Semiconductors: Introduction, Energy Bands in conductors, semiconductors,

insulators, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor, Carrier transport in semiconductor:

diffusion current, drift current, mobility and resistivity. Generation and
recombination of carriers in semiconductors. Thermal Noise, Shot Noise. Electrons
and Holes in semiconductors: Silicon crystal structure, Donors and acceptors in the
band model, electron effective mass, Density of states, Thermal equilibrium, Fermi-
Dirac distribution function for electrons and holes, Fermi energy. Equilibrium
distribution of electrons & holes. The n-p product and the intrinsic carrier
concentration at extremely high and low temperatures, Variation of Fermi energy
with doping concentration and temperature.
Motion and Recombination of Electrons and Holes: Carrier drift: Electron and hole
mobilities, Mechanism of carrier scattering, Drift current and conductivity. Carrier
diffusion: diffusion current, Total current density, relation between the energy
diagram and potential, electric field, Einstein relationship between diffusion
coefficient and mobility.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Recall, a free particle has E~k2
Instead of being continuous in
k2, E is discrete in n2! I.e the
energy value (and thus ,
wavelengths/k) of a confined
electron are quantized (take
on only certain values). Note
that as the dimension of the
energy well increases, the
spacing between discrete
energy levels (and discrete k
values) reduces. In the infinite
crystal, a continuum same as
our free particle solution is
obtained.

➢ Fixed boundary conditions (x)=0 and (L)=0 Standing Waves

➢ Boundary conditions are fixed and the probability density function is periodic in x.
(x)= (L)
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Boundary Conditions
➢ With the condition that all the components of k (periodic boundary condition) take the
values k=±2n /L, n=0,±1,±2,…..N/2 (upper limit to n)

➢ k should satisfy the periodicity of lattice , i.e. k(x+L)=k(x), where L is lattice periodicity.
This can be verified for k=2/L

(x+L)=(x)

-3/L -2/L -/L 0 /L 2/L 3/L

-k +k

➢ If a is the spacing between the fixed nuclei, and L is the characteristic length of our
potential well, then N=L/a, Now k=±2n /L=±2(N/2) /L=±2(L/2a) /L=±/a
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Group Velocity and Effective Mass
➢ What effect does this E-k square law relation ship
have on electron velocity and mass?
The group velocity of a wave is

➢ So the speed of an electron in the direction defined

by p is found from the slope of the E-k diagram.
Similarly, since

(1/ ħ2) (d2E/dk2) = 1/m*

➢ So the effective mass of an electron is related

To the local inverse curvature of the E-k diagram.
➢ The sign of effective mass is determined directly from
the sign of the curvature of the E-k curve.
➢ Particle (electron) sitting near the minimum have a +m*
➢ Particle (hole) sitting near the maximum have a - m*
➢ A negative m* implies that a particle will go “the wrong
way “ when an external force applied.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Goal: show that an electron behaves like a particle with mass
m* = ħ2(d2E/dK2)-1

• Recall that the electron energy is related to the frequency

of the electron wave
E = ħ
• and the group velocity of the wave is the velocity of the
electron
vg = d/dk = 1/ħ dE/dk

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

• The acceleration of a particle is given by the time-
derivative of its velocity:

a = dvg/dt = d/dt(d/dk)
= d/dk(d/dk)dk/dt
= (1/ ħ2) d/dk(dħ/dk)(d (ħk)/dt)
= (1/ ħ2) (d2E/dk2)(d (ħk)/dt)

This is the term we are looking to show is:

(1/ ħ2) (d2E/dk2) = 1/m*

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 What is d (ħk)/dt?
If we apply an external force on the electron, for example an electric field
(Fext=qE), then we will do work on the electron:

dWe = Fextdx = Fext(vgdt) …since vg = dx/dt = d/dk

= Fext(d/dk)dt
Doing work on the electron increases its energy
dWe = Fext(d/dk )dt = dE
= (dE/dk)dk
= [d(ħw)/dk]dk
= ħ (d/dk)dk
therefore: Fextdt = ħdk
or Fext = d (ħk)/dt
note: since F=d(mv)/dt,
ħk is called the “crystal momentum”
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
 Finally…

a = (1/ ħ2) (d2E/dk2)(d (ħk)/dt)

and
Fext = d(ħk)/dt
gives us
a = (1/m*)Fext or Fext = m*a
Where m* = [(1/ ħ2) (d2E/dk2)]-1 = ħ2 (d2E/dk2)-1

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

Formation of Band

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
The Schrödinger time-independent wave equation for the motion of an electron along X-
direction is given by:

The energies and wave functions of electrons associated with this model can be calculated by
solving time-independent one-dimensional Schrödinger’s wave equations for the two regions I
and II as shown in Fig

for 0<x<a 2 6

for –b<x<0 3 7

We define two real quantities (say) α and β such that:

4 5

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

According to Bloch's theorem, the wavefunction solution of the Schrödinger equation when the
potential is periodic [V(x+a)=V(x)] and to make sure the function u(x) is also continuous and
smooth, can be written as:

Where u(x) is a periodic function which satisfies u(x + a) = u(x).

10

Solutions of 11
above these
two 12
equations
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
 Boundary conditions

13 17

14 18

15 19

16 20

For a nontrivial solution to the above four equations for A,B,C, and D the determinant of
their coefficients must vanish.

21

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof. 22

 22

Thus eq. 22 reduces to

23

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
 Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors

1.1 Silicon Crystal Structure

• 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

• Unit cell of silicon crystal is cubic.
• Each Si atom has 4 nearest
neighbors.
• The length of the unit cell, e.g.,
5.43 Å

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 Silicon Wafers and Crystal Planes

• The standard notation

z z z

for crystal planes is

y y y based on the cubic
x x
unit cell.
(100) x (011) (111)

• Silicon wafers are

usually cut along the
(100) plane with a flat
or notch to help orient
Si (111) plane the wafer during IC
fabrication.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.2 Bond Model of Electrons and Holes
Si Si Si • Silicon crystal in
a two-dimensional
Si Si Si representation.

Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

• When an electron
(a) (b)
breaks loose and becomes a conduction
electron, a hole is also created.
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
 Dopants in Silicon

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si As Si Si B Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

• As, a Group V element, introduces conduction electrons and creates

N-type silicon, and is called a donor.
• B, a Group III element, introduces holes and creates P-type silicon,
and is called an acceptor.
• Donors and acceptors are known m0 q 4
as dopants. Dopant ionization Hydrogen: E ion = = 13.6 eV
energy ~50meV (very low). 8e02h2

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 GaAs, III-V Compound Semiconductors, and Their Dopants

Ga As Ga

As Ga As

Ga As Ga

• GaAs has the same crystal structure as Si.

• GaAs, GaP, GaN are III-V compound semiconductors, important for
optoelectronics.
• Wich group of elements are candidates for donors? acceptors?

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.3 Energy Band Model
} Empty upper bands

(conduction band)
2p

2s
(valence band)

} Filled lower bands

(a) (b)

• Energy states of Si atom (a) expand into energy bands of Si crystal (b).
• The lower bands are filled and higher bands are empty in a semiconductor.
• The highest filled band is the valence band.
• The lowest empty band is the conduction band .

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.3.1 Energy Band Diagram

Conduction band Ec

Band gap
Eg

Ev
Valence band

• Energy band diagram shows the bottom edge of conduction band,

Ec , and top edge of valence band, Ev .
• Ec and Ev are separated by the band gap energy, Eg .

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 Measuring the Band Gap Energy by Light Absorption
electron
Ec
photons
Eg
photon energy: h v > E g
Ev

hole

• Eg can be determined from the minimum energy (hn) of

photons that are absorbed by the semiconductor.
Bandgap energies of selected semiconductors
Semi-
conductor InSb Ge Si GaAs GaP ZnSe Diamond

Eg (eV) 0.18 0.67 1.12 1.42 2.25 2.7 6

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.3.2 Donor and Acceptor in the Band Model

Conduction Band Ec
Donor Level Ed
Donor ionization energy

Acceptor ionization energy

Acceptor Level
Ea
Ev
Valence Band

Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors in silicon

Donors Acceptors
Dopant Sb P As B Al In
Ionization energy, E c –E d or E a –E v (meV) 39 44 54 45 57 160

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.4 Semiconductors, Insulators, and Conductors
Ec
Top of
conduction band
E g= 9 eV empty
Ec
E g = 1.1 eV filled
Ev Ev Ec

Si (Semiconductor) SiO (Insulator) Conductor

2

• Totally filled bands and totally empty bands do not allow

current flow. (Just as there is no motion of liquid in a
. totally empty bottle.)
totally filled or
• Metal conduction band is half-filled.
• Semiconductors have lower Eg 's than insulators and can be
doped.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.5 Electrons and Holes

electron kinetic energy

increasing electron energy

increasing hole energy

Ec

Ev

hole kinetic energy

• Both electrons and holes tend to seek their lowest

energy positions.
• Electrons tend to fall in the energy band diagram.
• Holes float up like bubbles in water.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 Without the crystal lattice, the hole
cannot exist. It is an artifact of the
periodic potential (Ep) created by the
crystal.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.5.1 Effective Mass

In an electric field, E, an electron or a hole accelerates.

electrons

holes

acceleration = ---m-
–q
n

Electron and hole effective masses

Si Ge GaAs InAs AlAs

mn/m0 0.26 0.12 0.068 0.023 2
mp/m0 0.39 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.3

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.5.2 How to Measure the Effective Mass

Cyclotron Resonance Technique B

- -

Centripetal force = Lorentzian force

mn v 2
= qvB Microwave
r
•fcr is the Cyclotron resonance frequency.
qBr
v= •It is independent of v and r.
mn •Electrons strongly absorb microwaves of
v qB
f cr = = that frequency.
2r 2mn •By measuring fcr, mn can be found.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.6 Density of States
E
Dc k=±2n /L, n=0,±1,±2,..
DE
Ec Ec
D 0
Ev Ev -k +k
2/L
Dv

=2\L
number of states in DE  1 
Dc ( E )   3 
DE  volume  eV  cm  = (L/2)

8mn 2mn (E − Ec )
N(E)=2k (L/2)
Dc ( E ) 
h3 k = (2mE/ℏ2)1/2

8m p 2m p (Ev − E ) N(E)=2 (2mE/ℏ2)1/2 (L/2)

Dv ( E ) 
h3 g(E)= dN(E)/dE
=L/ (2m/ℏ2)1/2 E-1/2
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
 Density of States
Consider a 3D free electron (V=0) volume of length L and volume V.

Inside this volume, in k space allowed states are uniformly distributed

with a spacing =2\L
The volume (in k space) per state is = (2\L)3

The number of sates per unit volume is thus = (L\2)3

L3 =V , so =V/83

Number of states within the volume is N(E)=(4/3)k3 *V/83

But k 2 = 2mE/ℏ2
k 3 = (2mE/ℏ2)3/2

And so N(E)=(4/3)*V/83 (2mE/ℏ2)3/2

g(E)= dN(E)/dE =(3/2)(2m/ℏ2) (4/3)*V/83 (2mE/ℏ2)1/2

=V/22 (2m/ℏ2)1/2 (E)1/2

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
Density of states
The density of states is zero at the bottom of the well as well as for negative energies.

The same analysis also applies to electrons in a semiconductor. The effective mass takes
into account the effect of the periodic potential on the electron. The minimum energy of the
electron is the energy at the bottom of the conduction band, Ec, so that the density of states
for electrons in the conduction band is given by:

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

1.7 Thermal Equilibrium and the Fermi Function
1.7.1 An Analogy for Thermal Equilibrium

Sand particles

Dish

Vibrating Table

• There is a certain probability for the electrons in the

conduction band to occupy high-energy states under
the agitation of thermal energy.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
 1
f (E) = ( E − E f ) / kT
1+ e

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.7.2 Fermi Function–The Probability of an Energy State
Being Occupied by an Electron
1 Ef is called the Fermi energy or
f (E) = ( E − E f ) / kT the Fermi level.
1+ e
Boltzmann approximation:
E
(
− E−E f ) kT
f (E)  e
(
− E−E f ) kT f (E)  e E − E f  kT
Ef + 3kT

Ef + 2kT

( )
Ef

− E f − E kT E − E f  −kT
f (E)  1 − e
Ef + kT
Ef

Ef – kT
Ef – 2kT Remember: there is only
Ef – 3kT
( )
− E f − E kT
one Fermi-level in a system
f ( E ) 1 − e

f(E) at equilibrium.
0.5 1

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.8 Electron and Hole Concentrations
1.8.1 Derivation of n and p from D(E) and f(E)
top of conduction band
n= f ( E ) Dc ( E )dE
Ec

E
Dc
DE
Ec Ec

Ev Ev

If E-EF>>kT
Dv

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
 Electron and Hole Concentrations
− ( Ec − E f ) / kT
n = Nce Nc is called the effective
density of states (of the
 2mn kT 
32

N c  2  conduction band) .
 h 
2

− ( E f − Ev ) / kT
p = Nve
Nv is called the effective
 2m p kT 
32
density of states of the
N v  2 2  valence band.
 h 
Remember: the closer Ef moves up to N c , the larger n is;
the closer Ef moves down to Ev , the larger p is.
For Si, Nc = 2.8 ´ 1019 cm-3 and Nv = 1.04 ´ 1019 cm-3 .

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.
The Fermi level lies in the middle of the forbidden gap
The Mass Action Law

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.8.2 The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations
Where is Ef for n =1017 cm-3? And for p = 1014 cm-3?
− ( Ec − E f ) / kT
Solution: (a) n = N c e

(
Ec − E f = kT ln( N c n ) = 0.026 ln 2.8 1019 / 1017 = 0.146 eV)
(b) For p = 1014cm-3, from Eq.(1.8.8),
(
E f − Ev = kT ln( N v p ) = 0.026 ln 1.04 1019 / 1014 = 0.31 eV )
0.146 eV
Ec Ec
Ef

Ef
0.31 eV
Ev Ev
(a) (b)

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.8.2 The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations

Ec

− ( Ec − E f ) / kT
n = Nce
E f = Ec − kT ln(N c n )

Ev
1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020

N a or N d (cm-3)

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.8.3 The np Product and the Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
− ( Ec − E f ) / kT − ( E f − Ev ) / kT
Multiply n = N c e and p = Nve

− ( Ec − Ev ) / kT − E g / kT
np = N c N v e = Nc Nve

np = ni
2

− E g / 2 kT
ni = N c N v e

• In an intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor, n = p = ni .

• ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, ~1010 cm-3 for Si.

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 EXAMPLE: Carrier Concentrations
Question: What is the hole concentration in an N-type semiconductor
with 1015 cm-3 of donors?

Solution: n = 1015 cm-3.

2
ni 1020 cm-3
p=  15 −3 = 105 cm-3
n 10 cm

After increasing T by 60C, n remains the same at 1015 cm-3 while p

− E / kT
increases by about a factor of 2300 because ni  e g .
2

Question: What is n if p = 1017cm-3 in a P-type silicon wafer?

Solution: ni
2
1020 cm-3
n=  17 −3 = 103 cm-3
p 10 cm

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.9 General Theory of n and p
EXAMPLE: Complete ionization of the dopant atoms
Nd = 1017 cm-3. What fraction of the donors are not ionized?
Solution: First assume that all the donors are ionized.

n = N d = 1017 cm−3  E f = Ec − 146meV

45meV 146 meV
Ed Ec
Ef

Ev
1 1
Probability of not  = = 0.04
1 ( E − E ) / kT 1
being ionized 1+ e d f 1 + e((146−45) meV ) / 26 meV
2 2
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume complete ionization, i.e., n = Nd .

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.9 General Theory of n and p
Charge neutrality: n + Na = p + Nd

np = ni
2

1/ 2
N a − N d  N a − N d   2

p= +   + ni 
2

2  2  
1/ 2
N d − N a  N d − N a   2

n= +   + ni 
2

2  2  

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 1.9 General Theory of on n and p
I. N d − N a  ni (i.e., N-type) n = Nd − Na
p = ni n
2

If N d  N a , n = Nd p = ni
2
and Nd

II. N a − N d  ni (i.e., P-type) p = Na − Nd

n = ni p
2

n = ni
2
If N a  N d , p = Na and Na

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

 EXAMPLE: Dopant Compensation
What are n and p in Si with (a) Nd = 61016 cm-3 and Na = 21016 cm-3
and (b) additional 61016 cm-3 of Na?
n = 41016 cm-3
(a) n = N d − N a = 4 1016 cm−3 ++++++
......
Nd = 61016 cm-3
p = ni / n = 1020 / 4 1016 = 2.5 103 cm−3
2

16 -3
. . . .N.a.=. .210
. . . cm

(b) Na = 21016 + 61016 = 81016 cm-3 > Nd

−3 ......
p = N a − N d = 8 10 − 6 10 = 2 10 cm
16 16 16 ++++++

Nd = 61016 cm-3

n = ni / p = 1020 / 2  1016 = 5  103 cm −3

2
Na = 81016 cm-3
-------- ......
p = 21016 cm-3

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.

1.11 Chapter Summary

Energy band diagram. Acceptor. Donor. mn, mp.

Fermi function. Ef .
− ( Ec − E f ) / kT
n = Nce
− ( E f − Ev ) / kT
p = Nve
n = Nd − Na
p = Na − Nd
np = ni
2

Dr. Pramod Kumar, Associate Prof.