1st = 2nd
2nd 3rd
d) Length Ratio: The ratio between the mean lengths of stream of one order to that of the
previous lower order.
LR= 2nd=3rd
1st 2nd
e) Form Factor (F.F.): Average width of the basin = B
Axial length of the basin L
f) Compactness Co-efficient (C.C.):
= Perimeter of the basin
Circumference of circle
whose area is equal to the
area of the basin.

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

= = 𝐴 =
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋∗√ 2∗√𝜋𝐴
𝜋
Problem: A drainage area (33012 sq. Miles) of a rectangular shape is given in the figure. The drainage
network as shown receives water from this area. The length of 1st,2nd,3rd,4th and 5th order streams
are 53 miles,24.8 miles,70.2 miles,200.5 miles and 525.4 miles respectively.

Determine: i) No. Of streams in different orders.

ii) Average Bifurcation Ratio

iii) Average Length Ratio

IV) Drainage Density

V) Stream frequency

VI) Length of the overland flow

vii) Form factor & Compactness Co-efficient if the axial length of the drainage
basin.

Soln.: 1) 1st order=16, 2nd order=5...

1) Average Bifurcation Ratio= ¼ (1st/2nd +2nd/3rd+....)

= ¼ (16/5 + 5/4 + 4/1 + 1/1)

= 2.362

2) Average length ratio = ¼ ( 24.8/53 + 70.2/24.8 + 200.5/70.2 + 525.4/200.5 )

= 2.191
3) Drainage Density =

53*16 + 24.8*5 + 70.2*4 + 200.5*1 + 525.4*1

33012

= 0.0599 mile/ sq. mile

4) Stream Frequency = 16+5+4+1+1 = 8.178*10^-4

33012
5) Length of overland flow = ½ * 1/drainage density

= ½ * 1/0.0599

= 8.34 mile

6) Form Factor = B/L = 148.35/222.53 = 0.667

A*d = 33012 miles
- B*L = 33012
- B= A/L = 148.35 miles.
 7) C.C. = perimeter/ area = 1.15

• Define Runoff. State the factors that affected the runoff.

Runoff: Runoff may be defined as that position of the precipitation/rainfall/rainwater which goes
to lakes, rivers or oceans etc. through surface or subsurface flow or direct precipitation.

Surface Runoff: When rainfall occurs a portion of rainfall infiltrate into the ground and some
portion may evaporate. The rest flows as a thin sheet of water over the ground/land surface to
a channel is termed as surface runoff.

Subsurface flow/runoff: some portion of the water which infiltrates into the soil may move
laterally through the upper soil layer until it enters a stream channel or flow path .This water
called enters flow or subsurface runoff.

Ground water flow: self

Factors:

- Precipitation characteristics
- Meteorological characteristics ( Temp, Humidity, Wind speed,Pressure variation)
- Basin characteristics
- Storage characteristics
• State the basic difference between Horton’s method strahlaer’s method.
• Define fluvial geomorphology. State the key contributions of fluvial geomorphology can
make to the Eng. profession to regard of river & flood plain management.

• Define Eng. Geomorphology. State the role of geomorphology in the field of civil Eng.

River end is coming under increasing the public scruting given failures to prevent/protest the flood
damage, flood hazards and any environmental concerns.

Key contributions are 4 main concepts based on-

 1. To promote recognition of lateral, vertical and downstream connectivity’s in the fluvial
stream and inter relationships between river plain form, profile & cross-section.
2. To stress the importance of understanding about fluvial history & chronology over a range of
time scales.
3.
4.

CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY
Channel Morphology refers to the shape or physical features or structures of a stream or river
channel. Channel morphology is often measured in terms of width, depth&sinuosity (degree of
straightness & meandering)

*Classify different types of rivers.

* Discuss the three stages of a river.

1. Youth or upper course: The youth river are small in size such as , i) they flow quickly downsteerp
slopes or gradient ,ii) Fast flowing rivers erode the land over which they flow,iii) Soft rock more easily
eroded than hard rock.

2. Maturity or middle course:

Maturity stage:

By the time, the river has reached the mature stage will have receives water of many tributaries. So,
the river will have increased in size.

• How rivers transport materials?

Problems on Bed load estimation:

Soln.:

Given that,

Manning co-efficient in slope bed, n= 0.02

 Depth of water, D= 3m

Slope of channel, s= 1 in 5000 = 1/5000

Mean die of bed materials, d= 0.35 mm

Sp. Weight of water, = 1 ton/m^3

Sp. Weight of sediment particle, & = 2.65 ton/m^3

So, qs = Rate of transport per unit wide of the channel in ton/m3 = ?

According to meler peter eqn,

Manning co-efficient of plane bed,

n’= (ks)1/6 /24 Ks=Effective dia

= (D65)1/6 /24 = D65 in meter

=(0.55*10-3)1/6/24 = 0.55*10-3 m

=0.11

According to meler peter eqn,

&s/& *(n’/n)3/2* w*s*D= 0.047*d*(&-w)+.25*(w/&)1/3*(qs)2/3

- qs2/3 = 1862.93*10-6

so, qs = 0.000080407 ton/m/sec

= 0.000080407 * 60*60*24 ton/m/day

= 9.947 ton/m/day

In 60 meters wide, qs = 6.947* 60 = 416.83 ton/m/day

** If in a stream the impact or hydraulic force of water that strikes a grain is proportional to the
exposed cross section of the grain & to the square of the velocity of the water, then prove that ·

D∞V2, where D= diameter of grain, v = velocity of the water in stream.

Soln.:

F= Impact or hydraulic force

F is proportional to A and F is proportional to V2

So, F & Av2

F = C1Av2 = C1𝞹r2 v2

=C2 * r2 v2 ----------- ①②③③④⑤ [C2 = 𝞹C1]

Again, submerged wt. Of grain, submerged unit wt.* voln

=(γs – γw)* 4\3*𝞹r3 tonne

γs→ Dry unit wt , γw= unit wt in water

Frictional force, R ∞ N

→ R= Nf ---------------②
CHANNEL PATTERNS & RIVER BASIN

• Discuss the different types of channel/ stream pattern with neat sketches.
Channel Pattern:
Wind, ice and water act on the land surfaces to create the several types of drainage in nature.
The particular design of drainage pattern is function of several factors such as slop, underlying
soils, and the characteristics of rock deposit. The resulting stream run in all directions and the
developed pattern called as channel or stream pattern.
 a) Dendritic or Treelike system
b) Trellis system
c) Radial system
d) Multi-basin system
e) Braided stream/system
f) Meander
• Trellis system: When the underlying rock is strongly folded as sharply dipping, then trellis
pattern is form.
• Radial System: The drainage from Dome Mountains and volcanoes radiate to the outward
from a central focus, then the flow pattern referred as radial system.
• Multi-Basin System: It is occurred in low gradient swampy areas with numerous surface
depression.

# What do you mean by meander? How it’s occur? Explain its development pattern.

Meander
The symmetrical S-shape bends, which are found in the course of a river are called meander. They are
formed by the deposition of the sediment along the slip-off side and erosion along the undercut side.
The result is a snaking pattern as the stream meanders.

Causes
During floods the river carries the tremendous amount of silt charge. When the silt charge is in excess
of the quantity required for the stabilities, the river starts build up its slope by depositing the silt charge
on its bed/bank. The increase in river slope tends to increase of width of the river. Then the bank
attached by water and one bank is likely to be attached slightly than the other and causing the deviation
of flow. This slight deviation forms uniform flow, helps in moving.

State the characteristics of a stream meander?

Low velocity

• Flow deviation
• One bank is eroded

Factors to be considered for the development of a stream pattern

1. Constructional landscape (Landform) - It is the result of volcanisms, folding, faulting which
form such features as mountain.
2. Destructional landscape- It is the result of the action of weather, streams, glaciers, wind, waves
etc. The main features of destructional landforms area) Erosional features (valley) b)Residual
features (mountain) c) Depositional features (Delta, Flood plain, alluvial pan)
3. Climate
4. Wind
5. Human activities

Define mean geometry? Discuss different types of meander geometry?

The technical description of a meandering water course is termed as meander geometry. The
dimensions of a meander are related to the square root of water discharge (Q)

(Meander wave length) =K1*Qk

Am (Meander amplitude) = K2*Q1/2

Wc(Meander width) = K3*Q1/2

Meander Amplitude (Am)

The maximum distance from the down valley axis to the sinuous axis of a loop is the meander
amplitude. The course at that point is the apex.
Meander length or Wave length
The meander is two consecutive loops pointing in opposite transverse direction. The distance of one
meander along the down valley axis is the meander wave length.

Meander width or belt

The loop at the apex such as outer or convex bank and an inner or concave bank. The meander belt is
defined by an average meander width measured from outer bank to outer bank.

Meander ratio
It is nothing, but may be as the ratio of width of meander to the length of meander

Degree of sinuosity

It is the ratio of the curved length of the river to the straight length of a meander.

Development of meander with neat sketch

1. Initial straight channel

2. First phase of meander development
3. Further development of Meander
4. Full development of meander
5. Meander with OX bow lake and cut off channel

Explain OX Bow Lake

During the growth of a meander, the sharpness of the river bends increases progressively and the
neck of the meander becomes narrow and narrow. Finally a stage cause when the river cuts through
the neck and starts flowing straight, leaving its previous round-about-course(Abandoned).Such left
out old course remain filled with stagnant water are called OX bow lake.

What do you mean by cut off and artificial cut off?

Cut off: In an excessively meandering water river, a particular bend may sometimes be abandoned
by the formation of a straight or a shorter channel. The chord channel itself is termed as cut off
channel. Thus a cut off reduces the river length.

Effects of cut off

• Shorten the river length

• Increase the velocity
• The river after a cut off will flatter its gradient.

Whatdoyoumeanbycompetenceand capacity of a river?

Competence: The largest particles that a river/stream can move are defined as competence

Capacity: The total load that a stream is capable of transporting at any given time.

• Amount of water in the stream

• Velocity of flow/discharge

Features of river deposition

1. Flood plains: During floods the river overflow its bank thereby submerging the adjacent areas
where deposition of alluvial material takes place. The alluvial plains formed in this way are
called flood plains and also called alluvial plain.
2. Natural levees: When the flow of Water increases in a river during flood season, the water
level will first till by river channel up to its top and then cause flooding in the adjoining valley.
Due to the sudden spread of water, the flow velocity is reduced, causing accumulate, forms
low ridges along the both sides of the river channel which tends to confine the flow of river
flow into its channel. These ridges are called levees or natural levees. It is different from man-
made levees that built up for flood protection and they slurve as a bank of the river channel.
3. Delta

Define Delta. Discuss its development case.

A delta is a body of sediment deposited by a river at the point where it joins a lake or sea. The deltas
are triangular in shape with their apex point is upstream. When a river enters a body of standing water
such as lake or sea, its flow velocity get considerably reduced. This reduction in velocity results in
sitting of the river. Sediment, which gets deposited near the seashore line. This alluvial deposition
chokes the mouth of the stream and divides it’s into two branches, thus forming a feature denoted by
Greek letter and known as delta.

Final Development of Delta

When these branches or tributaries are also chokes they may be subdivided into the brunches. Hence
the delta of a river is indicative of its bifurcation into a number of stream near its outfall point into
the sea. A river delta play an important role for the useful of growing crops & vegetation as
economical role of the country.

Geological work performed by a river

1. Erosion- River erosion is a gradual erosion of rock materials from the river bed & its bank.
2. Load transmission (suspended, dissolved, bed load)
3. Deposition: It depends on velocity.

Agents of erosion (Hydraulic action, solution, attrition, abrasion)

Discuss different types of load

1. Suspended load; Particles that are carried along with the water of a stream. Sediments moves
in a variety of ways, depending on a balance between the upward velocity and the settling
velocity on the particle in the bed. If upward velocity is greater than settling velocity then
suspended load will transform.
2. Dissolved load: This load is invisible because the irons are dissolved in the water.
3. Bed load : As there will always be a large range of different particle size in the flow of water
in a stream some will have sufficiently large diameter that they settled on the river bed , but
still moves D/S
• Saltation may be occur as jumping, rolling & sliding

Problem:
A river channel of 60M wide & 30M deep with slope 1 in 5000. The bed materials size D65 is 0.55mm
with the mean dia is 0.35mm. The value of n=0.02. Find the value of load.

Factors influencing the formation of Delta:

1. Depth of water in the estuary/river/water bodies
2. Amount of sediment present in the estuary/river/water bodies
3. Current present in the estuary/river/water bodies
 4. Tidal effect of the estuary/river/water bodies

Short notes on waterfalls:

The falling of river water from a height is called waterfall. It is formed where gently inclined rock
beds of unequal hardness are met with. The soft rock is eroded fast, while the harder one offers
resistance and forms a ledge (edge) at a height from which the river water falls down deep into the
gorge (river valleys which developed in soft rock)

Define steam Terries. Sate its formation pattern.

a) An uplift caused the river down cut forming v-shaped valley
b) Further erosion wider the new valley but leaving certain uneroded benches called terraces,
this represents transitional stage of erosion
c) Finally the erosion removes all the terraces , developing a new unterraced section

Stream Terraces:Terraces are the remnants of the old valley floors, found on the present floor of
a valley. These are characterized by bench of platform running parallel to the river to some
considerable distance.

One or several of this terraces may be present and forms bench on one side or both sides of the river
valley. These terraces represent a transitional stage of river erosion and they will ultimately be
washed away by river erosion.

During this process of erosion the nearby valley sides will be first eroded leaving terraces on one or
both sides where the hard strata has encountered. In the final phase of the erosion process terraces
will be eroded away completely.

Interaction of floodplains with society:

1. Flood plains land may be used as a cultivated land
2. Different types of building are constructed which is highly susceptible to flooding
3. Flat land is easier to develop then hilly land
4. River represents the cheap sources of transportation

Define stream. State the importance of stream study.

Stream is a body of water that carries rock particles and dissolved ions and flow in down slope.

Importance:

1. Stream carries most of water that goes from the land to sea thus are an important part of
hydrologic or water cycle
2. Stream carry billions of tons of sediments thus one of the main transporting media in the
production of sediments
 3. Stream carries dissolved ions these make sea water salt
4. Stream are major source of water and transportation of sediments for the worlds human

Write short note on alluvial fan & alluvial cones with neat sketch. Discuss the
formation of alluvial fan.

The alluvial material which flows downs from mountains accumulate at foot hill where the river enters
a plain country. The deposition occurs due to abrupt change of slope and velocity of water. Such
deposition spread out in the shape of fans that referred as alluvial fans. Such deposited features called
alluvial fan when the slope with horizontal is about <10’ while the slope is >10’ is called as alluvial
cones

Geology of Bangladesh

Short note on geology of Bangladesh:Bangladesh is a part of Bengal basin at the lower reaches
of the three mighty river such as the Ganga the meghna and the Brahmaputra and their associated
tributaries. Bangladesh may be called the delta of these river system.

Geologically the whole of Bangladesh may be divided into five zones which are as follows:

1. North-western region or gangestic plain: Rajshahi division

2. North-Eastern region or surma valley: entire Sylhet district and north-eastern part of
Mymensingh district.
3. Central and Eastern region : Dhaka district, south-eastern part of Mymensingh district, Tangail
district, and western part of cumilla district
4. South-western region : Khulna division and faridpur district
5. South-eastern region : Chittagong division

Geographical map of Bangladesh

Or

Explain divide Bangladesh with geologically

1. North-western region or gangetic plain: The stretches down below the fool hill of the
Himalayas to the Padma on the south. The entire area consist of pleistoune terrace sediments.
 2. North-Eastern part of surma valley: This area is bounded on almost its three sides by hills
composed of limestone and sand stone of past origin and hill rocks who’s composed of sandy
clay. The eastern portion has a large subsidence known as Sylhet jeels
3. Central and eastern region : This includes the deltas of the ganges and the Brahmaputra, which
covers the entire madhupur jeels and the mymensingh district. The madhupur jeels/jungle
covers of an area of 1585 sq. Miles.

❖ Define geology map and classify its different types:

Geology Map: It displays the arrangement of geologic surface and subsurface features by means of
signs and symbols and with an indicated means of orientation of a particular area. These features
including the types of rocks, rocks bed, faults, minerals and ground-water.

From studying a geological map the user can understand the possible danger of floods, earthquakes
and also helps to locate the important deposits of energy resources such as water, oil, natural gas
and minerals.

Through the use of letter, colours, lines and symbols, geological map helps the user to gain a better
understanding of earth formation.

Types:
1) Surficial map
2) Out Crop map
3) Areal map
4) Structural map
Surficial map shows the character and distribution of various types of surficial materials in terms
Engg. soils, Engg. soil maps are really form of surficial geological map.
Out crop map represents the area where only the rock materials are exposed.

Areal map shows the plane view of the geological features of a particular area. It shows both surface

Features and the features of the beneath of soil as well as vegetation curves.

Structural map: Many areal maps include the structural symbols such as rock beds, fold, fault, strike,

and dip.

Note:

Rock bed: Mass of rock that extends under a large area.

Fold: A fold is a bend in geological unit or layer that forms due to change of pressure.

Fault: A fault is a crack in a geological unit or layer that forms due to change of pressure.

Axis of fold with horizontal -

Axis of fold with Inclined –

Fault - or
 Write down the element of geological map. State the fundamental postulates of
geological mapping?
Elements: Geological map use colour to represent the various types of geological features or units.
This units are indicated by colours that can range from yellow and reds to purples and browns. Not
only are geological units assigned by colour but also a set of letters

The capital letter represents the age of the units and the lower cased letters indicate the geological
unit’s name.

Postulates:

i. The law of superposition

ii. The law of original horizontality
iii. The law of original continuity
iv. The law of truncation by erosion and dictation

v. The south eastern portion:This portion of the country is surrounded by a succession of low
ranges of hills that composed of sand, stones and clay that is the geological post origin.

The entire south western portion up to Teknaf is formed of sand.

 What are the important aspects which should be represented by a good geological map? Why
it should be necessary for a civil engineer to know about reading a geological map accurately?
Or state the importance of geological map.
Aspect: The geological map should be able to speak about the following four aspects:

1) About the topography of the area

2) About the general geology of the area
3) About the geological structures
4) About the geological succession
Such a geological map giving all the information about the four aspects as stated above, so it
sometimes referred as the topographical – geological map or contoured geological map.

2nd Part: The knowledge of geological mapping is absolutely necessary for civil engineers and general
geologist for the following reason:

1) Although, civil engineers will be rarely engaged to prepare a geological map themselves, but
they must be able to read from the map based on its important aspects.
2) As engineer should be able to construct any geological section in any desired directions, and
also to determine the structural data, quantitative and lithological features from a geological
map.
 3) Such data to be re-used for proper planning and designing of engineering projects like
tunnelling, Water Supply and Sanitors Schemes, bridge and damp foundation.

 Write down the uses of geological map

Uses:
1. From the topographic geologic relationship, the area distribution patterns, structural data,
sequence of strata, thickness of rock beds can be quantitively and quantitively worked out.
2. From well-constructed and accurate geological map certain structural defects such as fold
and fault can be detected which may diverse application are found in engineering practice.
3. Geological map are according more useful than the general map.

Channel Patterns and Features of River Deposition

Defines stream pattern

Wind, ice, and water act on land surfaces to create several types of drainage patterns seen in nature.
The particular design that results is a function of several factors including slope, underlying soil and
rock properties, and the histories of hydraulic action and sediment transport. The resulting streams
run in all directions that referred as Stream pattern.

Following factors to be considered for the development of stream patterns

The development of a drainage pattern depends on many factors. The flowing factors to be
considered for the development: of stream pattern such as:

1. Constructional landscape:
Constructional landscapes are the result of volcanism, folding, faulting and other factors
which form such features as maintains and plains.

2. Destruction landscape:
Destruction landscape forms result from the action of weather, streams, glaciers, wind,
waves, and organisms. Features resulting from the action of streams can be separated into
three classes:
▪ Erosional features such as valley and canyons,
▪ Residual features such as mountains and divides and
▪ Depositional features such as deltas, alluvial fans and flood plains.
3. Climate:

Climate cannot be ignored for the development of stream pattern, because different
drainage systems occurred in aid and humid climates. Development is slow in an arid climate,
since the most important changes take place during floods.

4. Wind:
 Wind may become a very important geophysical agent in and climates, where there is little
vegetation to protect the dry soil. The type of basic soil and rock material and its distribution
within the earth’s crust also determine the nature and rate of landscape development.

5. Human Activities:

The works of man cannot be ignored as factors in the development of river systems. The
construction of darns and levee’s, deforestation and reforestation, cultivation and rainy
other activities of man now act to affect the present and future development of river
systems.

Discuss the different stream pattern with neat sketches

The stream shows its pattern in all directions like as tree having large length of tributaries, known as
dendritic, or treelike as shown in Figure 1.

When the underlying rock is strongly folded or sharply dipping, a trellis drainage patter develops.
The drainage from Dome Mountains and volcanoes usually radiates outward from a central focus,
and the pattern is described as radial.

Multi-basin patterns also called deranged system, occur in low gradient swampy areas with
numerous surface depressions and normally have only a few tributaries.

Braided channels with multiple flow paths that are constantly dividing and rejoining among
vegetated island or unvegetated stream bars. Braided channels have highly eroded banks and the
channel may constantly shift from one side of the valley to another. In contrast to braided channels,
meandering channels have a single, sinuous (winding) flow path with a series of meander bends. As
water flows through each bond it moves faster along the outside of the bend and slower along the
inside.
Define meander geometry

The technical description of a meandering watercourse is termed meander geometry. It is

characterized as an irregular waveform. The waveform depends ultimately on the characteristics of
the flow. The dimensions of a meander are related to the secure root of water discharged, Q:

λ=k1Q0.5

Am= k2 Q0.5

We= k3 Q0.5

Where λ is meander wavelength, Am is meander amplitude, we is the channel width and k1 are
coefficients whose value varies with location.

Various mathematical formula relates the variable of the meander geometry. In general, the
meander length is 10-14 times, with an average 11 times of the channel width while, the channel
width is an average of 4.7 times, the radius of curvature at the apex.

Discuss the different types of meander geometry with neat sketches

Meander loop

At any cross-section the stream is following the sinuous axis, the centerline of the bed. Two
consecutive crossing points of sinuous and down-valley axes define a meander loop.

Meander length or wavelength

The meander is two consecutive loops pointing in opposite transverse directions. The distance
of one meander along the down-valley axis is the meander length of wavelength.
Meander amplitude:

The maximum distance from the drown-valley axis to the sinuous axis of a loop is the meander
amplitude. The course at that point is the apex.

Meander belt or width:

A loop at the apex has an outer or convex bank and inner or concave bank. The meander belt is
defined by an average meander width measured from outer bank to outer bank.

Discuss the fundamental theory that governs for the development of meander

The following theory to be considered for the formation of meander such as:

Stochastic theory:
The stochastic theory can take many forms and meander train is assumed it be the result of the
stochastic fluctuation of the direction of flow due to the random presence of direction changing
obstacles in the river path.

Given a flat, smooth, tilted artificial surface, rainfall runs off it in sheets, but even in that case
adhesion of water to the surface and cohesion of drops produce rivulets at random. Natural surfaces
are rough and erodable to different degrees. The result of all physical factors acting at random is
channels that are not straight, which then progressively become sinuous.

Equilibrium theory:
In the equilibrium theory, meander decrease the stream gradient until equilibrium between the
erodabillity of the terrain the transport capacity of the stream is reached. The shortest distance that
is, a straight channel, results in the highest energy per unit of length, disrupting the banks more
creating more sediment and aggrading the stream. The presence of the meanders allows the stream
to adjust the length to equilibrium energy per unit length in which the stream carries away all the
sediment that it produces.

Geomorphic/Morphotectonic theory:
Geomorphic refers to the surface structure of the terrain Morphotectonic means having to do with
the deeper or tectonic(plate)structure of the rock. The features included under these categories are
not random and guide stream into nonrandom paths, For example, a sand bar (geomorphic) might
deflect the dream , causing or influencing a meander pattern, or the stream might be guided into a
fault line (morph tectonic).

Features of river deposition

Alluvial fans:
When a steep mountain stream enters a flat valley, there is a sudden decrease in gradient and
velocity sediment transported in the stream will suddenly become deposited along the valley walls
in an alluvial fan. As the velocity of the mountain stream allows it becomes choked with sediment
and breaks up into numerous distributaries channel.

Formation of Alluvial fan

Owing to the slowing of flow, coarse grained solid material carried by the water is dropped. As this
reduces the capacity of the channel, the channel will change direction over time, gradually building
up a slightly mounded or shallow conical FAM shape. This fan shape can also be explained with a
thermodynamic justification; the system of sediment introduced at the apex of the fan will tend to
a state which minimizes the sum of the transport energy involved in moving the sediment and the
gravitational potential of material in the cone.

An alluvial plain is a relatively flat landform created by the deposition of sediment over a long period
of time by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms. A
floodplain is part of the process, being the smaller area over which the rivers flood at a particular
period of time, whereas the alluvial plain is the larger area representing the region over which the
floodplains have shifted over geological time.

Define Flood plains

@Those are almost flat plains which border old rivers and are sometimes flooded by the river. They
are covered in fertile alluvial soils which are deposited by the river.

@Unable to carry its entire load the river deposits some of me on its bed. This raises the level of
water so that it almost reaches the tops of the river banks. In times of heavy rainfall the river water
may raise still further overflowing its banks and flooding the nearby plains.

@The composition of the particles in the bed load tends to change along the stream as different
bedrocks is eroded and added to the streams load. Floods occur when the discharge of the stream
becomes too high to be accommodated in the normal stream channel. When the discharge becomes
too high, the stream widens its channel by overtopping its banks and flooding the low-lying areas
surrounding the stream. The areas that become flooded are called floodplains.

Formation of Floodplains

@Erosion and

@Aggradation

An erosional floodplain is created as a dream cuts deeper into its channel and laterally into its banks.
A stream with a steep gradient will land to down cut faster than it causes lateral erosion, resulting
in a deep, narrow channel, with little or no floodplain at all. As the stream approaches its base level,
lateral erosion increases, creating an extremely board floodplain.

There, the boundary between river and rainfall intermittent a floodplain is not clear. In unmodified
drainage systems where the terrain is fairly flat and rainfall intermittent, a floodplain may take the
place of river entirely.

An Aggradation floodplain is created when a stream lays down thick layers of sediment. This
happens when the streams gradient becomes very slight and its velocity decrease, foreign it to drop
sediment brought from higher regions nearer its source .consequently the lower portion of the river
valley become filled with alluvium. In time of flood, the rush of water in the high regions tears off
and carries down a greater quantity of sediment resulting in planation (creation of a flat terrain) as
well as aggradation.

Ecology of floodplains:

Floodplains can support particularly rich ecosystem, both in quantity and diversity. They are category
of riparian zones or systems. A floodplain can contain 100 or even 1000 times as many species as a
river. Wetting of the floodplain soil releases an immediate surge of nutrients. Those left over from
the last flood, and those that result from the rapid decomposition of organic matter that has
accumulated since then. Microscopic organisms and larger species enter a rapid breeding cycle.
Opportunistic feeders (particularly birds) move in to take advantage. The production of nutrients
peaks and falls away quickly; however the surge of new growth endures for some time. This make
floodplain particularly valuable for agriculture. Markedly different species grow in floodplains than
grow outside of floodplain. For instance, riparian trees (that grow is flood plains) tend to be very
tolerant of root disturbance and tend to be very quick growing, compared to non-riparian trees.

Interaction of floodplains with society

Historically, many towns, homes and other buildings have been built on floodplains where they are
highly susceptible to flooding door several reasons:

@This is where water is most available

@Floodplain land is usually the most fertile for farming;

@River transportation was a key economic factor in the founding of many communities;

@River represent cheap sources of transportation, and are often where railroads are located; and

@Flat land is easier to develop than hilly land.

Factors influencing the formation of deltas

The following factors to be considered for the formation of deltas:

@presence of sediment in river water.

@current present at the estuary/river/water bodies.

@Depth of water at the estuary/rivers/waterbodies.

@Tidal effects at the estuary/river/waterbodies.

Waterfalls:
The falling of river water from a height is called a water fall. It is formed, where gently inclined rock
beds of unequal hardness are met with. The softer rocks is eroded fast, while the harder one offer
resistance and forms a ledge at a height, from which the river water fails down deep into the gorse.
The famous Niagara Falls of U.S.A can be quoted as the best examples of water fall.

Fig: Geological Section through Niagara falls.

Gorges:
Narrow and deep river valleys which develop in hard rocks are called gorges.

Meanders:
The symmetrical S-shaped bends, which are found in the course of a river, are called meander. They
are formed by deposition of the sediment along the slip-off side and erosion along the under-cut
side.
Fig: Meander.

Entrenched meander:
If an area where a river has reached a meandering stage, is rejuvenated (uplifted) the river starts
cutting the bottom of its channel again. As a result the meandering channel is deepened the old
meanders get entrenched. This produces step like features in the river valley white are called river
terraces.

Oxbow Lake:
During the growth of a meander, the sharpness of the river bends increases progressively and the
rock of the meander becomes narrow and narrow. Finally a stage comes when the river cuts through
the neck and starts flowing straight leaving its previous round-about course. Such left out old
meanders which remain filled with stagnant water are called oxbow-lakes.

Fig: Formation of Oxbow lake.

Causes of Meandering:
During floods, the river carries tremendous amount of slit charge. When the slit charge is in excess
of the quantity required for the stability, the river starts building up its slope by depositing the slit
on its bed. The increase in river slope tends to increase the width of the channel, if the banks are not
resistant. The banks are thus attacked by water and in the process: one bank is likely to attack slightly
more than the other causing a slight deviation of flow. This sight deviation from uniform axial flow
helps in moving more and more flow towards one bank than towards the other. The process
continues with more and more vigor causing more and more flow towards the former bank and
forming shoals along the latter, thus accumulating the curvature of flow and finally producing
meanders in its wake.

Development of a meander:
Rivers generally flow in a zigzag sinuous course characterized by a series of S-shaped bands called
meanders. The distance between the outer edges of the clockwise and anticlockwise loops of the
meander is called the meander belt or the meander with

The process of meandering start by a slight deviation in the uniform axial flow of the river which
helps in moving more and more vigor, thus causing more and more flow towards the former bank
and forming shoals along the other, thus accentuating the curvature of flow and finally producing
meanders in its wake, When once the curvature has come in, the concave bank goes on eroding and
convex bank goes on siting, thus further developing the meanders. A full-fledged meandering river,
as shown in fig 5(c) will ultimately result.

Width of meander (MB):

It is the transverse distance between the apex point of one curve and the apex point of the other
curve.
Fig -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Length of meander (ML)

It is the air distance along the river measured from the tangent point of one curve to the tangent
point of the next curve of the same order.

Meander ratio (MB/ML)

It is the ratio of meander width to meander length of a meander.

Degree of Sinuosity or Tortuosity:

It is the ratio of the curved length of the river to the straight air distance or meander length.

Characteristics of Meandering Streams:

A meandering steam has the following characteristics

• Usually a low velocity

• Easily deflected
• Curved bank is eroded more and more
• The steepest bank and deepest water lie on the outer sides of the meander. Where current
is stronger. This results in the dropping of sediment on the convex side of the channel.

Cut off:
In an excessively meandering river a particular bend may sometimes be abandoned by the formation
of a straight and shorter channel. The chord channel itself, is termed as cut off channel. Thus a cut
off reduces the river length.

Effects of Cut off:

• Shortens the length of the river.
• Increases its velocity.
• The river after a cut off will flatter its gradient.

• Due to cut off abandoned channel curves become separated from main stream by sediment
deposition and contains stagnant water and is called Ox-bow Lake.

Artificial cut off:

It consists in excavating a channel to connect neighboring parts of adjoining Ox-bows in order to
straighten the courses of a stream. Such as the kushiyara and the surma in

Sylhet.

River transportation:
The main geologic work of rivers is transportation of materials (usually called loads) that are
delivered to the river by slope wash, tributaries and mass movement or by the erosion of the river
itself.

• Load – The amount of materials that a river carry at any time is called its load. The rock
particles and dissolved ions carried by the stream are the called the stream’s load. The total
amount of materials delivered by the river system of the world to the ocean is estimated to
be 40 billion tons per year. It has been estimated that the river system of Bangladesh carry a
total load of 2.4 billion tons each year.
Stream load is divided into three parts

• Suspended Load – particles that are carried along with the water in the main part of
the streams. The size of these particles depends on their density and the velocity of
the stream. Higher velocity currents in the stream can carry larger and denser
particles.

• Bed Load – coarser and denser particles that remain on the bed of the stream most
of the time but move by a process of saltation (jumping) as a result of collisions
between particles, and turbulent eddies. Note that sediment can move between bed
load and suspended load as the velocity of the stream changes.

• Dissolved Load – ions that have been introduced into the water by chemical
weathering of rocks. This load is invisible because the ions-are dissolved in the water:
The dissolved load consists mainly of HCO3-(bicarbonate ions) , Ca+2, SO4-2, Cl-, Na+2,
Mg+2 and K+. These ions are eventually carried to the oceans and give the oceans their
salty character. Streams that have a deep underground source generally have higher
dissolved load than those whose source is on the Earth’s surface.

Competence and Capacity:

The largest particles that a stream can move are defined as the competence of the steam. The total
load that a stream is capable of transporting at any given time is called capacity of the stream.

Capacity depends on

• Amount of water in the stream.

• The rate of which the water is being discharged.