Program: Diploma Semester: 3rd

Course: Applied Mechanics Course Code: DME303-

22

Unit – 4 (Friction)

6.1. CONCEPT OF FRICTION

It has been observed that surfaces of bodies, however smooth they may be, are not perfect and
possess some irregularities and roughness. Therefore, if a block of one substance is placed over
the level surface of another, a certain degree of interlocking of minutely projecting particles takes
place. These interlocking properties of projecting particles oppose any tendency of the body to
move. The resisting force acts in the direction opposite to that of the motion of the upper block
and is called friction. Thus, wherever there is a relative motion between two parts, a force of
friction comes into play, and hence to overcome friction some energy is wasted.
Hence, force of friction or frictional force may be defined as the opposing force which is
called into play in between the surfaces of contact of two bodies, when one body moves over the
surface of another body. (Figs. 6.1 and 6.2).

P
W (Applied
(Weight) force)

F
(Frictional
force)
N
(Normal
reaction)

Fig. 6.1

In engineering applications friction is both desirable and undesirable.

R N

[ Total reaction [ Normal reaction

Direction of motion

Rough
blockP(Tractive force)
Rough surface

Frictional force

[
W Weight of the body

Fig. 6.2
 There are appliances and devices known as friction devices such as belts and ropes,
friction clutches, jib and cotter joints, brakes, nuts and bolts, in which friction is desirable and
efforts are made to maximize it. On the contrary, the friction is very undesirable in moving parts
of machines. It causes the loss of energy which manifests itself in the forms of heat energy. Due to
friction a more force is required to cause motion of the parts. To improve the efficiency of the
machines the friction force is reduced to the minimum possible by lubrication.

6.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FRICTIONAL FORCE

The force of friction or frictional force entails the following characteristics :
(i) It is self-adjusting. As tractive force P increases, the frictional force F also increases,
and at any instant only as much frictional force comes into play as is necessary to prevent the
motion.
(ii) It always acts in a direction opposite to the motion (i.e., always opposes the tractive force).
(iii) It is a passive force (since it exists only if the tractive force P exists).

6.3. TYPES OF FRICTION

Friction may be classified as follows :
1. Friction in unlubricated surfaces
2. Friction in lubricated surfaces.
Friction in unlubricated surfaces. The friction that exists between two unlubricated
surfaces is called solid friction or dry friction.
It may be of the following two types :
(i) Sliding friction
(ii) Rolling friction.
The friction that exists when one surface slides over the other is called sliding friction.
The friction that exists between two surfaces separated by balls or rollers, is called the rolling
friction.
It may be remembered that rolling friction is always less than the sliding friction.
Friction in lubricated surfaces. It may further be subdivided as follows :
(i) Boundry (or greasy or non-viscous) friction
(ii) Viscous friction.
If in between two rubbing surface there exists a thin film or layer of an oil or a lubricant,
the oil gets absorbed in the surfaces and such a film is known as absorbed film. Instead of metal to
metal contact of the surfaces, there is a contact between thin layer of the oil and obviously the
frictional force is reduced. In such a case the frictional force is known as boundary friction.
In this chapter we shall only deal with friction between unlubricated parts.

6.4. STATIC AND DYNAMIC FRICTION

Static friction. The static friction is the friction offered by the surfaces subjected to
external forces until there is no motion between them.
Dynamic friction. The dynamic friction is the friction experienced by a body when it is in
motion. It is also known as kinetic friction and is always less than static friction (the kinetic
friction is about 40 to 75 per cent of the limiting static friction).
6.5. LIMITING FRICTION
Fig. 6.3 shows a graph between the applied force and the
Condition of impending motion
friction. During static condition as the applied force is increased
from zero value the frictional force increases in direct
proportion to the applied force. A certain stage is reached when

Fricti
Limiting friction
the applied force is just sufficient to overcome friction and
motion of the body takes place. After this the friction suddenly
decreases to a magnitude which remains constant throughout Static condition Kinetic condition
the motion period as shown in Fig. 6.3.
When the motion is just to commence, maximum friction
P (Applied force)
is encountered. This condition is known as limiting equilibrium.
Fig. 6.3
The friction acting at this stage is termed as limiting friction.
Hence, limiting force of friction may be defined as the maximum value of friction force
which exists when a body just begins to slide over the surface of the other body. When the
applied force or tractive force P is less than the limiting friction, the body remains at rest, and the
friction is called static friction, which may have any value between zero and limiting friction.

6.6. LAWS OF FRICTION

6.6.1. Law of static friction
The laws of static friction are as follows :
1. The frictional force always acts in a direction opposite to that in which the body tends
to move.
2. The frictional force is directly proportional to the normal reaction between the surfaces.
3. The frictional force depends upon the nature of surfaces in contact.
4. The frictional force is independent of the area and shape of the contacting surfaces.
6.6.2. Laws of dynamic or kinetic friction
1. The frictional force always acts in a direction opposite to that in which the body moves.
2. The frictional force is directly proportional to the normal reaction between the two
contacting surfaces.
3. The magnitude of force of dynamic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between two surfaces but the ratio is slightly less than that in case of limiting
friction.
4. The frictional force remains constant for moderate speeds but it decreases slightly with
the increase of speed.
It may be noted that :
(i) For extremely low pressure and for very high pressures sufficient to produce excessive
deformation, the co-efficient of static friction, somewhat increases.
(ii) For extremely low relative velocities, the co-efficient of kinetic friction increases and
apparently becomes equal to the co-efficient of static friction.
(iii) For very high velocities co-efficient of kinetic friction decreases appreciably.
(iv) Ordinary changes in temperatures do not materially affect co-efficient of friction.
6.7. ANGLE OF FRICTION
Refer to Fig. 6.2. It is defined as the angle which the resultant (R) of normal reaction (N) and
limiting force of friction (F) makes with the normal (N). It is denoted by .
F
tan  = ...[6.1 (a)]
N
F
 = tan–1 ...[6.1 (b)]
N

6.8. CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION

It is defined as the ratio of limiting force of friction to the normal reaction between the two
bodies. It is denoted by .
Refer to Fig. 6.2.
F
 = tan  = ...[6.2 (a)]
N
 F = N ...[6.2 (b)]

6.9. ANGLE OF REPOSE

Refer to Fig. 6.4. Consider a body of weight W acting on
a rough horizontal plane inclined at angle . The body is in N
equilibrium under the action of the following forces :
(i) Weight, W (which may be resolved into two
components
W sin  and W cos  as shown in Fig. 6.4) 
(ii) Normal reaction, N and W
(iii) Frictional force, F (= N). 

In the limiting condition when the block is about to Fig. 6.4

slide down the inclined plane, the frictional force must act up the
plane
and for equilibrium ; considering the forces along and perpendicular to the plane.
F = W sin  ...(6.3)
and N = W cos  ...(6.4)
From eqns. (6.3) and (6.4), we get
W sin 
F = = tan  ...(6.5)
N W cos 
F
But =  = tan 
N
where  is the angle of friction.
The angle  is called angle of repose and is equal to the angle of friction when the body is in
the condition of limiting equilibrium on an inclined plane.
6.10. CONE OF FRICTION
A C B
N
If the line OA of Fig. 6.5 making the maximum angle of R F

friction  with the normal is revolved about OB as an axis,

the cone generated is called the cone of friction. If the
resultant R of the normal reaction and the friction falls 
within the cone of friction, the forces acting on the body are P
not great enough to cause motion. This principle is used in
Fmax. O
self-locking mechanisms and also in taper pins. For example,
if the angle of taper pin is less than the angle of friction, no
force at right angles in the axis of the pin could cause it to W
move in the direction of its axis.
Fig. 6.5
6.11. MOTION OF BODY ON HORIZONTAL PLANE
Fig. 6.6 shows a body lying on a horizontal plane N Motion
under the influence of force P which is inclined at angle  P

to the surface (or horizontal plane). The value of force P

P sin 
can be determined by considering the limiting 
equilibrium. P cos 

Resolving the forces parallel to the plane (i.e., F

horizontally), we get
W
F = P cos 
or N = P cos  ...(i)
Fig. 6.6
Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane (i.e.,
vertically), we get
N + P sin  = W
N = W – P sin  ...(ii)
Substituting the value of N in (i), we get
 (W – P sin ) = P cos 
W – P sin  = P cos 

F P (cos sin+  sin )I=  Wsin  F I

P G cos   . sin  J  .W G∵   tan   sin  J
H cos  K cos  H cos  K
P (cos . cos  + sin  sin ) = W sin 
P cos ( – ) = W sin 

W sin 
 P = cos (  ) ...(6.6)

For P to be minimum, cos ( – ) should be maximum

or cos ( – ) = 1
0–=0
or =
or angle of inclination of force P should be equal to angle of
friction.
6.12. MOTION UP AN INCLINED PLANE
Fig. 6.7 shows a body lying on an inclined plane P
under the influence of a force P. Let W be weight of the N
body,  be the inclination of the plane to the horizontal
and  be the co-efficient of friction.
The value of P can be determined by considering
the limiting equilibrium as follows :
Case I. When angle of inclination of the force to W

the plane is  : F

Resolving the forces parallel to the plane, we have

F + W sin  = P cos 
or F = P cos  – W sin  Fig. 6.7
or N = P cos  – W sin  (∵ F = N) ...(i)
Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane.
N + P sin  = W cos 
or N = W cos  – P sin  ...(ii)
Substituting the value of N from (ii) in (i), we get
 (W cos  – P sin ) = P cos  – W sin 
 W cos  – P sin  = P cos  – W sin 
F I F
P (cos  +  sin ) = W ( cos  + sin )
F I
or
I G
P cos  
sin 
J
. sin  = W G
sin 
cos   sin G∵   tan   sin  J
 J
H cos  K H cos  K H cos  K
or P (cos  cos  + sin  sin ) = W (sin  cos  + sin  cos )
or P cos ( – ) = W sin ( + )

W sin (  ) ...(6.7)
or P= cos (  )
P is least when cos ( – ) is maximum
i.e., cos ( – ) = 1
or –=0
 = .
Thus, the force required to move a body up the inclined plane is least when the force is
inclined to the plane at an angle equal to angle of friction.
Case II. When the force is parallel to the plane :
=0
W sin (  )
From P=
cos (  )

W sin (  ) ...(6.8)
P= cos 
Case III. When there is no force of friction
:
=0
 tan  = 0
or =0
 W sin (  )
From P= cos (  )
W sin 
P= cos  ...(6.9)

6.13. MOTION DOWN AN INCLINED PLANE

Fig. 6.8 shows a body of weight W lying on an inclined P
N
plane inclined at an angle ,  is greater than angle of friction
. The force P acts up the inclined plane. Let F be the limiting
force of friction called into play as shown.
Let us consider the limiting equilibrium for calculating
the value of P.
Case I. When P is inclined to the plane at angle  :
Resolving the forces parallel to the plane 

F + P cos  = W sin 
F
or N + P cos  = W sin  ...(i) W

Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane

N + P sin  = W cos  ...(ii) Fig. 6.8
Substituting the value of N from (ii) in (i), we get
 (W cos  – P sin ) + P cos  = W sin 
W cos  – P sin  + P cos  = W sin 
or F F
P (cos  –  sin ) = W (sin  –  cos ) I
G G J
sin  sin 
I
or P cos   sin = W sin   . cos
J

H cos K cos  K
H
or P (cos  cos  – sin  sin  ) = W (sin  cos  – cos  sin )
or P cos ( + ) = W sin ( – )
W sin (  ) ...(6.10)
or P= cos (  )
Case II. When the force P acts parallel to the plane
:
=0
W sin (  )
From P= cos (  )
W sin (  )
= cos  .
Case III. When the plane is perfectly smooth and no frictional force acts on the plane :
F=0
i.e., =0
or tan  = 0
or =0
W sin (  )
From P=
cos (  )

W sin  ...(6.11)
P= cos 
 Example 6.1. A pull of 25 N at 30° to the horizontal is necessary to move a block of wood on a
horizontal table. If the co-efficient of friction between the bodies in contact is 0.2, what is the weight
of the block ?
Sol. Let W = weight of the body
P = effort applied (= 25 N)
N = normal reaction
 = co-efficient of friction (= 0.2)
Refer to Fig.6.9.

P sin 30°
30°
P cos 30°

Fig. 6.9
Resolving forces parallel to the plane,
F = P cos 30°
or N = P cos 30° ...(i) (∵ F = N)
and resolving forces perpendicular to the plane,
N + P sin 30° = W
or N = W – P sin 30° ...(ii)
Substituting the value of N in eqn. (i), we get
 (W – P sin 30°) = P cos 30°
or 0.2 (W – 25 × 0.5) = 25 × 0.866
or 0.2 (W – 12.5) = 21.65
21.65
or W= + 12.5
0.5
or W = 120.75 N (newtons). (Ans.)

Example 6.2. A body resting on a rough horizontal plane required a pull of 18 N

inclined at 30° to the plane just to move it. It was found that a push of 20 N inclined at 30° to the plane
just moved the body. Determine the weight of the body and co-efficient of friction.
Sol. Let W = weight of the body
P = effort applied
N = normal reaction
 = co-efficient of friction.
 Refer to Fig. 6.10.
N Motion
Case I. Resolving forces parallel to the plane,
P
F = P cos 30°
or N = 18 cos 30° ...(i) P sin 30°

and resolving forces perpendicular to the plane, 30°

P cos 30°
N + P sin 30° = W ...(ii)
F
or N + 18 sin 30° = W
W
or N = W – 18 sin 30° or N = W – 9
Fig. 6.10
Substituting the value of N in eqn. (i), we get
(W – 9) = 18 cos 30° ...(1)
Refer to Fig. 6.11.
Case II. Resolving forces parallel to the plane, N Motion

F = P cos 30° P

or N = 22 cos 30° ...(i)

P sin 30°
and resolving forces perpendicular to the plane,
30°
N = W + P sin 30° P cos 30°
or N = W + 22 sin 30° F

or N = W + 11 ...(ii)
W
Substituting the value of N in eqn. (i), we get
Fig. 6.11
 (W + 11) = 22 cos 30°
...(2)
From (1) and (2), we get

 (W  9) 18 cos 30

 (W  11) 22 cos 30
(∵ RA = 11.43 kN)
22(W – 9) = 18 (W + 11)
22 W – 198 = 18 W + 198
4 W = 396
W = 99 N. (Ans.)
Inserting this
value of W in eqn.
(1), we get
 (99 – 9) = 18 cos 30°

18 cos 30
90 =

or  = 0.1732. (Ans.)
6.14. SCREW FRICTION
The screw friction is the friction experienced by screw threads made by cutting a continuous helical
groove on a cylindrical surfaces such as screws, bolts, nuts, studs etc. These parts are widely used in
various machines and structures for fastening. The screw threads may be of (i) V shape and
(ii) square shape. The V threads are stronger and offer more frictional force to motion than
square threads. V-threads are used for lighter load and square threads are used for heavier
loads.
Square threads are used in screw jacks, vice screws etc. Screw jack is a device used for raising/
lifting heavy loads by applying a small effort at its handle. It works on the principle of an inclined
plane.

6.15. SCREW JACK

(a) With square threads. Fig. 6.31 shows a common form of a screw jack which consists of a
threaded rod A, called screw rod or simply screw. The screw has square threads, in its outer surface,
which fit into the inner threads of jack B. The load to be raised or lowered, is placed on the head of
the screw, which is rotated by application of an effort at the end of the lever/handle for lifting or
lowering the load.

W(Load)

Lever
or handle A (Screw rod)
B(Jack)

Fig. 6.31
 With one rotation of the lever/handle the weight is lifted through a distance of equal to pitch.
In case of multithreaded screws the actual pitch is np,
where p = apparent pitch and is equal to the distance between the two consecutive threads,
and n = number of starts.
Refer to Fig. 6.32. When a screw is given one revolution, it will
move up by pitch p axially, and horizontally by dm (dm is the mean
diameter of the threads). Therefore, inclination of the threads can be p
calculated by,
p 
tan  = ...(6.12)  dm
dm
where  is the helix
angle.
(i) Effort required to lift the load Fig. 6.32
Let P = effort required to lift the load when applied at mean radius ;
W = weight of the body to the lifted ; and
 = co-efficient of friction between the screw and the nut.
As the principle on which screw jack works, is similar to that of an inclined plane,
therefore, the force applied on the lever of a screw jack is considered to be horizontal as shown
in Fig. 6.33. Moreover, as the weight is being lifted, therefore, the force of friction F will act
downwards. All the forces acting on the body are shown in Fig. 6.33.
Resolving the forces parallel to the plane,
P cos  = W sin  + F N

or P cos  = W sin  + N ...(6.13)


and resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane,
N = P sin  + W cos  ...(6.14) 
F
Substituting the value of N in eqn. (6.13)
W
P cos  = W sin  +  (P sin  + W cos ) 
= W sin  + P sin  + W cos 
Fig. 6.33
P cos  – P sin  = W sin  + W cos 
P (cos  –  sin ) = W (sin  +  cos ).
sin 
Substituting  = tan  = , in the above expression, we get

F I F
cos 

G sin 
J I W G sin   sin .

P cos   sin 

cos  J

H cos  K H cos  K
P (cos  cos  – sin  sin ) = W (sin  cos  + cos  sin )
P cos ( + ) = W sin ( + )

sin (  )
 P = W cos (  )

or P = W tan ( + ) ...(6.15)
Let Ph = horizontal force applied at the handle
L = length of the handle
 Taking moments of Ph and P about the axis of the screw jack, we get
d
P ×L=P m
h
2

 Ph
dm
=P
2L

or Ph
dm
= 2L W tan ( + )

or Ph dm
=W tan ( + ) ...(6.16)
2L  
(ii) Effort required to lower the load. Since the
weight is being lowered, the force of friction F will act N
upwards. All the forces acting on the body are shown in Fig.
6.34.  P
Resolving all the forces parallel to the plane,
P cos  + F = W sin  
F
or P cos  = W sin  – F
or P cos  = W sin  – N ...(6.17) W

and resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane,
N = W cos  + P sin  ...(6.18) Fig. 6.34
Substituting the value of N in eqn. (6.17), we get
P cos  = W sin  –  (W cos  + P sin )
= W sin  – W cos  – P sin 
or P cos  +  P sin  = W sin  – W cos 
P (cos  +  sin ) = W (sin  –  cos )
sin 
Substituting  = tan  = in the above equation, we get
F I
cos 
F
G cos   sin sin  J I W G sin   sin .
 
P

cos  J

H cos  K H cos  K
P (cos  cos  + sin  sin ) = W (sin  cos  – cos  sin )
P cos ( – ) = W sin ( – )
sin (  )
or P=W
cos (  )
or P = W tan ( – ) ...(6.19)
If  > , the nut or the weight placed on it will start moving downward by the effort component
of the weight and the force P shall have to be applied to hold it on. To guard against this undesirable
effect in screws  is always kept less than  and in that case P will become negative which simply
means that force shall have to be applied in opposite direction to cause the load to move downwards.
Thus, the force required to move the load down,
P = W tan ( – ) ...(6.20)
 Efficiency of a screw jack. We know that effort P required at the mean radius of a screw
jack to lift the load W is given by,
P = W tan ( + )
If there would have been no friction between the screw and the nut, then  will be zero. The
value of effort P0 necessary to raise the load, will then be given by the equation,
P0 = W tan 
ideal effort P0
 Efficiency, = 

up
actual effort P
W tan  tan  ...(6.21)
= 
W tan (  ) tan (  )
It shows that the efficiency of a screw jack is independent of the weight lifted or effort
applied. Condition for maximum efficiency :
For determining condition for maximum efficiency
dup
=0 ...(6.22)
d
L O
MN P
d tan 
or =0
d tan (  )
sec2  tan (  )  sec2 (  ) tan 
or =0
tan2 (  )
 sec2  tan ( + ) = sec2 ( + ) tan 
sin ( + ) cos ( + ) = sin  × cos 
sin 2 ( + ) = sin 2
2 ( + ) =  – 2
 
or = 
4 2

  = 45° –
2 ...(6.23)
Maximum efficiency, up(max) :
Substituting the value of  in eqn. (6.21), we get

F I 1  tan 2

1  tan
up (max) = H
tan 45 
 1  tan 2


2K F
I
tan 45 

H 2K 2

F 1  tan  I F cos   sin2 I
1  tan
2 2

H 2 K F H 2
=F 1  tan  I 
2
2I
K 2
cos  sin

H 2K H 2 2K
  
1  2 sin cos
= 2 2

1  2 sin cos
2 2

1  sin 
= 1  sin 

 Maximum efficiency, up (max)

1  sin  ...(6.24)
= 1  sin 

(b) With V-threads. The square threads (as per configuration) take the N
load W perpendicular to them, whereas in V-threads the axial load does not act
perpendicular to the surface of the threads as shown in Fig. 6.35. The normal
reaction N between the threads and the screw should be such that its axial N

component is equal and opposite to the axial load W.
W
Let 2 = angle inclined between the two sides of the thread.
Then, N cos  = W
2
W ...(6.25)
N =cos 

Frictional force (which acts tangential to the surface of the threads)

F = N
W
or F=
cos 

or F = W ...(6.26)
where  may be regarded as virtual co-efficient of friction

=
cos 
While solving problems on V-threads, for finding out effort P or  etc.  may
be substituted by  in all the relevant equations meant for the square threads.
V-Threads
It may be observed that the force required to lift a given load with V- Fig. 6.35
threads will be more than the square threads.
Note. Square threads are not only used for raising or lowering the load but are also used for
transmission of power such as in lathes (lead screw), milling machines etc. They can transmit power without
any side thrust but are difficult to cut when lead is long on account of the difficulty in cleaning the tool from
the groove. Further, they cannot be used conveniently with split or half nuts on account of difficulty of
disengagement. The Acme threads, though not as efficient as square threads are easier to cut or mill, are
stronger than square threads and permit the use of split nut which can be used to take up the wear.
 SCREW FRICTION
Example 6.15. A screw jack carries a load of 4 kN. It has a square threaded single start
screw of 20 mm pitch and 50 mm mean diameter. The co-efficient of friction between the screw
and its nut is 0.29. Calculate the torque required to raise the load and efficiency of the screw. What is
the torque required to lower the load ?
Sol. Load, W = 4 kN
Mean diameter, dm = 50 mm = 5 cm
Pitch, p = 20 mm = 2
cm Co-efficient of friction,  = 0.29
Torque required to raise the load,

Tup d
m
= W tan ( + ) .
2
p 2
But, tan  =  = 0.1273
dm 5
  = 7.25° or 7° 15
and tan  =  = 0.29
  = 16.17° or 16° 10
5
 Tup = 4 tan (7.25 + 16.17) ×
2
= 4.3 kN cm. (Ans.)
tan 
Efficiency, =
tan (  )
tan 7.25 0.1273
= 
tan (7.25  16.17) 0.4331
= 0.294 or 29.4%. (Ans.)
Torque required to lower the load,

Tlower d
m
= W tan ( – ) .
2
5
= 4 tan (16° 10 – 7° 15) ×
2
= 1.569 kN cm. (Ans.)