What is research?
Systematic investigation into a problem or situation,
where the intention is to identify facts and/or opinions
that will assist in solving the problem or dealing with
the situation.
Good Research
1. Serves a purpose and is relevant.
2. Clearly focussed and scoped.
3. Scientific (depends on context).
4. Uses appropriate techniques & methods of
data collection.
5. Findings are presented as objectively as
possible.
6. Conclusions are based on the findings.
7. Sources of information and ideas are clearly
attributed.
Types of Reasoning
Hypothetico-deductive Research
A proposed description of scientific method. According to it,
scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a
form that could conceivably be falsified by a test on
observable data.
Inductive Research
The main difference between inductive and deductive
approaches to research is that whilst a deductive
approach is aimed and testing theory, an inductive
approach is concerned with the generation of new theory
emerging from the data.
Types of Reasoning
Deductive
Inductive
Key Concepts & Issues
Time in Research
Variables
Types of Relationships
Hypotheses
Types of Data
Fallacies
Structure or Research
Reasoning
Ethics
Validity
Time in Research
Repeated
Cross-sectional measures
Time
Longitudinal
series
The researcher has to decide on the
best time to carry out the research.
Variables Pick
Variable Attribute
Any observation that A specific value
can take on different on a variable.
values.
18, 19, 20, etc...
Age
Gender or sex Male, female
Satisfaction
1 = very satisfied
2 = satisfied
3 = not satisfied
Types of Variables
Independent Dependent
Variable (IV) Variable (DV)
What you (or nature) What you presume
manipulates in some to be influenced by
way. the IV.
Health Status Exercise
Participation
Attitude
Relationship Types
Correlational vs. Causal Relationships
Variables perform in One variable
a synchronized causes the other
manner variable
Correlation is not imply causation!
(it’s necessary but not sufficient)
Patterns
of Relationships
No Relationship
Positive Relationship
Negative Relationship
Curvilinear Relationship
Hypotheses
Hypothesis is a specific statement
of prediction.
Types of hypotheses:
Alternative hypothesis
Null hypothesis
One-tailed vs. Two-tailed
Hypotheses
Alternative Hypothesis (HA)
An effect (that you predict)……..
Null Hypothesis (HO)
Null effect……..
Example Hypotheses
Hypothesis there is a relationship between
age and exercise participation.
HA there is a relationship
HO there is not a relationship
This is a two-tailed hypothesis as no
direction is predicted.
Hypotheses This is a one-tailed
hypothesis as a specific
direction is predicted
Example An incentive program will
Hypothesis
increase exercise participation.
HA Participation will increase.
HO Participation will not increase
or will decrease.
Health Status Exercise
Participation
Attitude
Hypotheses
Shape and guide a research study:
• Identification of study sample size.
• What issues should be involved in data
collection.
• The proper analysis of the data.
• Data interpretation.
Hypothesis Formulation
1. Formulate a hypothesis.
2. Frame the hypothesis in a format
that is testable.
3. Test the hypothesis.
Hypothesis Formulation
Observations from:
Literature
Natural experiments
Multi-national comparisons
Descriptive studies
Creativity
Hypothesis
Formulation
“Disappointment is when a beautiful
hypothesis is destroyed by an ugly
fact” - Newton
Research Structure
The "hourglass" notion of Research
Begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in
Operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions.
Types of Data
Quantitative
Qualitative
Research Fallacy
An error in reasoning
(logic or premise).
Typesof Fallacies described by
“Trochim”
ecological
exception
Research Validity
The best available approximation to the
truth of a given proposition, inference,
or conclusion.
Types of validity…
1) Conclusion
2) Internal
3) Construct
4) External
Types of validity are cumulative
Types of validity:
1. conclusion
2. internal
3. construct
Validity
4. external
Validity
Can we generalize to other
External persons, places, times?
Construct Can we generalize to the
constructs?
Internal Is the relationship causal?
Conclusion Is there a relationship between the cause
and effect?
Limitations of Scientific
Research
1) Can not be quantified or observed (lacking empirical evidence).
2) Science can not make judgments about values, ethics or
morality.
3) Inability to capture full richness and complexities of the
participants.
4) Limitations of our measurement instruments.
5) Legal responsibilities.
6) Incomplete explanations.
