POLITICAL SCIENCE

Short Notes for CSS/PMS

Made By: Maria Azhar (OMG)

Political Science: An Introduction:

 Originated long before the Greek civilization but got flourished by the Greeks.
Socrates (470-399), Plato (428- 347) and Aristotle (384-322).
 Confucius in China (551-479BCE) and Kautilya in India (300 BCE)
 Aristotle and Plato – work on philosophy, 2500 years ago -- Greek city states (polis)
concepts on education, politics, metaphysics.
 Political Science separated itself from philosophy in later half of 19th century.
 Socrates Founder of Western Philosophy.
 Aristotle Founder of Political Science.

Word “Politics” derived from Greek word POLIS meaning “a city state”.

Political science is that branch of the social sciences that studies the state, politics, and government.
Political Science deals extensively with the analysis of political systems, the theoretical and practical
applications to politics, and the examination of political behaviour.

The Greek thinker, Aristotle, defined political science as the study of the state.

“The science of Politics discusses various aspects of state and government in respect of their origin,
evolution and main objectives. It also entails a profound study of different aspects of human activity
and the working of institutions which are, directly of indirectly, related to organised life in a state. Its
subject matter encompasses all ideas and institutions dealing with pattern of power and influence in
a society.

Political science is the scientific study of POLITICS (state and government).

Scope of Political Science:

1. Analysis of the Past.

2. Study of Present.
3. Determination of the Future course of action.
4. Formation of Political ideologies.
5. Study of structure of government.
6. Working of international institutions.
7. Various branches like political economy, International Relations, Comparative Studies.

STATE:
 “man – a social animal” Aristotle.
 Hunting and gathering societies.
 Horticulture societies.
 Emergence of concept of state.
 The word STATE first used in early 16th century.
  Machiavelli – The Prince (1532).

Definitions:

Aristotle: aggregation of different families and villages organised for the purpose of providing
facilities for the promotion of a happy and prosperous life.

Burgess: state is a particular portion of life mankind views as an organised unit.

Maciver: association which acting through law as promulgated by a government endowed to this
end with coercive power, maintain within a community territorially demarcated the universal
external conditions of social order.

State is a society politically organised within a definite territory, having its own government with
coercive power to enforce obedience and which is free from external control.

Elements:

1) Population.
2) Territory.
3) Government.
4) Sovereignty.

Population:

Every citizen whose rights and duties are legally recognised – modern concept.

In Greek city states, Slaves and metics (migrants) not recognized as citizens. Only 1/10 of population
considered citizens.

Size: Greeks preferred limited number of populations. Plato in Republic 5040, Aristotle “neither too
small nor too large”. Rousseau, according to the economic resources.

Modern approach: no hard and fast rule.

Pakistan 220mn, India and China population in Billions.

Territory:

A geographic area belonging to or under the jurisdiction of a governmental authority that is

sovereign in nature.

Different establishments like Jews before establishment of Israel, well organised but lacked territory.

Greeks: preferred limited territories.  Romans: preferred expansion of territories.  Al Farabi: small
city state as an ideal Muslim polity.  Ibn Khaldun: vast territory.

Modern approach: no fixed formula.

Location: important foreign policy indicator.

Roman empire due to strategic location of Rome.

Aristotle believed in strategic location. Not landlocked, access to sea routes, mountain ranges.

British Navy strengthened due to physical location of Britain.

Territorial nationalism: concept of nationhood based on common territory. Government: System or

group of people governing an organised community (generally a state).

Government:

Organ of the state that formulates and expresses will of the state and exercises its sovereignty – rule
making, rule execution, delivering justice.

Parts of government: legislature, executive, judiciary.

Sovereignty:

The supreme authority of the state to govern itself.

Sovereignty ensures unconditional obedience of citizens to the commands of the state.

State is free from external control. Supremacy of the state over every other entity.

Jean Bodin, French political thinker (16th century) introduced this concept in political discussions.

John Austin’s theory of sovereignty.

Dual concept of sovereignty:

From internal point of view.

From external point of view.

Internal sovereignty: laws of state are the source of all powers and authority within its territorial
limits.

External sovereignty: independence of state from external control.

Difference between state and government:

State:

1. Permanent in nature.

2. State a complete unit.

3. Sovereign.
4. Main body.

5. All the population is a member.

6. Physical characteristics of state same everywhere.

7. State is a non-physical entity.

8. All authority belongs to state.

Government:

1. Temporary in nature.

2. Government element of the state.

3. Not sovereign.

4. Brain.

5. Only selective members.

6. Government can have different forms.

7. Government is a physical entity.

8. Government exercises authority as conferred by the state.

Islamic concept of state and Ummah:

 A welfare state.
 Principles of justice and fair play.
 Individualistic philosophy for political, economical and judicial arenas.
 Balanced views: liberty and equality.
 Prosperousness through brotherhood.

Political philosophy:

Parliamentary form of government.

Inclusive government.

O you who believe! Obey God and obey the Messenger, and those from among you who are invested
with authority.

Different method of choosing ruler.

Hazrat Abu Bakar elected by people.

Hazrat Umar nominated by Hazrat Abu Bakar at his death bed.

Hazrat Usman was elected by council of electors.

Hazrat Ali got control of the caliphate after death of Hazrat Usman and then was unanimously
accepted as the caliph.

Mosque as a religious and political institution.

“Islam and government are twin. None can remain isolated. Islam is like a building while government
is its guardian. A government without foundation demolishes, and a person is robbed off who has no
guardian”. (PBUH)

Khutbas as a source of religious and political knowledge.

Economic philosophy:

Balance between capitalism and socialism.

Stipends to all who couldn’t earn.

“We will not be on the right path if we leave the people unprotected in their old age while we have
utilised their services in the prime of their lives”. (Hazrat Umar Farooq RA)

No enrolment of zimmis in military services.

Concept of Zakat and Usher.

Usury prohibited.

Black markets, cartels and hoarding prohibited.

Equitable profit making.

Right to property and wealth.

Judicial Philosophy:

Philosophy of justice and fair play.

Justice as a pillar of Muslim society.

Racial justice and equality.

No discrimination among the masses.

“Verily, Allah commands that you should render back the trusts to those, to whom they are due; and
that when you judge between men, you judge with justice. (Al Quran)

Strong punishments.

Settled criteria for witnesses.

Higher salaries for Qazis.

Even if Qazi gives a wrong decision but decides it in good faith, he is awarded a blessing, “naiki”.

Sovereignty:
Latin word ‘superanaus’ i.e superior to all.

Introduced by Jean Bodin during 16th century.

Before sovereignty concept of philosopher king and absolute ruler.

“Supreme power over citizens unrestricted by law”. Jean Bodin.

Hobbes gave sovereignty to the ruler.

John Locke somewhat gave sovereignty to the people.

Rousseau gave sovereignty to the ‘general will’.

Austin’s concept of sovereignty:

English Jurist, Utilitarian, gave absolute concept of sovereignty in “Lectures on Jurisprudence”

published in 1832.

“If a determinate human superior not in the habit of obedience to a like superior, receives habitual
obedience from the bulk of a given society, the individual is a sovereign in that society, and that
society including that superior, is a society free and independent.”

Powers of sovereign are unlimited and absolute and sovereignty is indivisible and inalienable.

Sovereignty is the source of all authority and it can be clearly located.

Law is the command of sovereign and its violation is dealt with punishment. Rights and duties are
determined by law.

Kinds of sovereignty:

Titular sovereignty and Actual sovereignty.

Legal and Political sovereignty.

De facto and De jure sovereignty.

Popular sovereignty. (Rousseau)

Attributes of sovereignty:

i. Permanence.
ii. Exclusive.
iii. Absolute.
iv. Indivisible.
v. Universal.
vi. Inalienable.
vii. Everlasting.

Liberty:

Latin word ‘LIBER’ meaning free.

Protection against state interference – Seeley.

Absence of all restraints on those social conditions that are indispensable for the betterment and
welfare of individuals – Laski.

Greek city states, only free citizens had liberty.

In political discussions, liberty always implies a system of rights and duties.

Freedom of any action that does not injure others – Declaration of Human Rights.

“Freedom that individuals enjoy under the law being member of the state” modern concept of
liberty.

Kinds of liberty:

Natural liberty – Hobbes state of nature.

National liberty – independence of state from external control. “National self determination”. Paris
peace conference after world war
Modern concept:

Civil liberty – personal liberties (Laski). Right to life, freedom etc.

Political liberty – participation in political life.

Economic liberty – equal economic rights. Formation of trade unions, equal wages etc.

Safeguards of liberty:

i. Rule of law.
ii. Constitutional protection to liberty.
iii. Democratic system.
iv. Separation of power.
v. Local self-government.
vi. Vigilance.

Equality:
Equal access to similar rights.

Kinds of equality:

Civil equality: equality before law.

Political equality.

Economic equality.

Relationship between liberty and equality:

Imposition of liberty ensures equality. Laissez faire in 19th century.

Equality is indispensable to liberty.

Rights and Duties:

Those conditions of social life in the absence of which no one can develop his capacities – H.J. Laski.

Rights are the claims of individuals recognised by the state in the absence of which they feel
insecure from undue interference.
Kinds of rights:

Civil rights – right to life, right to security, freedom of conscience, right to education, right to family
life, right to reputation, freedom of expression, right to associations, equality before law.

Economic rights – right to property, right to work, right to contract, right to earn.

Political rights – right to vote, right to contest elections, right to hold political offices, right to
criticize, right to form political parties.

Rights and duties go hand in hand.

Important duties:

Loyalty to state.

Obedience to law.

Payment of taxes.

Sanctity of vote.

Other duties that state imposes time to time.

Human rights:
Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world, from birth
until death.

Universal declaration of human rights 1948 (30 articles)

Fundamental rights: human rights that are guaranteed in the constitution.

Law:
German word “Lag” meaning fixed or evenly.

In political discussion, law implies rules and regulations enforced by state whose violation is dealt
with punishment.

General rule of external human action enforced by a sovereign political authority – T.E. Holland.

Body of principles recognised and applied by the state in administration of justice – John Salmond.
Law signifies those rules of human conduct which are enforced by an authoritative political
institution and whose violation is dealt with penalty or punishment.

Sources of law:
1) Usages.
2) Religion.
3) Commentaries of jurists – Gaius and Justanian on Roman law, Blackstone in Britain.
4) Adjudication.
5) Equity.
6) Legislations.

Kinds of law:

1) Constitutional law.
2) Statutes.
3) Executive decrees.
4) Ordinances.
5) Adjudicatory law.
6) Common law.

Spheres of law:

Private law and public law.

Civil law and criminal law.

Municipal law and international law.

Rule of law and administrative law.

School of thoughts:

 Analytical school – Machiavelli, Bodin, Hobbes, Bentham and Austin. Purely legalistic. Law
is the command of the sovereign. Law is not without force.
 Historical school – Sir Henry Maine, Frederick Pullock. Law as manifestation of customary
way of life.
 Philosophical school – John Kohler.
 Comparative approach – Sir Paul Vinogradof.
 Sociological school – Justice Holmes, Laski, Krabbe.

Sources of Islamic law:

1) Quran.
2) Sunnah.
3) Ijma (consensus).
4) Qiyas (analogy).
Structure of Government:
Three pillars:

1) Legislature.
2) Executive.
3) Judiciary.

Legislature:

Legislature is the branch of government that makes the laws.

Historically: Traditions and usages.

Laws by king and church.

Divine law.

Medieval ages (5th – 15th century): organizations of European parliament.

Charles 1 (1649).

Charles 2 (1660) – constitutional monarchy. Republicanism is UK.

French Revolution (1789-1799).

Functions and powers of legislature:

1. Legislation.
2. Amending the constitution.
3. Administrative control.
4. Control over finances.
5. Judicial powers.

Types of legislature:

Unicameral legislature.

Bicameral legislature – upper and lower chamber.

Advantages of bicameral legislature (disadvantages of unicameral legislature):

 Check on absolutism.
 Revision of bills.
 Seasoned members.
 Important for strong federation.
 Check on each other.
 Obtaining public opinion.
Advantages of unicameral (disadvantages of bicameral):

 Simple structure.
 Concentration of responsibility.
 Less expensive.
 Efficient system

Executive:

Executive is the branch of government that executes the laws.

Powers and functions:

1. Administrative functions.
2. Legislative powers.
3. Financial powers

Judiciary:

Judiciary interprets the laws and is responsible for maintaining justice.

Functions and powers:

1. Protection of fundamental rights.

2. Interpretation of law.
3. Adjudication.
4. Interpretation of constitution.
5. Advisory jurisdiction.
6. Administrative functions.

Forms of Government:

Monarchy:

A form of government with a monarch as the head.

Undivided sovereignty with the monarch.

Royal house.
Nobilities.

Kinship.

Primogeniture.

Democracy:

Government by the people.

Two Greek words – DEMOS and KRATIA meaning ‘people’ and ‘government’.

Kinds:

Direct democracy.

Indirect democracy

Characteristics:

 Civil rights.
 Changing governments.
 Political accountability.
 Rule by majority.
 Freedom of expression.
 Political parties.
 Popular government.
 Supremacy of the constitution.
 Legitimacy.

Advantages of democracy:

i. Popular government.
ii. Political consciousness.
iii. Public interest priority.
iv. Limited government.
v. A system of equality

Disadvantages of democracy:

i. Intricate system.
ii. Perverted role of leadership.
iii. Incompetence.
iv. Instability.
v. Autocracy of majority.
vi. Lack of civic virtues.
Dictatorship:

Extra constitutional government.

Characteristics:

 Hit to fundamental rights.

 Absence of liberty.
 Mobilised public opinion.
 Concentrated power.
 One man show.
 Myth of nationalism.

Advantages:
i. Political stability.
ii. Competent administration.
iii. Economic development.

Disadvantages:
i. Oppressive regime.
ii. Myth of stability.
iii. Rule of privileged classes.
iv. Ambitious wars.

Unitary form:

A centralized government where all power is held by government.

Limited delegation of power.

Federal form:

Power divided between federal capital and federal units.

Delegation of powers.

Provincial autonomy.

Confederation:

Lose union of independent sovereign states.

Features of federation:

 Division of powers.
 Supremacy of the constitution.
 Rigid constitution.
 Judiciary as guardian of constitution.
 Dual set of law – federal law and provincial law.

Conditions for federation:

 Unity in diversity.
 Common culture.
 Geographical contiguity.
 Equality in federating units.
 Political consciousness.
 Strong relation between federal and regional institutions.

Advantages of unitary form (disadvantages of federal system):

i. Simplicity.
ii. Stability.
iii. Uniform laws.
iv. Advantages of federal form (disadvantages of unitary form):
v. Autonomy to units.
vi. Strong system

Parliamentary form:

Executive is part of legislature and is accountable to legislature.

Responsible government.

Presidential form:

The executive is not part of legislature and thus not accountable to it.

Separation of powers.
Features of parliamentary system:

 Head of the state is ceremonial.

 Cabinet members are part of parliament and thus accountable to it.
 Cabinet is formed on the very first session of parliament.
 Collective responsibility.
 Limited separation of powers.
 Prime minister commands majority in the parliament.
 Vote of no confidence with parliament.
 PM can dissolve the parliament.

Features of presidential form:

 Cabinet not part of the legislature.

 No accountability.
 Separation of powers.
 Power lies with the head of the state.
 Members of cabinet not members of legislature.
 Checks and balances.
 Legislature cannot be dissolved.
 Vote of no confidence cannot be passed.

Advantages of parliamentary system (disadvantages of presidential system):

i. Coordinated government.
ii. Flexible system.
iii. Responsible government.
iv. Seasoned executive.
v. Sound administrative policy due to majority with ruling government.

Advantages of presidential system (disadvantages of parliamentary system):

i. Stable government.
ii. Competent cabinet.
iii. Efficiency due to no legislative participation.
iv. Separation of powers.
v. Less party politics.
vi. Free formation of policies.

Political Culture:
The set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments which give order and meaning to a political process and
which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behaviour in the political system --
Encyclopedia.
A set of shared views and normative judgments held by a population regarding its political system –
Britannica.

Political culture in Pakistan:

 Rhetoric.
 Language issues.
 Political loyalties.
 Less meaningful political conversations.
 Angry public environment.
 Mobilised public opinion. Cult culture.
 Aggressive messaging.
 Zero political middle ground.
 Politics more like war.
 Sentimental society.
 A portion of society extremist.
 Lack of political agendas/policies.
 Lack of vigilance in society.

Civil society:
Organizations that are not associated with government.

Schools and universities.

Advocacy groups.

Professional associations.

Cultural institutions.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs).

Community-based organisations.

Think-tanks.

Trade unions.

Cultural groups.

Informal citizen organisations.

Functions of civil society:

i. Vocalization of issues.
ii. Raising awareness.
iii. Providing platforms.
iv. Part in legislation.
v. Relief to community.
Political violence:
Political violence is a violence done for political gains.

Guerrilla warfare.

Insurgency.

Terrorism -- The calculated use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and
thereby to bring about a particular political objective.

Rebellion.

Revolution.

Rioting.

Civil war.

Gender, Politics and Women Empowerment:

Men dominated politics.

Political culture.

Muslim state.

Patriarchal society.

Women also don’t take interest.

Socially disapproved.

60 seats in National Assembly (Art. 51)

17 seats in Senate (Art. 59)

The study found that, whereas women constituted about 20 percent (or one-fifth) of the total
combined membership of both houses of parliament, they contributed 33 percent (or one-third) to
the parliamentary business. The average attendance of parliamentary sessions by women members
of either house was also significantly higher than their male counterparts. (The Free and Fair Election
Network (FAFEN)’s report, ‘Women Parliamentarians Performance 2018-2019)

Out of Pakistan’s nearly 106m registered voters, only 44pc are women.

Women empowerment:

Education.
Reserved quotas.

Women friendly laws.

Change in societal mind set.

Local Self Government:

The administration of a locality by the residents of that locality.

Three tiers of government:

Central government.

Provincial government.

Local government.

Local govt: administration by bureaucrats.

Local self govt: administration by elected representatives of area.

Functions of Local government:

 Development and maintenance of roads, bridges, street lights and storm water drains.
 Providing protection against stray animals and animal trespass, and establishing cattle pounds.
 Family Welfare Clinics, Promotion of public health, responsibility for sanitations, removal,
collection and disposal of used items.
 Registration of birth, deaths and marriages.
 Welfare homes, asylums, orphanages, widow and shelter houses.
 Prevention of beggary, gambling, taking of injurious drugs and consumption of alcoholic
liquor.

History of local government in Pakistan:

1947 – no local government.

1958 – 1969 – Basic Democracies Ordinance 1959 by Ayub Khan. 80 thousand initially, later one lakh
20 thousands.

1973 constitution. Art. 37(1).

1977-1988 martial law by Zia ul Haq. 1979 Local Government Ordinance.

No local governments during 1990s.

Devolution of Power Plan 2001:

5D plan:

Devolution of Political Power.

Decentralization of Administrative authority.

De-concentration of management functions.

Diffusion of the power - authority nexus.

Distribution of resources.

Province ---- District ---- Tehsil ---- Union.

District Level:

Top level.

Zila nazim head of district administration.

All union councils part of it.

Responsible directly to province and the people.

Tehsil Level:

Middle tier.

Tehsil municipal administration headed by tehsil nazim.

Function of administration, finances, the management of the offices of the local government, rural
development and numerous other subjects at the regional, divisional, district, Tehsil and lower
levels.

Union Level:

Small unions.

Lowest tier.

Union nazim head of union administration.

Union nazim elected by local residents.

Naib nazim junior to union nazim.

They generated their own taxes.

Purpose of LSG:
 i. Decentralization.
ii. Public participation.
iii. Facilitation to government.
iv. Efficient system.
v. Introduce young blood in politics.
vi. To provide political platform to all.
vii. Service delivery.

Challenges to LSG:

i. Tussle between provincial and local tier.

ii. War for finances.
iii. No compulsion on making LSG.
iv. Politicized by military regimes.
v. Lack of awareness.
vi. Lack of accountability.
vii. Lack of political will to strengthen the LSG.
viii. Bureaucratic hurdles.
ix. Not merit based.

Recommendations:

i. Free, fair and regular elections.

ii. Educational criteria for members of LSG.
iii. Continuity by all governments.
iv. Decentralization to grass root level.
v. Constitutional compulsion.
vi. Unprecedented control of province over LG ended.
vii. Financial independence.

Political Ideologies:

Capitalism:

An economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private
owners for profit, rather than by the state.

An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) -- Scottish economist and
philosopher Adam Smith.

Industrial Revolution and Mercantilism.

Free market economy – market sets the price

Characteristics:
 Free market.
 Two class system.
  Private ownership.
 Profit based economy.
 Minimum intervention by state. Laissez Faire.
 Competitive model.
 Supply and demand mechanism

Communism:

Political and economic doctrine that aims to replace private property and a profit-based economy
with public ownership and communal control of natural resources of a society.

Karl Marx Communist Manifesto (1848), Das Capital (1867-1883).

Communism is the highest form of socialism

Characteristics:

 State owned property.

 Fair wages.
 Central planning.
 Provision of necessities of life by the state.
 Profit motive replaced by ‘common good’.
 No competition.
 Mostly single party system

Totalitarianism:

A form of government or political system that prohibits opposition parties, restricts individual
opposition to the state and its claims, and exercises an extremely high degree of control over public
and private life.

Italian dictator Benito Mussolini coined the term totalitario in the early 1920s.

“All within the state, none outside the state, none against the state.”

Characteristics:
 Charismatic leadership.
 Rule by a single party.
 Total control of the military.
 Total control over means of communication (such as newspapers, propaganda, etc…)
 Police control with the use of terror as a control tactic.
  Control of the economy.
 Massive interference in social life of people.
 Political life of country mobilised.

Fascism:

Far-right, authoritarian ultra-nationalism characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of

opposition.

Came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe.

Derived from Latin word Fasces – bundle of sticks with an axe on top.

Benito Mussolini – first fascist leader.

Characteristics:

 Control with fascist leader.

 No powers with parliament.
 Against democracy.
 Absence of liberalism.
 Opposition of political culture.
 Totalitarian ambitions.
 Corporatism (state controlled businesses).

Nationalism:

Identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or
detriment of the interests of other nations.

Characteristics:

 One nation.
 Group feelings.
 Distinction.
 Defined territory.
 Common interest.

Western Political Thought:

Plato:

(428/427— 348/347BCE) Athens.

Academy in 387 BCE in Athens.

Republic – in socratic style around 375 BCE.

Philosophy of Utopia – the ideal state.

Plato’s philosopher king.

Platonic justice.

Plato’s communism

Three parts of soul – reason, spirit, appetite (functional specialization of Plato)

Reason – qualities of head.

Spirit – qualities of heart.

Appetite – hunger and desire.

One of these factors will always dominate a person. It would decide his place in the society.

Division of society on the basis of parts of soul.

Reason – the rulers.

Spirit – the protectors.

Appetite – the producers.

Division of society on the basis of these three classes. No interference among these three classes.

“We must infer that all things are produced plentifully and easily and of a better quality when one
man does one thing which is natural to him and does it at right time and leaves other things”.

The philosopher king:

Private education in Athens.

Plato wanted education to be responsibility of the city state.

Praises educational system of Sparta.

“The beginning is the most important part of any work, specially in the case of a young tender thing.
For this is the time at which character is formed and the desired impression is more readily taken”.
Enhanced scheme for education. Two phases.

1st phase.

2nd phase.

Birth till 7 years – keep at home and teach morality and patriotism.

7 to 18 years – music and gymnastics.

19 to 20 – only military training.

Screening test would decide who would go for 2nd phase.

2nd phase:

20 to 30 – mathematics and astronomy.

30 to 35 – philosophy.

Send them to field. Test period till 50 years. Philosopher king is born.

Characteristics of philosopher king:

 Above all laws.

 Real political power.
 Fountain head of justice.
 Ability and intelligence most important factors.
 Absolute powers.
 Decisions on basis of reason and wisdom.

“Äs far as there are no philosopher kings who have force of philosophy, passion and heart, the state
will not be able to get rid of its vices”.

Platonic justice:

‘giving to every man what is due to him’ – Cephalus.

‘friends should be treated well and enemies should be harmed’ – polemarchus.

‘justice is the interest of strongest men’ – thracymachus.

“The will to concentrate on one’s own sphere and not to meddle with other’s business is in the heart
of every citizen who does his duty in his appointed place” – plato.

Characteristics:
  Everyone should do his own duty.
 Not to meddle with other’s affairs.
 Natural principles are necessary for justice.
 Justice in society will increase love and cooperation.

“Social justice thus may be defined as the principle of a society consisting of different types of men
who have been combined under the impulse of their needs for one another and by their
combination in one society and their concentration on their own function”.

Plato’s communism:

Applicable only on philosopher and warriors.

Two types:

Communism in property.

Communism in family.

“They live in common barracks and have common public mess. They agree to receive from the
citizens a fixed rate of pay, enough to pay the expenses of the year and no more”.

“The best of both sexes ought to come together as often as possible and the worst as seldom as
possible”.

Characteristics of ideal state (utopia):

 All powerful philosopher king.

 Public education.
 Property and family common.
 Division of profession.
 Division of classes.
 Men and women have equal rights.
 Lousy literature has been discouraged.
 Justice as important element.

Aristotle:

(384 – 322 BCE) Athens.

Lyceum in 334 BCE.

Book: Politics.
Ideal state of Aristotle.

Theory of slavery.

Classification of government.

Cyclic process of Aristotle.

Ideal State of Aristotle:

 Population: 15 thousand to 1 lac.

 Territory: not too small not too large. Reasonable size.
 Geography: strategic location.
 Right to family and property: capitalistic society.
 Constitutional state: concept of law in ideal state.
 Emphasis of education.
 Division of population: citizens and slaves.
 Less rights to women.

“It is against human nature to deprive someone of his property.”

Theory of slavery:

6 types of tasks in a state:

Craft, Art, Agriculture – slaves.

Government, Defence, Religion – citizens.

Arguments in favour of slavery:

Inequality among human beings.

Slave is a need of domestic life.

Slavery is natural.

Slavery is part of state system.

Two types:

Slavery by law.

Slavery by nature.

Who can be made slaves?

Prisoners of war.
Purchased slaves.

Geneological slave.

“A citizen is one who participates in the administration of justice and legislating as a member of the
governing class”.

Aristotle’s classification of government:

Classified governments on the basis of number of people.

If number of people in government is one then monarchy is the good form and tyranny is the bad
form of government.

If number of people in government are few then aristocracy is good form and oligarchy is bad form.

If number of people in the government are many, then polity is good form and democracy is the bad
form of government.

“The secret of importance of Aristotle in the history of political thought is in the fact that he gave
and independent position to POLITICS.” – Professor Dunning.

Aristotle’s Polity:

Two forces in society: quality and quantity.

Quality – elites (ideas). Ruling class.

Quantity – working class (numbers)

Quantity calls Quality as demagogue.

If only two classes than system upset.

Polity – middle class to create balance. Middle class (polity) would prevent democracy (mobcracy) by
the Quantity and oligarchy by the Quality.

Concept of Revolution: cyclic process of Aristotle:

1st stage: from good king to tyrant.

2nd stage: rebellion of people. Establishment of aristocracy (govt. by few)

3rd stage: aristocracy turned to oligarchy – another rebellion.

4th stage: establishment of polity.

5th stage: polity into democracy.

Causes of revolution:

General causes:

No equal rights to people.

Nepotism.

Particular causes:

Greed.

Aggressive rule.

Unfaithful people in high posts.

Extra territorial adventures.

External interference

Ways to stabilize revolution:

i. Manage spies.
ii. Manage fear among people of some external attack.
iii. Severe punishments to defaulters.
iv. Welfare of citizens be increased.
v. Aggressive attitude towards external powers.
vi. Keep people busy all the time.

Education scheme of Aristotle:

Divided schooling into three stages -- primary, secondary, and higher education.

7-14 primary -- gymnastics, writing, reading, music, and drawing.

14-21 secondary -- implementing literature, poetry, drama, choral music, and dancing. The last four
years would be spent in military drill, tactics, and strategy.

21 higher studies continue as long as the student was willing and able.

Higher education was for males only as Aristotle believed women were not capable of such complex
studies.

“The state, I say, is a unity in diversity which is made a community through education”.

Aristotle’s concept of justice:

Justice is of two types.

Universal justice -- obedience to laws. One should be virtuous.

Particular justice – two types.

1) Distributive justice: Distributive justice implies that the state should divide or distribute goods and
wealth among citizens according to the merit.

2) Remedial or corrective justice: All laws related to commercial transactions are dealt within the
remedial and corrective actions. It aims to restore what an individual had lost due to the injustice of
the society. This justice prevents from encroachments of one right over the other.

Niccolo Machiavelli:

(1469 - 1527) Italy.

Father of modern political philosophy and modern political science.

The Prince (1513)

Era of civil war – king and church.

Machiavelli wanted to unify Italy through his Prince.

Philosophy of patriotism, power politics and amorality.

The Prince:

i. Realistic politics. Save your own state.

ii. Lying is justified if done in good faith.
iii. Tongue of fox and heart of lion.
iv. Mass killing of all rebels in one go and not frequently.
v. Rule of fear and not love.
vi. Formation of a regular army equipped with modern weapons.
vii. “State should either expand or expire”, “do not believe in peace, be ready for war all the
time”.
viii. Pre-emptive strikes.
ix. War in neighbourhood support the weak. Balance of power.
x. Use of church for politics.
xi. No acquiring property illegally.
xii. Destroy literature during expansion.
xiii. Prince should be elected

“For where the very safety of the country depends upon the resolution to be taken, no
considerations of justice or injustice, humanity or cruelty, nor of glory or of shame should be allowed
to prevail. But putting all other considerations aside, the only question should be what course will
save the life and liberty of the country.”

“The chief foundations of all state whether new, old or mixed are good laws and good arms.”

“I think it may be true that fortune is the ruler of half of our actions but she allows the other half of
thereabouts to be generated by us.”
Montesquieu:

(1689 – 1755)

French judge and political philosopher.

The Spirit of the Laws 1748.

Theory of separation of powers.

Called Aristotle of 18th century.

Classification of government.

“Liberty is the right of doing what the laws permit and if a citizen could do what they forbid, he
would no longer be possessed of liberty because all his fellow citizens would have the same power. ”

Theory of separation of power:

Real liberty is liberty which we exercise under the law.

Check power with power.

Divide power between legislature, executive and judiciary.

Legislature must be representative of all people.

Separate electorate (rich vote for rich, poor vote for poor)

Laws to be executed by the executive that would be ruler’s minister.

Mechanism of accountability (checks and balances).

“It is by this mixture of monarchical, aristocratic and democratic power blended together in one
system and by these three estates balancing one another, that our free constitution of government
has been presented so long inviolable.”

Classification of government:

Republic: two types.

1) Aristocratic republic (govt. by few people).

2) Democratic republic (elected government).

Monarchy.

Despotism.
“To solve problems, Montesquieu uses the method of Aristotle. That is why he is said the to be the
Aristotle of 18th century.” – Professor Dunning.

Jeremy Bentham:

(1748 – 1832) London.

Philosopher, jurist.

Founder of Utilitarian School of Thought.

An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislations 1789

He defined the principle of utility as “that property in any object whereby it tends to produce
pleasure, good or happiness, or to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil or unhappiness to
the party whose interest is considered.”

“Greatest number of happiness for the greatest number of people”.

Man under two sovereigns: Pain and Pleasure.

The object of all legislation must be the “greatest happiness of the greatest number”.

Punishments are evil (pain) so they should be used “so far as it promises to exclude some greater
evil”.

Characteristics of utility:

 Actions good or bad depending upon pain and pleasure they bring.
 Society welfare is sum total of welfare of all individuals.
 Practical politics and practical ethics.
 Based on hedonism.
 Majority’s rule.

Felicific calculus/Utilitarian calculus/Hedonistic (devoted to pursuit of pleasure) calculus:

Intensity: How strong is the pleasure?

Duration: How long will the pleasure last?

Certainty or uncertainty: How likely or unlikely is it that the pleasure will occur?

Propinquity or remoteness: How soon will the pleasure occur?

Fecundity: The probability that the action will be followed by sensations of the same kind.
Purity: The probability that it will not be followed by sensations of the opposite kind.

Extent: How many people will be affected?

(also called as circumstances)

Consequentialist school of thought.

Four aims of law as per Bentham:

1. Security.
2. Maintain existence.
3. Majority.
4. Equality

Thomas Hobbes:

Leviathan 1651.

Pre Renaissance era.

Civil war in England.

Era of James 1, Charles 1 and James 2.

Because he saw war all his life, he wanted peace and for that he came up with the theory of social
contract.

State of Nature:

 Selfish.
 Cruel.
 “War of all against all”.
 Might was right.
 Law of Jungle.
“Fear of violent death” and “Fear of loss of property” forced him to sign a contract with the state.

Social contract is signed. Sovereign made who will protect the life and property of citizens.

Social contract is the contract between sovereign and the citizens in which the citizens will render
absolute control to the sovereign in return for protection of their life and property.

Characteristics:
  Absolutism.
 All authority with sovereign.
 Unilateral contract.
 No accountability of sovereign.
 Sovereign responsible only for saving life and property.
 Unconditional surrender to sovereign.
 Authoritarian form of government.

John Locke:

1632-1704

Glorious Revolution 1688.

Formation of constitutional monarchy.

Era of peace and bloodless revolution.

“Two Treatises of Government” 1689.

State of nature:

 Peace and tranquillity in state of nature.

 No war.
 Natural law prevailed.

Only three lackings in natural law:

No one to decide natural law.

No one to execute natural law.

No one to interpret natural law.

So social contract was necessary.

Characteristics:

 Formation of contract. Rights and obligations.

 Formation of legislature, executive and judiciary.
 Bilateral contract. Sovereign responsible too.
 Every citizen has liberty. Government is supposed to protect liberty of people.
 Democratic form of government.
Jean Jacques Rousseau:

(1712-1778) in Geneva.

Cause of French Revolution.

“Man is born free but is everywhere in chains”.

The social contract 1762

State of nature:

 Concept of property.
 Mine and thine.
 Someone was needed to resolve the issue.
 Governments were formed but they got corrupted.

Only two solutions. Either go back to cave period or form a new contract.

Rejected contract of Hobbes because of unconditional obedience to sovereign.

Rejected contract of Locke because he did not want the power of legislation with the legislature.

According to Rousseau, legislator power is most important and should stay with the community only.

Social contract:

Power of legislation with community.

Rule of majority.

When community uses this power actively it is the sovereign. When uses passively it is the state.

Everyone is state and subjects at the same time.

The will of every person is their particular will.

If particular will (actual will) of every person in the state is same, then it becomes “general will” of all
in the state.

General Will of Rousseau: The particular will of every person in the state when combined, becomes
the general will of the state on whole.
 Principle of Direct democracy.
 Power to legislate with the community. Council of experts made out of community to make
laws.
 Another council to act as executive which can be recalled if performance not good.
 Rule by the people.
William Frederick Hegel:

(1770 – 1831)

German political thinker.

Science of Logic 1812.

Theory of dialect.

Hegelian dialect:

History of the world is history of evolution of reason and ideas. Reason is the base of all thinking.

Three stages:

1. Thesis.
2. Anti thesis.
3. Synthesis.

Hegel’s views on state:

Existence of state not due to social contract but due to dialectic evolution.

Triangle of Family, Society and State – emergence of state.

“The history of the world is none other than the progress of the consciousness of freedom.”

Characteristics of state:

1. A state creates its own ethics and laws.

2. State is practical form of reason. It decides good and bad itself.
3. State is a personality and absorbs will of all its citizens.
4. State is safeguard of freedom.
5. State has a divine will and expresses it through law.
6. State has unlimited powers.
7. State is an end in itself.

KARL MARX:

Germany (1818 – 1883)

England in 1849. Frederich Engels.

Communist Manifesto 1848.

Das Capital (1867 – 1883)

1st industrial Revolution.

Karl Marx’s class struggle – Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.

Means of production – physical forces seed, farm, water, tractor etc.

Relations of Production – the relationship between ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’.

Super structure of society – intangible structure of society laws, rules, government, culture.

“Any change in means of production will require a change in the relations of production.”

• When change occurs in means of production, the bourgeoisie bring change in the super structure
of society instead of bringing change in the relation of production.

• So Karl Marx urges the workers to bring communist revolution.

• “Workers of the world unite. You have nothing to lose but your chains.” – Communist Manifesto.

Materialistic interpretation of society:

• Evolution of societies on the base of their material base. It is matter or material reality that is the
basis of any change.

• He suggested following history of world:

Primitive Communism → Slavery → Feudalism→ Capitalism →Socialism →Communism

Dialectic materialism:

• Progress of the world is because of clash of thesis with anti thesis and formation of a synthesis.
Clash is in ideas and matter is reflection of it – Hegel.

• Clash is in matter and idea is reflection of it – Marx.

The evolution of the world is due to evolution of material forces.

Theory of Surplus value:

• Labourer is a commodity.

• Bourgeoisie provides raw material and labourer changes it into finished product.

• Profit to the bourgeoisie due to fixed price of labour.

• Difference between cost and sale price is called surplus value.

Theory of revolution:
• Snatch the means of production and disturb the super structure of society.

• After revolution the proletariats will manage the system.

• “From each according to his ability to each according to his need.”

• End of private property.

• State owned means of production – socialism.

• Classless, lawless, stateless society – communism.

VLADIMIR LENIN:

Russia (1870 – 1924)

Russian revolutionary. Bolshevik revolution in 1917.

First head of the Government of Soviet Russia 1917 – 1924.

Soviet union 1922 – 1924.

Founder of Leninism.

Lenin saw the Communist Party as a highly committed intellectual elite who:

(1) Had a scientific understanding of history and society in the light of Marxist principles.

(2) Were committed to ending capitalism and instituting socialism in its place.

(3) Were bent on forcing through this transition after having achieved political power.

(4) Were committed to attaining this power by any means possible, including violence and
revolution if necessary.

• Proletariat dictatorship.

• Vanguard party.

• Conflict less society.

• Lead with communist party leader.

• Authoritarian society.

• Totalitarian state.
MAO ZEDONG (MAO TSE-TUNG):

(1893 – 1976)

Founder of People’s Republic of China.

Chairman of communist party of china (1949 - 1976)

Founder of Maoism.

• Class struggle.

• Democracy.

• Party discipline.

• Spirit of nationalism.

• Socialism.

• The Great Leap Forward (1958 – 1960’s).

FRANCIS FUKUYAMA:

1952 Japanese American.

The End of History and the Last Man 1992.

Thesis: capitalism maybe humanity’s endpoint in socio-economic revolution.

Says Hegel had knowledge of history because he said that world will end on capitalism.

Marx lacked the knowledge of history.

Criticism:

• Chinese system is controlled capitalism and its growing.

• Resurgence of Russia – Crimea, Ukraine.

• 9/11 attacks. Khilafat challenging capitalism.

His response:

• Democracy is sliding back i.e. Turkey.

• 35 elected democracies while writing book now more than 150.

• Middle class increasing in China soon they will rebel.

• Khilafat not a threat to democracy.

JOHN STUART MILL:

English thinker and philosopher (1806 – 1873)

Utilitarian.

Concept of freedom.

Feminist - Wrote “The Subjection of Women” 1869.

Mill’s concept of Liberty:

• Individualism.

• Personal freedoms.

• Minimum interference of state.

• Lawful liberty.

• Revolt against tyranny.

• Rights to women.

• Right to private property.

• Focus on democracy.

MICHEL FOUCAULT:

(1926 – 1984)

French philosopher and thinker.

“Power/knowledge”.

French revolution – monarchy to democracy.

• Worked on operation of power in modern societies.

• Democratic government of France controlling people through mind control.

• Discipline and Punish 1975.

• Discipline and surveillance to amend people and their behaviours.

• Behavioural conditioning of people.

• Criminology, psychology and education to make deviance see able and so correctable.

• Jeremy Bentham’s Panopticon 1787.

• Power/Knowledge.

• Power and knowledge are entangled.

• Everything has power behind it.

• Knowledge is controlled by power.

• Truth is relative.

• Language as a powerful tool for construction.

• Social construction of people.

JEAN-PAUL SARTRE:

(1905 – 1980)

French philosopher and thinker.

Being and Nothingness 1943.

Proponent of Existentialism.

• Essentialism – Plato and Aristotle.

• Late 19th century – philosophy of existentialism by Sartre

• “Existence precedes essence.”

• No pre determined purpose. We find our own path.

• The Absurd – searching for answers in an answerless world.

• After events of ww2.

• “we are condemned to be free.” – no real authority to tell you anything. No rules no guidelines
unless you yourself put them there.

• Live Authentically – to live under freedom through absurdity.

• Bad faith – refusal to accept the absurdity.

• Dilemma of a student.

RENE DESCARTES:

(1596 – 1650)

French philosopher and mathematician.

“Cogito ergo sum” – I think, therefore, I am.

Scepticism.

• Cartesian Scepticism – when we believe things we don’t know they are false. So there’s no way of
knowing if the things we believe right now are right.

• Disbelieve everything.

• Analogy of Apples.

• Empirical beliefs – beliefs due to our senses.

• Local Doubts – a particular doubt in a particular point in time. As soon as that point in time ends,
the doubt ends.

• Global doubt – a doubt u can’t check out of.

• Bertrand Russell’s 5 minute hypothesis.

• Evil genius of Descartes.

• Radical scepticism – where we cannot believe any of our belief until the evil genius exists.

• Meditations on First Philosophy “cogito ergo sum” – his foundational belief that he exists.

Muslim Political Thought:

ALLAMA IQBAL:

(1877 – 1938)

Concept of Khudi.

Iqbal gave philosophy of Khudi to give answer to the question, “can human reach the level of
righteousness he was created with?”
Concept of Divine spark.

• Khudi is self ego/human ego.

• It can be immortal and perishable at the same time.

• By unconditional and complete surrender before divine law one can attain khudi and then reach
the highest level of virtue.

• This ultimate surrender gets a person’s ego to be incorporated into THE ULTIMATE EGO.

• Meaning of khudi:

• Derived from Persian word “khud” that means self consciousness.

Characteristics of khudi:

• Self recognition.

• Faith.

• Love.

• Know your self.

• Belief.

• Self consciousness.

Stages of khudi:

• Obedience.

• Self control.

• Man as caliph of God.

Criticism:

• Allegation of copying Khudi from Frederick Nietzsche (a German philosopher).

• His philosophy of “I”.

Iqbal’s response:

• Iqbal says that Nietzsche’s I is fiction, it is not a reality. Whereas Khudi is a reality. It can be
achieved.

• Nietzsche’s philosophy is all about human emotions and one’s own superiority while Iqbal’s khudi
joins a man with his creator.
Concept of Millat:

• Dislikes western democracy because of following reasons:

• Sovereignty of people.

• Not an ideology but methodology.

• Liberalism and absolute freedom.

• Absolute freedom of thinking and expression.

• Secularism. Calls “Niccolo Machiavelli” as prophet of devil.

• Nationalism on the basis of caste, colour creed.

• Capitalism.

• Party politics.

Millat is a boundry-less state. It is a universal community of believers. To become member of millat

you have to join the millat through believing in one Almighty and his Prophet.

Characteristics of millat:

• Sovereignty with God.

• Khilafat system.

• Islamic democratic system.

• Double accountability of khalifa.

• Equal rights to women.

• No dictatorship of khalifa.

• Law making with parliament.

AL MAWARDI:

(972 – 1058 ) Iraq

Concept of Imamat in Ahkaam e sultaniya.

Importance and need:

• As God cannot come to earth to maintain peace so he sends his imams in his place.
• Organize the society.

• Give justice to all.

• Maintain law and order.

• Distinguish between vice and virtue.

How to appoint Imam:

• By election.

• By appointment.

Election by electoral college:

• Voters elect electoral college and then they elect imam.

• Qualification of electoral college:

• Knowledge of religion.

• Wisdom.

• Justice liked by them.

• Bravery.

• Integrity.

• Must be from Quraish.

Appointment:

• Current imam can name anyone to be imam after him.

Succession of imam:

• Son of imam cannot succeed him ever.

• To avoid monarchy.

Eligibility of imam:

• Must be a man and a Muslim.

• Must be mature and free.

• Must be judicious.

• Must have bravery and daringness.

• Physically fit.

• Must be able to do ijtihad.

• Must be from Quraish.

• Must abide by sharia of Prophet (SAW)

• Must have wise and strong opinions.

• Ability to solve complex matters.

• Must be steadfast.

Functions of Imam:

• To defend the state internally and externally.

• Protection against infidels.

• Maintain justice.

• Provision of peace and stability.

• To declare jihad.

• To impose sharia law.

• Levy taxes and generate revenue.

• Delegation of functions to wizirs.

• “To give money to those from state treasury who are needy.”

Privileges of imam:

• Authority with imam.

• Called ‘Khalifa tul Allah’.

Dismissal of imam:

• Physical disability.

• Senses impaired.

• No interest in state affairs.

• Low morality.

• Too much lust.

• Deviation from Islamic belief.

Criticism:

• Islam supports consultation while Al Mawardi’s imam does not consult.

• Al Mawardi calls his imam as “khalifa tul Allah” while Abu Bakar when called by this name disliked
it and preferred to be called “khalifa tul Nabi”

Theory of ministry:

Three meanings of the word minister.

• Vazar – load or responsibility.

• Vizar – ultimate support.

• Izer – spine to give support.

Need of vizarat:

“I have my two vizirs from earth, Hazrat Abu Bakar (RA) and Hazrat Umer Farooq (RA) and two vizirs
from heaven, Hazrat Gibrael AS and Hazrat Mekail AS.”

Qualities of vizirs:

• Perform duty honestly.

• Must have self confidence.

• Free from greed.

• Influential and popular.

• Pleasant relations with people.

• Sensible and alert.

• Experienced and hardworking.

• Live arduous life.

• Free and clever.

• Contended and simple.

• Dauntless in nature.

• Confidante of the ruler.

• Scholarly and intelligent.

• Good moral character.

Types of ministries:
• Wizarat e Tafveez – ministry of delegation.

• Wizarat e Tanfeez – ministry of execution.

IBNE KHALDUN:

(1332 – 1406) Tunis.

Theory of Asabiyah/group mind.

Rise and fall of civilizations.

Political economy.

Political economy:

• Give due share to labourer.

• Ruler should not indulge in business of state.

• Circulation of resources between state and society.

• No land acquiring unjustly.

• Islamic tax.

• Equitable taxes.

• Metropolitan economy.

Asabiyah/group mind:

• Strength due to relationship.

• Need of group mind:

• Asabiyah is important to shed away cruelty.

• Security of mutual trust.

Types of group mind:

• Common group mind – relation with tribe or nation.

• Specific group mind – relation with kins / related by blood.

Categories of group mind:

• Racial group mind.

• Territorial group mind.

• Religious group mind.

Asabiyah / Rise and fall of civilaztions:

• 5 stages – 120/125 years.

• 1 st stage – group emerges.

• 2 nd stage – from leader to king.

• 3 rd stage – progressivism.

• 4 th stage – downfall.

• 5 th stage – end of civilization.

Reasons of this fall:

• Self interest.

• Dictatorship.

• Accumulation of wealth.

• Flattery.

AL FARABI (872 – 950):

Ideal state of Al Farabi:

• Philosopher prophet.

• Happy society – “to be happy is to be virtuous.”

• State should be “madina wal fadila.”

• No boundaries. Caliphate.

• One ruler in whole world.

• No competition.

• Rule of law.

• Equality.

• Public welfare.

• External and internal peace.

• Strong accountability.

• Socio economic welfare.

Virtuous state – its too ideal it cannot be achieved.

• Ignorant state – don’t know what happiness is. This state goes for basic necessities. Love for
liberty. Policy of imperialism.

• Pervert state – they know what happiness is and yet don’t strive for it. Same policies as ignorant
state.

• Mistaken states – where citizens have wrong idea about God.

Qualities of the Raees ul Awwal:

• Qualities of head and heart.

• Wise ruler.

• Good orator.

• Good physique.

• Charismatic leader.

• Sharp memory.

• Psychologist.

• Valour and bravery.

• Forbearance and tolerance.

• Avoidance from discussion.

• Popularity.

• Love for knowledge.

• Philosopher prophet.