Basic Maths Module 2019
Uploaded by
Phil AkipeBasic Maths Module 2019
Uploaded by
Phil AkipeThe Papua New Guinea University of Technology
Department of Open and Distance Learning
ADULT MATRICULATION
BASIC MATHEMATICS
BOAZ ANDREWS
Department of Mathematics and Computer Sciences
The PNG University of Technology
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Basic Mathematics
Boaz Andrew (Mr)
Copy right 2017
Published by:
The Papua New Guinea University of Technology
Lae, Morobe Province
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner
(print/electronic) without prior written permission of the publisher.
____________________________________
Copyright 2017 by
The Papua New Guinea University of Technology
Lae, Morobe Province
Printed 2017
ISBN
2
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Acknowledgement
The author acknowledges Mr Issac Angra, Deputy Head of Department, Department
of Mathematics and Computer Science for content editing and his encouragement to
write and complete the new course book in Mathematics and Ms Joy Sahumlal for
formatting and designing the course material.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
COURSE OVERVIEW AND STUDY GUIDE
INTRODUCTION
The Basic Mathematics course is a non-credit course that is designed to provide
grade 10 school leavers with the knowledge and skills to better tackle Mathematics in
preparation for Upper Secondary School levels.
The aims of this subject are:
to introduce and develop numeracy competence skills that will assist all
learners to success prior to Mathematics 1 and Mathematics 2
to introduce basic mathematical skills as a foundation for learners returning to
study.
Basic Mathematics will be studied in Distance Learning mode through materials
provided. There are no requirements to attend formal tutorials or lectures. The
emphasis is upon home study and students are encouraged to accept most of the
responsibility for;
when to study
where to study
and how to study.
Remember, the level of your success in this subject will be determined by your own
abilities and perseverance in your learning tasks that lies ahead of you.
This Course Guide is intended to explain what this course involves in terms of
content and organisation. You will get answers to the following types of questions in
the succeeding sections.
Who is the course intended for?
What does it cover?
What study materials are supplied?
What sort of work is involved?
What kind of help is available?
How is the course assessed?
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
WHO IS THE COURSE INTENDED FOR?
The prime aim of the Basic Mathematics course is to provide some form of bridging
mathematics course for the adult learners who are returning to studies after some
period of time in the work force, have not completed their Lower Secondary
Schooling and or have performed badly in their Lower Secondary School
Examinations. Basic Mathematics is also for those that have been identified as
needing help in bridging the gap for those who wish to study mathematics and
mathematics based courses after completing Matriculation Studies. Thus you should
pass this course with a C grade or better if you wish to major (specialise) in
mathematics or plan to study other disciplines such as Commerce, Economics,
Medicine, Engineering and Sciences (Biology, Chemistry and Physics) etc.
WHAT DOES IT COVER?
The course covers a selection of topics in, Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry,
Trigonometry; some of which you may have already studied but some topics may be
new to you. You will be introduced to these topics in each section as you cover each
unit throughout the course.
WHAT STUDY MATERIALS ARE SUPPLIED?
The course guide forms part of the course booklet. There are 4 Units of study
covering a range of topics. These units are not based on any particular text book.
These units contain all the study material and exercises needed by you.
In addition to the study material supplied by Department of Open and Distance
Learning (DODL) you should provide for yourself:
- a scientific calculator (e.g. Casio fx-100 or better)
- a ruler marked in millimetres and centimetres
- a box of mathematical instruments
- writing pads for written assignments
- exercise books to solve student learning activities and self-tests
- a folder in which to keep safe marked assignments and tests
- pencils and pens
WHAT SORT OF WORK IS INVOLVED?
The work of this course has been divided into 4 units. Each unit covers
approximately three weeks work. You will be given written assignments for
assessment purposes after successful coverage of each unit.
Of course, this will vary from student to student but you should expect to spend 20 to
30 hours on each unit. Do not worry if a unit takes a little longer. Many students tend
to understand better and score better results when more time is spent on a particular
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
topic. The important thing is to spend enough time on each unit and gain thorough
understanding of the material before you continue onto the next unit of study. Use
the ”Study Technique Timetable” as much as possible.
Each unit of study is arranged according to the following general pattern:
Introduction
It introduces to you the material covered in the unit of study.
Objectives
This section outlines the main tasks to be undertaken in the unit. They tell you about
the type of behaviour expected from you at the end of the unit or what you are
supposed to know and have achieved after completing the unit of study.
Study Notes
The study notes try to do what a tutor/teacher would ordinarily do in a classroom
situation. You must study the notes very carefully and understand them. You are to
study the material and not just reading it. Make sure you understand all definitions,
terms, figures, examples and reasoning. Sometimes you may have to use a
dictionary to find the meaning of difficult words.
Throughout the study material you will find questions and suggested exercises. The
purpose of this is to help you understand and discover for yourself new results which
will be discussed in the material following the question. Be sure to answer all
questions of the Student Learning Activities and exercises.
Throughout the study material you will find a number of solved examples in each
unit. Pay particular attention to the methods used to solving these examples and the
reasoning used in them. These methods will be of great help in solving Student
Learning Activities and self-test problems.
In Mathematics, marks are awarded for both the correct answer to the problem and
the method (steps) used in getting the answer.
Student Learning Activity
After you have studied the material thoroughly, you must work on the student
learning activities for each unit. These problems or exercises are practice exercises
and will help you to assess your progress and understanding in Mathematics. If you
have difficulty in solving a certain question, do not continue, go back to the relevant
section of the lesson, restudy the section and try it again. If you cannot do it, then ask
your tutor. He or she will be most willing to assist you. To understand better, take
your worked solution to the tutorial session so that the tutor can assist you with the
area of your difficulty. It is difficult for your tutor to help you if you are not specific with
your area of difficultly.
Compare your answers with the answers given at the end of each unit. Do not glance
at the solutions before attempting the questions/problems. By doing so you are not
helping anybody.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Design
This course is designed especially to lead you to an understanding of the
mathematical principles, rather than merely to teach you how to calculate and get
answers/solutions to problems. The ability to do other things will come to you when
you have learnt the principles. But in order to learn these principles, you need to
work very hard to learn new mathematical ideas. In some units you may find that you
have to work on more problems, others you will have to work on fewer problems
before fully understanding the course material.
It is always a good idea to work on the student learning activities in a note book or
exercise book so that you will have a complete record of all the worked out problems.
This note book/exercise book becomes your reference material for revision and
studying for examinations.
WHAT KIND OF HELP IS AVAILABLE?
The units in this course are designed for self-study, which means you can do this
course without the help of a teacher or tutor. However, to make the course easier,
there will be face to face tutorials sessions organised at all Study Centres. The Study
Centre Coordinator or Mathematics tutor will inform you of the frequency and time-
table of the tutorials. Feel free to ask any questions regarding the study material or
problems encountered during the course of studying this Mathematics Course
material.
These organised tutorial sessions are not to teach the subject matter, but to be used
by the tutors to discuss problems encountered by students during the course of
studying the course material. Therefore, the learning of Mathematics from these units
is your sole responsibility. The tutor will only guide you to completing the
Mathematics course.
We learn different things in life in different ways from different persons. As such, our
colleagues doing the same course, grade 12 students, students from a higher
learning institution and other teachers are a useful source of reference for learning.
Therefore, whenever, an opportunity arises discuss your Mathematical difficulties
with them. Better still, arrange with other students doing the same course to meet
weekly to share and discuss common problems. The outcome of such discussions
can be further discussed during formal tutorials with your tutor.
Furthermore, become a member of a library (Public Library) in your locality. By doing
so you could get valuable assistance from text books available in the library.
IF YOU DO GET ASSISTANCE FROM SOMEONE OR HELP FROM
SOMEWHERE, ALL ASSIGNMENTS SENT IN FOR ASSESSMENT PURPOSE
MUST BE YOUR OWN WORK. REMEMBER AT THE END OF THE DAY, YOU
WILL BE ON YOUR OWN AT THE FINAL EXAMINATION ROOM.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
HOW IS THE COURSE ASSESSED?
Assessment for this Basic Mathematics Course is divided into two parts:
1. continuous assessment (assignments, tests, projects, etc)
This forms 30%
2. final examination (three hour examination set by DODL)
This forms 70%
Therefore, if you are going to submit your assignments and projects late or miss out
on a test please be sure to inform your tutor beforehand and explain the reasons for
the lateness or absenteeism and arrange for possible rescheduling of due dates or
so. Nevertheless, it is for your own good that all your work is presented on time and
feedback is given on time for revision work.
STUDY TECHNIQUE TIMETABLE
Week 14
Week 10
Week 11
Week 12
Week 13
Did I
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6
Week 7
Week 8
Week 9
Keep to
timetable
Practise
thinking
Write down all
questions from
study material
Try to find
about
everything I
did not
understand
Try to answer
all questions
asked in the
self-tests?
Complete my
assignments
on time
How well did I
do in the
assignments
and tests
Get back my
marked
assignments
and tests
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
QUESTIONNAIRE
Course Code and Title __________________________________________
Dear Student,
We would like to seek your views about this course module, its strengths, and its
weaknesses in order for us to improve it. We therefore request you to fill in this questionnaire
and submit it when you finish this course. If the space provided is insufficient, kindly use a
separate sheet. Do not write your name. Thank you for your cooperation.
Please tick the appropriate box.
Items Excellent Very Good Good Poor Give specific
examples if
poor. (e.g. Unit&
page)
1. Logical presentation of content _________
2. The use of language _________
3. The style of language? _________
4. Explanation of concepts _________
5. Use of tables _________
6. Use of graphs _________
7. Use of diagrams/illustrations _________
8. How are the student activities? _________
9. How is feedback to questions? _________
10. Do the units cover the course
syllabus? ___________
11. If not, which of the topics are not covered?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
12. Comment on the depth of the coverage of the content.
_________________________________________________________________________
13. Is there anything especially good or bad about this course module?
_________________________________________________________________________
14. How do you think the module could be improved?
_________________________________________________________________________
15. Any other comments you wish to make?
_________________________________________________________________________________________
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Unit 1 ARITHMETIC 14
Learning Outcomes 15
Introduction 16
1.1 NUMBER SYSTEMS 17
1.2 DIRECTED NUMBERS 17
1.3 SURDS 18
Student Learning Activity 1.3.1 21
1.4 INDICES 21
Student Learning Activity 1.4.1 24
1.5 SIGNIFICANT DIGITS AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 24
Student Learning Activity 1.5.1 26
1.6 ORDER OF OPERATIONS 26
Student Learning Activity 1.6.1 27
1.7 ROUNDING, APPROXIMATION AND ERROR 27
Student Learning Activity 1.7.1 29
1.8 MEASUREMENT UNIT SYSTEMS 29
Student Learning Activity 1.8.1 31
1.9 MENSURATION 32
Student Learning Activity 1.9.1 40
1.10 RATIOS, RATES AND PERCENTAGES 41
Student Learning Activity 1.10.1 46
1.11 PROPORTIONALITY 47
Student Learning Activity 1.11.1 53
Solutions to Student Learning Activities 54
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
UNIT 2 ALGEBRA 57
Learning outcomes 58
Introduction 59
2.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS 60
Student Learning Activity 2.1.1 62
2.2INEQUALITIES 62
Student Learning Activity 2.2.1 67
2.3 FUNCTIONS 67
Student Learning Activity 2.3.1 71
2.4 GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS 71
Student Learning Activity 2.4.1 73
2.5 LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS 73
Student Learning Activity 2.5.1 76
2.6 LINEAR EQUATIONS 76
Student Learning Activity 2.6.1 78
2.7 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS 78
Student Learning Activity 2.7.1 80
2.8 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 80
Student Learning Activity 2.8.1 83
2.9 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS 84
Student Learning Activity 2.9.1 86
2.10 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 87
Student Learning Activity 2.9.1 90
Answers to Student Activities 91
UNIT 3 GEOMETRY 99
Learning outcomes 100
Introduction
101
3.1 PARALLEL LINES 102
Student Learning Activity 3.1.1 104
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
3.2 POLYGONS 105
Student Learning Activity 3.2.1 106
Student Learning Activity 3.2.2 107
Student Learning Activity 3.2.3 108
3.3 TRIANGLES 108
Student Learning Activity 3.3.1 110
Student Learning Activity 3.3.2 112
Student Learning Activity 3.3.3 114
3.4 QUADRILATERALS 114
Student Learning Activity 3.4.1 117
Student Learning Activity 3.4.2 118
3.5 SIMILAR TRIANGLES 119
Student Learning Activity 3.5.1 120
Student Learning Activity 3.5.2 122
Student Learning Activity 3.5.3 124
Student Learning Activity 3.5.4 125
3.6 CIRCLES 125
Student Learning Activity 3.6.1 128
Student Learning Activity 3.6.2 129
Student Learning Activity 3.6.3 131
3.7 SOLIDS 132
Student Learning Activity 3.7.1 125
Student Learning Activity 3.7.2 137
Student Learning Activity 3.7.3 138
3.8 COORDINATE GEOMETRY 140
Student Learning Activity 3.8.1 148
Solutions to Student Learning Activities 149
UNIT 4 TRIGONOMETRY 151
Learning outcomes 152
Introduction 153
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
4.1 BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS 154
Student Learning Activity 4.1.1 157
4.2 RATIOS OF 0, 30, 45, 60 AND 90 DEGREES 157
4.3 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 158
Student Learning Activity 4.3.1 160
4.4 SOLVING RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES 160
Student Learning Activity 4.4.1 163
4.5 ANGLES OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION 163
Student Learning Activity 4.5.1 165
4.6 PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM 166
Student Learning Activity 4.6.1 167
4.7 SINE RULE 167
Student Learning Activity 4.7.1 171
4.8 COSINE RULE 171
Student Learning Activity 4.8.1 174
Solutions to Student Learning Activities 175
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
UNIT 1
ARITHMETIC
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this unit, you should be able to:
define the terms natural number, integers, rational number, irrational
number, real number and base of a number system;
describe a real number line and define the size of a real number;
explain the use of directed numbers in calculations;
define the terms surd and square root;
simplify expressions involving surds;
define power (index or exponent) of a number;
define the “nth” root of a number;
state the rules for working with indices;
define significant digits;
explain what scientific notation for a number is;
state the priority ordering of operations;
explain the types and methods of rounding a number;
define rounding error;
define absolute and relative error;
explain the International System of Units;
use conversion factors in order to convert between numbers expressed in
various units;
explain the Cartesian (rectangular) coordinate system;
explain how angles may be measured in degrees or in radians and how to
convert between the two systems;
state and apply formulas for measuring areas and volumes of geometric
figures;
define the terms ratio, rate, percentage and base of a percentage;
calculate and interpret percentage differences and changes;
explain proportionality and types of proportional variation;
explain the meaning of two figures being of the same shape and how to
calculate relationships between them.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
INTRODUCTION
Numbers are used in many activities in our daily life. They are used to count,
measure and quantify many phenomena of interest and importance. They are
essential in business, trade, public administration, international relations – indeed in
nearly all types of human activity. This unit deals with basic numerical concepts and
procedures in which numbers are used: number systems; types of numbers; powers
and roots; significant digits; operational conventions; approximation; units of
measurement; mensuration formulas; and relationships between measurements.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
1.1 NUMBER SYSTEMS
The set of numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .....} is the set of natural numbers.This set is
infinite, which means that it contains an unlimited number of members or elements.It
does not have a largest member.If we include negative numbers, we obtain the set of
integers: {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, .....}.
Arational numberis a fraction in which both numerator and denominator areintegers
(whole numbers), but the denominator is not 0.All integers belong to the set of
rational numbers, since 7 = , 0 = , -5 = - and so on. Numbers like are
excluded, as the denominator is 0; such numbers are undefined andhave no
meaning.A number that is not rational is an irrational number. The number πis a
commonly used irrational number
Some numbers have a recurring decimal expansion, ie. one where a set of one or
3
more digits is repeated indefinitly. For example 0.428571428571428571…. Every
7
rational numbers has either a recuring or a terminating decimal expansion.
Every rational number has either a For example,
and An irrational number has neither a recurring nor a
terminating decimalexpansion.
A real number is a number that can be expressed as a decimal number with a
limited or unlimited number of digits, such as 785.565214. The set of real numbers
consists of all rational and irrational numbers.
Any positive integer greater than 1 may be used as the base of a number system.
Every digit in a real number represents the product of the digit and the corresponding
power of the base or its reciprocal; the value of the number is the sum of these
products. The number may be positive or negative (see Section 1.2 below). For
example, the base of the familiar decimal system that we usually use is 10, so in this
system 289.604 means 2*102 + 8*101+ 9*100 + 6* + 0* + 4* , where
0
10 = 1.
1.2 DIRECTED NUMBERS
Every real number can be represented by a point on anumber line, which is a
straight line extending indefinitely in both directions. It is usually drawn as a
horizontal line, but it may also be drawn as a vertical line. The point on the line
representing zero (0) is called the origin. Points on thenumber line to the right of the
origin(or above it) represent positive (+) numbers; points to the left of the origin(or
below it) represent negative (-) numbers.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
The size, or magnitude, of a number is the distance of the point that represents the
number from the origin. Thus, for examlpe, the numbers -3 and +3 are the same
size, since the points representing them on the number line are both 3 units from the
origin. The sum of apositive number and the corresponding negative number is 0.
Positive and negative numbers are referred to as directed numbers, because they
lie in one direction or in the opossite direction from the other from the origin.
When doing calculations, one must take into account both the sizes and the signs of
the numbers involved. For example, multiplying two or more numbers together
requires two separate (and unrelated) operations: determining the size of the answer
(product) and determining the sign of the answer. The size of the answer is
determined by multiplying the sizes of all the factors together. The sign of the
answer is determined by applying the following rule: if the number of negative signs
among the factors is even, the sign of the product is positive; if the number of
negative signs among the factors is odd, the sign of the product is negative.
Similarly, dividing one number by another requires two separate (and unrelated)
operations: determining the size of the answer (quotient) and determining the sign of
the answer. The size of the answer is determined by dividing the size of the
numerator by the size of the denominator. The sign of the answer is determined by
applying the following rule: if the numerator and the denominator have the same
sign, the sign of the quotientis positive; if the numerator and the denominator have
opposite signs, the sign of the quotientis negative.
1.3 SURDS
Surds are irrational real numbers of the form √x. √x denotes the square root of x,
which means “the non-negative number that gives x as the product when the number
is multiplied by itself”. For example, √16 = +4, since 4*4 = 16, where * denotes
multiplication. The symbol “√” is called a radical.
The properties of a square root include:
√x is never negative, so √x ≥ 0.
√x is meaningful only for x ≥ 0.
√ab = √a * √b for a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0.
√
√ .
√
The ancient Greeks, probably due to the work of Pythagoras, discovered the
existence ofsurds such as √2, √3 and √5. They established that a surd is not a
rational number; it is an irrational number. √4 is not a surd,for example, as it
simplifies to 2.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 3.1
√
Write as a single surd: (a) √2 * √3; (b) .
√
Solution
(a) √ √ √ √
√
(b) √ √
√
Example 3.2
Simplify: (a) 3√3 + 5√3; (b) 2√2 - 5√2.
Solution
(a) 3√3 + 5√3 = (3 + 5)√3 = 8√3
(b) 2√2 - 5√2 = (2 - 5)√2 = -3√2
Example 3.3
Write √18 in the form a√b, where a and b are integers and a is as large as possible.
Solution
√ √ √ √ √ , since 9 is the largest factor of 18 that is a “perfect
square”, ie. the square of a whole number.
Example 3.4
Simplify: 2√75 - 5√27
Solution
2√75 - 5√27= √ √ √ √ √ √
√
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 3.5
Express without a radical in the denominator.
√
Solution
√ √
√
√ √ √
Recall that the difference between two squares can be factorized as follows:
(a2 - b2) = (a + b)(a - b). This can be used to simplify expressions with
denominators of the form (a ± b) where one or both of a and b are surds.
Example 3.6
Express without any radicals in the denominator.
√
Solution
√ ( √ ) ( √ )
√ √ √
Example 3.7
√
Express without any radicals in the denominator.
√ √
Solution
√ √ √ √ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ √
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 1.3.1 30 Minutes
1 Write as a single surd or a rational number: (a) √3 * √5; (b) √ (c)
2√2*√2; (d) 3√2*2√2.
2 Simplify the following: (a) 2√2 + 3√2; (b) 2√2 - 3√2; (c) 5√5 - 3√5;
(d) 5√5 + 3√5.
3 Write the following in the form a√b, where a and b are integers and a is as
large as possible: (a) √8; (b) √12; (c) √20; (d) √32; (e) √27; (f) √45; (g)
√48;
(h) √54.
4 Simplify:(a) 4√3 - √12; (b) 3√2 + √50; (c) 3√6 + √24.
5 Express the following without a radical in the denominator: (a) ; (b) ; (c)
√ √
; (d) ; (e) .
√ √ √
√
6 Express the following without a rational denominator: (a) ; (b) .
√ √ √
1.4 INDICES
Definition of power (index or exponent)
If n is a positive integer, an means “the product of n factors, each of which is a”. It is
called “a to the nth power”, “a to the power n” or “a to the n” for short. Notice that it
does not mean “a multiplied by itself n times”. For example, a3 = a * a * a; there are
three factors, but only two multiplications.
If n is a positive integer and an = b, then a is called the nth root of b, which is
n
written b . In other words, the nth root of b is the number whose nth power is b.
x
In the expression a , “a” is called the base and “x” the index, power or exponent.
The plural form of index is “indices” (a Latin term).
Rules of indices
The three basic rules for working with indices are:
a m a n a m n
a m / a n a mn
a m n
a mn
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
From these basic rules, we obtain:
a0 1
a-n = 1 / an
1
am m a
1 1
n n m n n
(a ) (a ) , ie. a ( a )
m m m
These rules are true for all real values of n and m.
Example 4.1
4 2 x3
Simplify E 6 x
8 x 3
Solution
6 x 4 2 x3 12 x 43 x 1
E 1.5 1.5 x 13 1.5 x 2
8x 3 x
8 3 x 3
Example 4.2
4
1
Simplify F 3 x 2 x 3
Solution
4
1 2 4 24
3 2 3 3
F x x x x x 3 3 x2
3
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 4.3
Prove that xy x y
Solution
1
Right hand side = x y , by the third rule
22
1
2
= x y x y
= xy 2 = Left hand side
1
Example 4.4
Express as a product of a power of 2 and a power of 3:
3 x 24 3 x 2
*
27 2 x 3 x 1
Solution
3 x 2 3 3 3 x 2 3 x 1 x 2 2 3
Expression = 3 x 1
33 2 x 3 x 1 3 2x
2 3 3 2 x 3
= x2
2 3 x 3 x 1
2 3
x
Example 4.5
Calculate the value of 6 3 in two different ways.
Solution
6 3 6 2 3 36 3 3.302 Also 6 3 6 3
2
1 1 2
1.81712
1 2
2
3.302
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 1.4.1 12 Minutes
8t 3 3t 9
1 Simplify 5t 7
mn
Prove that a / a a , where m and n are positive integers.
m n
2
3 Express as a multiple of a product of a power of 5 and a power of 6:
6 2 y 7 72 5 x 2
*
100 6 y 6 x 8
1.5 SIGNIFICANT DIGITS AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Significant digits
Each digit in a number may be classed as being either significant or non-significant.
Significant digits are all digits except leading zeros (ie. zeros at the left-hand end of
a number) and rounding zeros (ie. zeros indicating that a number has been rounded).
Example 5.1
How many significant digits does each of these numbers have?
(a) 0.0042071; (b) 130,421; (c) 2,780,000 (rounded to the nearest thousand).
Solution
(a) 5 significant digits
(b) 6 significant digits. (Notice that the zero is significant because it is not a leading
zero or a rounding zero.)
(c) 4 significant digits. (Notice that the zero following the “8” is significant because
it is not a rounding zero.)
Rounding to a specified number of significant digits requires one to round a number
so that only the required number of significant digits remains. The rounding is
usually done to the nearest multiple of the rounding unit, unless one of the other
methods is specified (see Section 1.7 below).
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 5.2
Round to 3 significant digits: (a) 204,219; (b) 0.0016677.
Solution
(a) 204,000; (b) 0.00167.
Scientific notation
Scientific notation (or standard form) for a number is a convention for expressing any
number in a standard manner by showing only significant digits and a power of 10. A
number expressed in scientific notationis of the form x*10m, where 1 ≤ x < 10
and m is an integer, eg. 6.325*10-4. It may also have a negative sign in front of it.
The number x must begin with a positive digit followed by a decimal point, if
necessary, and further digits, if necessary.
This notation is extremely useful for representing very large numbers (as in
astronomy) or very small numbers (as in nuclear physics). In scientific notation only
significant digits are shown (apart from the power of 10); leading zeros and rounding
zeros are dispensed with.
Example 5.3
Express in scientific notation each of the numbers in Example 5.1.
Solution
(a) 0.0042071 = 4.2071*10-3 (5 significant digits)
(a) 130,421 =1.30421*105 (6 significant digits)
(a) 2,780,000 (rounded to the nearest thousand) =2.780*106 (4 significant digits)
In order to convert to ordinary form a number expressed in scientific notation, we
must move the decimal point to the left or right, depending on the power of 10, and
insert leading zeros or rounding zeros if necessary. If the power is positive, we must
move the decimal point to the right that number of decimal places; if the power is
negative, we must move the decimal point to the left that number of decimal places.
For example, if the power is 4, we move the decimal point four places to the right (in
order to multiply by 10 four times); if the power is -4, we move the decimal point four
places to the left (in order to divide by 10 four times).
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 5.4
Express each of these numbers in ordinary form.
(a) 6.8817*10-4
(b) 2.5454*105
Solution
(a) 0.00068817 (by moving decimal point 4 places to the left)
(b) 254,540(by moving decimal point 5 places to the right)
Student Learning Activity 1.5.1 5 Minutes
1 How many significant digits does each of these numbers have?
(a) 0.0006573; (b) 2,461,889; (c) 3,181,000 (rounded to the
nearest hundred).
2 Round to 4 significant digits: (a) 811,441; (b) 0.0289774.
1.6 ORDER OF OPERATIONS
There are several operations that may be carried on one or more real numbers.
The most common operations are addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*),
division (/), and powering (evaluating indices). Where an expression contains two or
more operations, they cannot all be carried out at once; in fact, each operation must
be done one at a time.
In order to ensure that any expression that contains two or more operations is always
evaluated in the same way, mathematicians have developed a priority ordering of
operations, and i.e. certain operations must be carried out before others are carried
out. The order of priority of operations is:
1 Brackets. If any part of an expression is in brackets, the value of the part
in brackets must be evaluated before any parts that are not in brackets.
2 Indexes. A number that is raised to a power must be evaluated before
lower priority operations are done.
3 Division and multiplication operations have the next highest priority
(equally).
4 Addition and subtraction operations have the lowest priority (equally).
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
These priorities should be applied from left to right. For example, if there are three
addition operations, the leftmost one should be done first, then the middle one and
then the rightmost one.
In order to remember the order, some people remember the initials of the operations
as: BIDMAS.
Example 6.1
Simplify the following expressions. (a) 5 + (42 – 6) / 9; (b) 14 –5*(4 + 17);
(c) (15 + 4)(11 – 2) / 18.
Solution
(a) 5 + (42 – 6) / 9 = 5 + (36) / 9 = 5 + 4 = 9;
(b) 14 – 5*(4 + 17) =14 – 5*(21) = 14 – 105 = - 91;
(c) (15 + 4)(11 – 2) / 18 = (19)(9) / 18 = 9.5.
Student Learning Activity 1.6.1 5 Minutes
Simplify the following expressions. (a) 7 + (38 – 6) / 8; (b) 23 – 6*(2 + 44);
(c) (33 + 7)(21 – 2) / 18.
1.7 ROUNDING, APPROXIMATION AND ERROR
Rounding
After doing a calculation, particularly on a calculator, there is usually a need to
remove some of the less important digits on the right-hand side by rounding, in order
to present a suitable answer. There are two types of rounding procedure: rounding
to a multiple of a rounding unit; and rounding to a certain number of significant digits.
For the former type of procedure, the rounding unit may be explicitly stated or it may
be implied by requiring the rounded figure to be expressed with a certain number of
decimal places, i.e. digits after the decimal point. For example, when rounding to the
nearest multiple of a thousand, one is using one thousand as the rounding unit;
whereas rounding to two decimal places implies that the rounding unit is 0.01, i.e. the
rounded figure will be a (whole number) multiple of 0.01.
27
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
There are three common methods of rounding to a multiple of a rounding unit:
(a) rounding to the nearest multiple of the rounding unit;
(b) rounding up to the nearest multiple of the rounding unit;
(c) rounding down to the nearest multiple of the rounding unit.
For Method (b) the rounded figure must be greater than or equal to the unrounded
figure, whereas for Method (c) the rounded figure must be less than or equal to the
unrounded figure. For Method (a) the rounded figure may be greater than or less
than the unrounded figure, depending on which multiple of the rounding unit is nearer
to the unrounded figure.
Method (a) is the most common method used but the other methods are used where
they are more appropriate. For example, when ages are rounded to whole years, it
is usual to round down to the nearest whole number of years - not to round to the
nearest whole number.
Example 7.1
Round 88.12847 to 2 decimal places by each of the three rounding methods.
Solution
Since rounding is to 2 decimal places, the rounding unit is 0.01, i.e. the answer must
be a multiple of 0.01. The multiples of 0.01 immediately above and below the
unrounded number are 88.13 and 88.12, i.e. 8,813*0.01 and 8,812*0.01. In each
case the answer must be one or other of these two numbers. Thus the answers are:
(a) 88.13; (b) 88.13; (c) 88.12
Approximation and error
When we round a figure, we obtain an answer that is approximately equal to the
unrounded figure. The rounding error (or approximation error)we make by doing
this is defined as rounding error = rounded figure - unrounded figure. This
error is called the absolute error in order to distinguish it from the relative error,
which is calculated by expressing the absolute error as a proportion or percentage of
the unrounded figure.
If the rounded figure is greater than the unrounded figure, the error (both absolute
and relative) is positive; if the rounded figure is less than the unrounded figure, the
error is negative.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 7.2
What are the absolute and relative rounding errors made in Example 7.1?
Solution
(a) Absolute rounding error = 88.13 - 88.12847 = 0.00153
Relative rounding error = 0.00153 / 88.12847 = 0.00001736 = 0.001736 %
(b) Absolute rounding error = 88.13 - 88.12847 = 0.00153
Relative rounding error = 0.00153 / 88.12847 = 0.00001736 = 0.001736 %
(c) Absolute rounding error = 88.12 - 88.12847 = - 0.00847
Relative rounding error = -0.00847 / 88.12847 = -0.00009611
=- 0.009611 %
Student Learning Activity 1.7.1 10 Minutes
1 Round 2.557142 to 3 decimal places by each of the three rounding methods.
2 What are the absolute and relative rounding errors made in1?
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
1.8 MEASUREMENT UNIT SYSTEMS
The metric system of measurement units originated in France in 1799
following the French Revolution, although decimal units had been used in many other
countries and cultures previously. Although there have been many different
measurement systems and the definitions of the units have been revised from time to
time, the official system of measurements of Papua New Guinea and most countries
is the modern form of the metric system, which is known as the "International System
of Units" (ISU).
The metric system uses a set of prefixes in order to relate the units to each other.
The most common prefixes are:
kilo- = thousand; mega- = million; giga- = billion
deci- = tenth; centi- = hundredth; milli- = thousandth
Thus, for example, 1 kilometre = 1,000 metres; 1 centimetre = one hundredth (of
a) metre; 1 millimetre = one thousandth (of a) metre; so 1centimetre = 10
millimetres, and so on.
An exception in terminology is 1,000 kilograms = 1 tonne (not 1 megagram).
Since other systems of measurement are still used in some places, such as the
United States and the United Kingdom, one sometimes needs to make conversions
between the ISU and other systems, eg. when communicating with a person in the
USA.
The most commonly used conversion factors are given below.
ISU system USA system USA system ISU system
1 tonne (t) 1.1023 tons 1 ton 0.9072 tonne
1 kilogram (kg) 2.2046 pounds 1 stone 6.3503 kilograms
1 gram (g) 0.0022 pounds 1 pound 0.4536 kilograms
1 kilometre (km) 0.62137 miles 1 ounce 28.350 grams
1 metre (m) 1.09361 yards 1 mile 1.60934 kilometres
1centimetre (cm) 0.39370 inches 1 yard 0.91440 metres
1 square 0.38610 square 1 foot 30.4800 centimetres
kilometre (km2) miles
1 hectare (ha) 0.00386 square 1 inch 2.54000 centimetres
miles
1 square metre 1.19598 square 1 square 2.58998 square
(m2) yards mile kilometres
1 square 0.1550 square 1 acre 4,046.8363 square
centimetre (cm2) inches metres
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
1 kilolitre (kl) 264.17 gallons 1 square 0.83613 square metres
yard
1 litre (l) 2.1134 pints 1 square foot 929.0304 square
centimetres
1 millilitre (ml) 0.0338 fluid ounces 1 square 6.4516 square
inch centimetres
1 gallon 3.7854 litres
1 pint 473.18 millilitres
Example 8.1
Convert the following quantities as indicated: (a) 4.3 tons to tonnes; (b) 5.97
metres to inches; (c) 0.0455 miles to metres; (d) 18.412 kilolitres to pints; (e) 34
acres to square metres; (f) 247 kilograms to tons.
Solution
(a) 4.3 tons = 4.3 * 0.9072 tonnes = 3.90 tonnes
(b) 5.97 metres = 5.97*100 cm = 597 * 0.39370 inches = 235.04 inches
(c) 0.0455 miles = 0.0455*1.60934 kilometres = 45.5*1.60934 metres
= 73.22 metres
(d) 18.412 kilolitres = 18,412. litres = 18,412*2.1134 pints = 38,911.92 pints
(e) 34 acres = 34*4,046.8363 square metres = 137,592.4342 square metres
(f) 247 kilograms = 0.247 tonnes = 0.247*1.1023 tons = 0.2723 tons
Student Learning Activity 1.8.1 20 Minutes
Convert the following quantities as indicated. (a) 8.5 tonnes to tons; (b) 73.14
inches to metres; (c) 3,837 metres to miles; (d)5,222 pints to kilolitres; (e) 34,214
square metres to acres; (f) 779 tons to kilograms.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
1.9 MENSURATION
Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates
The Cartesian coordinate system (named after
French Mathematician Des Cartes) uses a pair
of axes, one vertical and one horizontal. Each
axis is a number line, with positive values being
shown up the vertical axis and on the right hand
side of the horizontal axis. The horizontal axis
is often referred to as the x–axis and the
vertical one as the y–axis, although one can
use any variables one likes to label the axes.
The axes cross at the origin, which is the point
that has zero value on both axes.
In this system, every point in the plane defined
by the axes has two values associated with it
that determine its location. Those values are called the Cartesian (or rectangular)
coordinates of the point and are written in parentheses separated by a comma. The
first coordinate of the two is the horizontal coordinate (often called the x-coordinate);
it indicates the perpendicular distance of the point from the vertical axis (measured
horizontally). The second coordinate is the vertical one (often called the y-
coordinate); it indicates the perpendicular distance of the point from the horizontal
axis (measured vertically). Coordinates may be zero, positive or negative, e.g. a
point such as Q lying 3 units below the horizontal axis has a vertical coordinate of –3
whereas a point such as P lying 3 units above the horizontal axis has a vertical
coordinate of +3.
The scales on the axes are usually the same.
Vertical and horizontal measurements are regarded as being directed
measurements: if the measurement is made in one direction, it is positive, but if it is
made in the opposite direction, it is negative. Specifically, a distance measured
vertically upwards (e.g. from R to P) is positive, but a distance measured vertically
downwards (e.g. from S to Q) is negative. Also, a distance measured horizontally
from left to right (e.g. from T to Q) is positive, but a distance measured horizontally
from right to left (e.g. from Q to T) is negative.
Measurements of line segments that are neither horizontal nor vertical are not
directed measurements: they have a length (or distance) but no direction, ie. no
positive or negative sign.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Measuring angles in degrees
An angle measures the extent of rotation between two lines
about their point of intersection.
The angle in this diagram is denoted by AOB or AÔB
(or BOA or BÔA).
Traditionally, the size of an angle is measured in degrees,
one degree being one 360th of a circle, i.e. a circle is
divided into 360 degrees (360º); A semi-circle
represents 180º and a quarter-circle (right angle)
represents 90º, thus:
One degree is divided into 60 (equal) minutes (= 60);
one minute is divided into 60 (equal) seconds (= 60).
Alternatively, one can use decimal degrees, ie. degrees
expressed in decimal form.
Example 9.1
Express 18.42º in degrees, minutes and seconds.
Solution
18.42º = 18 degrees + 0.42 * 60 minutes
= 18 degrees + 25.2 minutes
= 18 degrees + 25 minutes + 0.2 * 60 seconds
= 18 degrees + 25 minutes + 12 seconds= 18º 25 12
Example 9.2
Express 18º 25 12 in decimal degrees.
Solution
12= 12/60 minutes = 0.2 minutes
25.2= 25.2/60 degrees = 0.42 degrees
so 18º 25 12 = 18.42 degrees
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Measuring angles in radians
An alternative means of measuring an angle is to
construct a circle centred at the vertex of the angle,
measure the length of the arc that subtends the
angle at the centre of the circle, and then divide the
length of the arc by the radius of the circle.
In this case, the units are called radians, so the
arc length (a)
size of angle ( ) radians
radius (r)
If = 360º, then a = circumference = 2r
So = 2r / r = 2
i.e. 360º = 2 radians
or 180º = radians
To convert a measurement in degrees to radians, multiply by /180.
Example 9.3
Convert 43º to radians.
Solution
1º = / 180 radians
43º = 43 * / 180 = 43 (3.142) / 180 = 0.750 radians
To convert a measurement in radians to degrees, multiply by 180/.
Example 9.4
Convert 2.37 radians to degrees.
Solution
1 radian = 180 / degrees
2.37 radians = 2.37 (180) / = 2.37 (180) / 3.142 = 135.79 degrees
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Measuring areas
In the following formulas, the meanings of the pronumerals are as follows.
h = height, l = length, w = width, b = base, r = radius and s = slant height.
It is an accepted convention that, where pronumerals are multiplied, the multiplication
sign (*) may be omitted.
Area of rectangle = l w
Area of parallelogram = b h
Area of triangle = ½ b h
Area of trapezium = ½ h ( b1 + b2)
Area of circle = r2
1 2
Area of sector of circle = r ,
2
where is measured in radians.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Area of rectangular solid = 2 (l w + w h + l h),
Curved area of right circular cylinder = 2 r h
Total area of right circular cylinder = 2 r h + 2 r2
Curved area of right circular cone = r s
Area of sphere = 4 r2
Example 9.5
The edge of this cam is to be coated with a metal strip
that costs K7.50 per cm. How much will this cost? (The
figure consists of a semicircle, two quarter-circles and a
straight line.) What is the area of one side of the cam?
Solution
Diameter of smaller circles = 4.5
Diameter of larger circle = 9
Circumference of large semi-circle = 9 / 2 = 4.5
Circumference of each quarter-circle = 4.5 / 4
Length of straight segment = 4.5
Total circumference of cam = 4.5 + 4.5 / 2 + 4.5
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
= 6.75 + 4.5
= 25.7085 cm
Cost = 7.50 * 25.7085 = K 192.81
Area of large semi-circle = 0.5 4.52
Area of each quarter-circle = 0.25 2.252
Area of rectangle = 2.25 * 4.5
Total area = 0.5 4.52 + 0.5 2.252 + 2.25 * 4.5
= 0.5 (25.3125) + 10.125
= 49.89 cm2
Example 9.6
A fence is to be made of uniform trapezoidal slats as shown. If the fence is 13.34 m
long, what is its area (on one side)?
Solution
Area of one slat = 0.5 * 14.5 (150 + 170)
= 2,320 cm2
No. of slats = 1,334 / 14.5 = 92
Total area = 2,320 * 92 = 213,440 cm2
= 21.34 m2
Measuring volumes
In the following formulas, h = height, l = length, w = width and r = radius.
Volume of rectangular solid = l w h
Volume of right circular cylinder = r2 h
Volume of right circular cone = r2 h / 3
Volume of sphere = 4 r3 / 3
Example 9.7
How many metres of cylindrical steel rods of radius 0.5 cm can be made from an
ingot which is a rectangular solid 6 cm * 6 cm * 24 cm?
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
Volume of ingot = 6 * 6 * 24 = 864 cm3
Let L cm be the total length of rods.
Volume of rods = 0.52 L
L / 4 = 864
L = 864 * 4 / = 1,099.94 cm = 11 m
Example 9.8
The diameter of the Earth is 12,750 km and the diameter of the sun is 1,384,000 km.
The distance from the Earth to the sun (centre to centre) is 1,496,400,000 km. What
is the distance from the centre of the Earth to the end of the shadow cast behind the
Earth by the sun’s rays? What is the volume of this shadow?
Solution
Let TY (= D km) and WZ (= d km) be diameters of the sun and the Earth
respectively.
Let SE = y km and
EV = x km.
From the similar triangles
STV and EWV,
ST EW
SV EV
D/2 d/2
i.e.
yx x
Dx =dy + dx
Dx - dx = dy
x = dy / (D - d)
= 12,750 * 1.4964 * 109 / (1,384,000 – 12,750)
= 19,079.1 * 109 / 1,371,250
= 1.39136 * 107 km
Distance from centre of Earth to end of shadow = 13,913,600 km
Volume of the cone on the base WZ = (d/2)2 x / 3 = d2 x / 12
Volume of the Earth’s hemisphere = 0.5 * 4 (d/2)3 / 3 = d3 / 12
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Volume of the shadow = d2 x / 12 - d3 / 12
= d2 (x – d) / 12
= 3.142 * 12,7502 (13,913,600 – 12,750) / 12
= 3.142 * 162,562,500 * 13,900,850 / 12
= 5.917 * 1014 km3
Example 9.9
What is the surface area of a spherical ball with volume 0.325 m3?
Solution
Volume = 4 r3 / 3 = 0.325
r3= 3 * 0.325 / (4 * 3.142) = 0.0775779
r = 3 0.0775779 0.4265
Area = 4 r2 = 4 * 3.142 (0.4265)2 = 2.286 m2
39
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 1.9.1 35 Minutes
1 Convert 38.157 to degrees, minutes and seconds.
2 Convert 17 41 13 to decimal degrees.
3 Convert 27.59 to radians.
4 Convert 2.41 radians to decimal degrees.
5 A rectangular garden bed measuring 4.3 m by 7.1 m is surrounded on all
sides by strips of lawn that are all of the same width. If the total area of the
lawn is 36.4 m2, what is the width of the strips?
6 A rivet has the side view shown and a circular cross-section. What is its
volume?
7 The circumference of a circle exceeds its diameter by 22.3 metres. What is its
diameter?
1.10 RATIOS, RATES AND PERCENTAGES
Ratios
A ratio compares two quantities of the same kind by dividing one quantity by the
other. The quantities must be expressed using the same unit; the ratio itself has no
units. If there are three females and seven males in a tutorial group, then the ratio of
females to males is , which is sometimes written as 3:7, or “3 to 7”, and the ratio of
males to females is 7:3.
A ratio is usually written in the simplest form possible, either by cancelling all
common factors or by reducing one side of the ratio to 1.
40
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 10.1
There are 120 males and 100 females in a village. How many males are there per
female?
Solution
6
The ratio of males to females is 120:100, This can be simplified to or to 1.2:1
5
Thus there are 1.2 males per female.
Since a ratio is a fraction, its value is not changed if you multiply both sides by the
same number or divide both sides by the same number.However, you cannot add
anything to or subtract anything from both sides without changing the value of the
ratio.
A common calculation is to divide a total into parts so that the parts are in given
ratios to each other (in pairs).
Example 10.2
Mary, Kila and Joe have K91, which they divide amongst themselves in the
ratiosMary:Kila:Joe = 7:3:3. (This means that Mary:Kila = 7:3, Kila:Joe = 3:3 and
Mary:Joe = 7:3.) How much does each person get?
Solution
Adding the three quantities in the ratios gives 7 + 3 + 3 = 13, so, if we divide the
total into 13 equal parts and give Mary 7, Kila 3 and Joe 3, their shares will be in the
correct ratios.
K91/13 = K7 so, Mary will get 7*7 = K49 and Kila and Joe will each get 3*7 = K21.
Then Mary:Kila:Joe 7 7 : 3 7 : 3 * 7 7 : 3 : 3 as required.
Rates
A rate is a fraction involving quantities with different units. It is necessary to state
what the units are.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 10.3
If I travel 180km in 3 hours, at what speed am I travelling on average?
Solution
180km 60km
60km per hour, or 60km/hr.
3hr 1hr
Sometimes it is necessary to convert a rate expressed using one kind of units into
one expressed using another kind of units, which requires care.
Example 10.4
Convert 50 miles/gallon to km/litre.
Solution
50 miles/gallon=50*1.60934kilometres / 3.7854litres
50 1.60934
km/litre
3.7854
= 21.26km/litre
Percentages
A percentage is a standardized ratio whose denominator is 100.Since it is
standardized, it is often used for comparing two or more ratios.
Example 10.5
A class has 60 students, of whom 36 are male. What percentage of the class is
male?
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
36 x 36
Let x stand for the male percentage. Then , so x 100 60%.
60 100 60
Thus 60 percent of the class are males.
The word “percent” means “per hundred” or “hundredths”. If you divide a quantity (Q)
Q
into 100 equal parts, each part is one percent of the quantity and 25 of them is
100
Q 25
25 percent of the quantity, i.e. 25 hundredths of the quantity 25 Q .
100 100
Example 10.6
Sixty-two percent of the 18,341 voters in an election voted for the winning candidate.
How many people voted for him? In other words, what is 62 percent of 18,341?
Solution
62
18,341 11,371
100
Thus 11,371 people voted for him.
Example 10.7
If 20 percent of a man's fortnightly income is K30, how much is 55 percent?
Solution
One way of solving this problem is as follows.
20% of his income = 30
30
1% of his income =
20
30
55% of his income = 55 = K82.50
20
One of the most important things to remember about a percentage is that it is a ratio
that represents a comparison with a base.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
The base of a percentage is the quantity that corresponds to 100 percent.
In order to understand a percentage, one must know (conceptually, at least) what
quantity is the base of the percentage.
Example 10.8
What are the bases of the percentages in Examples 7.6 and 7.7?
Solution
For the first one, the base is the total number of voters 18,341.
For the second one, the base is the man’s total income, which was not given, but can
30
be calculated as K 100 = K150.
20
A very common use of percentages is for expressing relative differences, e.g.
between two different variables or between the values of one variable at different
points of time.
The steps to follow when calculating percentage changes over time are:
(1) Calculate the amount of the change by subtracting the earlier figure from the
later one.
(2) Divide the (absolute) change by the earlier figure and multiply by 100.
Example 10.9
The population of a certain village was 2,500 in 1980. In 1981 it was 2,650. What
was the percentage increase, i.e. in percentage terms, what was the increase
relative to the earlier figure?
Solution
Step (1): (Absolute) change 2,650 2,500 150 (increase)
150
Step (2): Percentage change 100 6% .
2,500
So the population increased by 6 percent (of the earlier figure).
Example 10.10
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
In Mt Hagen, Joe earned K3,600 per year, but when he moved to Lae, he earned
only K3,420. By what percentage did his pay decrease?
Solution
Step (1): (Absolute) change 3,420 3,600 180 (decrease)
180
Step (2): Percentage change 100 5% .
3,600
Joe's pay decreased by 5 percent.
When comparing values that relate to different points of time, we always use the
earlier value as the base of the percentage, i.e. we always compare the later figure
against the earlier one as base.
In a case where one is calculating the percentage difference between two different
variables, one has to decide which one to use as the base.
One must also clearly indicate which value is the base of the calculated percentage.
Example 10.11
James earns K150 per fortnight and Thomas earns K130. The difference between
their salaries is K20, but what is the percentage difference?
Solution
If James’ salary is used as the base, then the percentage difference is
20
100 13.3% and we say that Thomas earns 13.3% less than James.
150
This means that the difference is 13.3% of James’ salary, which is the stated base of
the comparison.
However, if Thomas’ salary is used as the base, the percentage difference is
20
100 15.4% and we say that James earns 15.4% more than Thomas.
130
Here we are expressing the difference as 15.4% of Thomas' salary, which is the
stated base of the comparison.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 1.10.1 40 Minutes
1 There are 12,085 doctors in a country with a population of 7.8 million. How
many persons are there per doctor?
2 Andrew, Miriam and Kawa have K320, which they divide amongst themselves
in the ratios Andrew:Miriam:Kawa = 8:5:7. How much does each person
get?
3 On a journey of 283 km, your car uses 5.6 litres of fuel. What is your fuel
consumption rate?
4 Convert 87 miles/hour to m/second.
5 A school has 782 students, of whom 52 are in Grade 7. What percentage of
the students in the school are not in Grade 7?
6 Forty-three percent of the patients in a hospital are children. If there are 272
child patients, how many patients are there in the hospital?
7 Twenty-eight percent of the employees of a company are female. What is the
base of this percentage?
8 The population of a certain town was 73,542 in 1995. In 1999 it was 91,112.
What was the percentage increase over that period?
9 After receiving a 7 percent pay rise, Janet’s pay was K226.21. What was her
pay before she received the rise?
10 Peter’s pay is 6.1 percent more than Paul’s. If Peter’s pay is K343.68, what is
Paul’s?
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
1.11 PROPORTIONALITY
Proportionality
The word “proportion” is used in mathematics in two different ways:
(1) A “proportion” is a part, or a proper fraction.
2
It is usually expressed as a decimal or as a percentage, e.g. or 0.667 or 66.7%.
3
(2) On the other hand, the terms “proportional” and “in proportion” are used when
comparing ratios or rates. If two or more ratios or rates are equal, the
numerators are said to be proportional to, or in proportion to, the
denominators (and vice versa).
Example 11.1
Suppose that the price of a bag of rice is proportional to its weight, that bag size A
weighs 10kg and costs K7, and that bag size B weighs 25kg and costs K17.50.
(a) What is the price/weight rate for a bag?
(b) Show that the ratio of the prices equals the ratio of the weights.
(c) What is the price of bag size C, which weighs 5kg?
Solution
(a) The price/weight rate for one bag will be the same as for any other bag, so
Bag A Bag B
7.00kina 17.50kina
=
10kg 25kg
These two fractions (rates) both equal 0.7 kina / kg, which is the price/weight rate for
a bag. Thus the price of one kg of rice is 0.7 kina.
(b) By re-arranging the equation in (a), we have:
Prices Weights
7.00kina 10kg
=
17.50kina 25kg
i.e.the ratio of the prices equals the ratio of the weights.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
(c) If we want to determine P kina, the price of bag size C, we have:
Bag A Bag C
7.00kina Pkina
=
10kg 5kg
P = K3.50, i.e.bagsizeC costs K3.50.
Proportional variation
If the ratio (or rate) of the values of two variables is always the same, then we say
that the variables are proportional to each other, or that they vary proportionally.
y
We have k , where x and y are variables and k is called a constant of
x
proportionality.
Alternatively, we have y kx, and we say y is proportional to x, or y varies
directly as x , or y and x are in direct proportion.
This type of relationship is known as direct variation.
x 1
Of course, , which is also a constant, so x is proportional to y, x varies directly
y k
as y, etc.
Example 11.2
If y varies directly as x, and x 6 when y 18, find the value of y when x 5.
Solution
Let y kx , where k is a constant of proportionality.
When x 6, y 18, so 18 k 6 and hence k 3.
ie. y 3x
When x 5, y 3x 35 15.
Another important type of variation is inverse variation, as expressed by
1 k
y k .
x x
In this case, we say that y varies inversely as x , y is inversely proportional tox,
and y and x are in inverse proportion.
k
Also in this case x , so x varies inversely as y, x is inversely proportional to y, etc.
y
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 11.3
The volume of sales of an item, V, is inversely proportional to its price, p.
If p 5, V 1,000. What will V be when p 4 ?
Solution
k
Let V , where k is a constant of proportionality.
p
k 5,000
Then 1,000 so k 5,000 and V
5 p
5,000
When p 4, V 1,250
4
The variation may involve a function of a variable, rather than just the variable itself.
Example 11.4
If y varies directly as ( x 2 3x) , what is the relationship between x and y?
Solution
y k ( x 2 3x) , where k is a constant of proportionality.
Example 11.5
If y varies inversely as (3 4 x 3 ) , what is the relationship between x and y?
Solution
k
y , where k is a constant of proportionality.
3 4x 3
Also, it is possible to relate one variable to more than one other variable by means of
joint or combined variation.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 11.6
If y varies directly as x and inversely as z , what is the relationship between x, yand
z?
Solution
kx
y , where k is a constant of proportionality.
z
Example 11.7
If S varies directly as the square of t and inversely as the cube of V , what is the
relationship between S, t and V?
Solution
kt 2
S 3 , where k is a constant of proportionality.
V
Proportionality of plane figures
A plane figure is one lying in a two-dimensional plane, ie. it is "flat".If two plane
figures are of the same shape, corresponding distances are proportional to each
other, or in proportion.
Example 11.8
These two rectangles have the same shape. What is the ratio of their areas?
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
LC WC
We have k 2 (constant)
LD WD
Hence LC k 2 LD and WC k 2WD .
Also, area of C = LCWC k 2 LD k 2WD k 22 LDWD k 22 (Area of D)
Thus the ratio of their areas is k 22 .
Example 11.9
These two circles have the same shape (of course!). What is the ratio of their areas?
Solution
rE
We have k 3 (constant).
rF
Hence area of E = rE2 k 3 rF 2 k 32 rF2 k 32 (Area of F).
Thus the ratio of their areas is k 32 .
In each of these two examples, if the ratio of corresponding distances is k , then the
ratio of the areas is k 2 . This is because each area calculation involves a product of
two distances, which brings k into the calculation twice as a factor.
In general, for any two plane figures of the same shape, if
the ratio of corresponding distances is k , then the ratio of
the areas is k 2 .
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 11.10
The radii of two circles are in the proportion 7:1. In what proportion are their areas?
Solution
Ratio of areas = 7 2 : 12 , ie. 49:1.
Example 11.11
Two rectangles of the same shape have areas of 240 and 2,940 square metres. If
the shorter side of the smaller rectangle is 12 metres, what are the dimensions of the
larger one?
Solution
Width of larger rectangle
Let k
Width of smallerrectangle
Area of larger rectangle
Since the rectangles are the same shape, k2
Area of smallerrectangle
2,940
i.e. k2
240
k 2 12.25
k 3.5
Width of larger rectangle = 3.5 * Width of smaller rectangle 3.5 12 42
Area of larger rectangle 2,940
Lengthof larger rectangle 70
Width of larger rectangle 42
So the larger rectangle is 70 metres by 42 metres.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 1.11.1 20 Minutes
1 If the price of a packet of sugar is proportional to its weight and a kilogram
packet costs K1.36, what is the price of a 500-gram packet?
2 If s varies directly as t and s = 42 when t = 28, find the value of t when s =
83.
3 W is inversely proportional to g. If g = 7, W = 32. What will g be when W =
81?
4 If z varies inversely as (t3 - 7) what is the relationship between z and t?
5 If u varies directly as (v + 4v4) what is the relationship between u and v?
6 If j varies directly as the square of (h + 4) and inversely as the cube of (R – 1),
what is the relationship between j, h and R?
7 Two rectangles of the same shape have areas of 18 and 421 square
centimetres. If the longer side of the larger rectangle is 36centimetres, what
are the dimensions of the smaller one?
53
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
ANSWERS
TO
STUDENT
LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
54
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 1.3.1
1 (a) √15; (b) 3; (c) 4; (d) 12.
2 (a) 5√2; (b) -√2; (c) 2√5; (d) 8√5.
3 (a) 2√2; (b) 2√3; (c) 2√5; (d) 4√2; (e) 3√3; (f) 3√5; (g) 4√3; (h) 3√6.
4 (a) 2√3; (b) 8√2; (c) 5√6.
5 (a) √2 / 2; (b) 2√3; (c) 3.5√2; (d) 2√5; (e) 5√2.
6 (a) (3y + 4)(6 + √7) / 29; (b) (4z - √2)(√7 + √5u) / (7 – 5u2)
Student Learning Activity 1.4.1
1 24t13 / 5 = 4.8t13.
3 0.5*5x*6 y – x - 13
Student Learning Activity 1.5.1
1 (a) 4; (b) 7; (c) 5.
2 (a) 811,400; (b) 0.02898.
Student Learning Activity 1.6.1
(a) 7 + (38 – 6) / 8 = 7 + (32) / 8 = 7 + 4 = 11;
(b) 23 – 6*(2 + 44) = 23 – 6*(46) = 23 – 276 = -253;
(c) (33 + 7)(21 – 2) / 18 = (40)(19) / 18 = 42.22.
Student Learning Activity 1.7.1
1 By method (a): 2.557; by method (b): 2.558; by method (c): 2.557.
2
(a) Absolute error = - 0.000142, relative error = - 0.0000555 = - 0.00555
percent;
(b) Absolute error = 0.000858, relative error = 0.000218 = 0.0218 percent;
(c) Absolute error = - 0.000142, relative error = - 0.0000555 = - 0.00555
percent.
Student Learning Activity 1.8.1
(a) 9.37 tons; (b) 1.86 metres; (c) 2.38 miles; (d) 2.47 kilolitres; (e) 8.45 acres;
(f) 706,709 kilograms.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 1.9.1
1 38 9 25.
2 17.687.
3 0.4816 radians.
4 138.06.
5 Width of the strips = 1.3 metres.
6 1.14 cm3.
7 10.41 m.
Student Learning Activity 1.10.1
1 645 persons per doctor.
2 Andrew gets K128; Miriam gets K80; Kawa gets K112.
3 50.5 kilometres per litre.
4 38.89 metres per second.
5 93.4 percent.
6 633 patients.
7 The number of employees of the company.
8 23.9 percent.
9 K211.41.
10 K323.92.
Student Learning Activity 1.11.1
1 K0.68.
2 55.33.
3 17.72.
4 z =k / (t3 - 7), where k is a constant of proportionality.
5 u = k(v + 4v4), where k is a constant of proportionality.
6 j =k(h + 4)2 / (R – 1)3, where k is a constant of proportionality.
7 Smaller rectangle is 7.44 cm by 2.42 cm.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
UNIT 2
ALGEBRA
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this unit, you should be able to:
state the basic definitions of algebra;
solve simple algebraic problems;
state whether an equation is an identity;
express verbal statements in algebraic form;
define inequalities, weak inequalities and strict inequalities;
determine the values of a variable for which a compound inequality is true;
illustrate inequalities graphically;
define the terms function, independent variable and dependent variable;
explain function notation;
calculate the value of a function corresponding to given arguments;
draw the graph of a function;
define linear functions and illustrate their graphs;
solve linear equations;
solve simultaneous linear equations;
define linear inequalities and illustrate them graphically;
define quadratic functions and illustrate their graphs;
solve quadratic equations;
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
INTRODUCTION
Algebra was developed several hundred years ago by Islamic mathematicians. It is
a powerful technique for solving many mathematical problems by using symbols to
stand for unknown quantities. It uses mathematical sentences called equationsin
order to represent real world situations and then manipulates those equations in
order to solve the problem that they represent.
Mathematical statements can be portrayed by drawing graphs, which visually
illustrate relationships between the values of two or more quantities, or variables.
Large, complex real world situations may be modelled by the use of large sets of
mathematical statements, which require the use of powerful computers to solve
them.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
2.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
A pronumeral (or variable) is a letter that stands for an unknown value.
An expression is a series of constants, pronumerals and operation symbols
(including parentheses and brackets but not =, <, > etc.), e.g. (3x2 – 2x + 6) /
(x + 4).
When two or more quantities are multiplied together, each of the quantities is
called a factor and the result is called a product, e.g. 6(a – 9)(5b + 1) is a
product with three factors.
Two or more quantities separated from each other by plus or minus signs are
called terms, e.g. 5sy –17(y + 2s) + 13 has three terms (treating the
expression inside the parentheses as a single quantity).
An equation is a statement that one expression equals (i.e. has the same
value as) another expression.
A strict (or strong) inequality is a statement that the value of one expression
is less than or greater than the value of another expression, eg. 3x + 4 <(2y
+ 1).
A weakinequality differs from a strict inequality only in that it allows equality
as well as inequality, eg. a statement that the value of one expression is less
than or equal to the value of another expression.
An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of the variables in
it,
e.g. (x – 5)2 =x2 – 10x + 25.
An equation that is not an identity may be true for certain values of the
variables in it; such values are called solutions or roots of the equation.
Example 1.1
Simplify (if possible): (a) -t / t; (b) 0 / (2z – 1); (c) p / (4 / 2q); (d) (p / 4) / 2q;
(e) (2t – 3v) / (2t + 3v); (f) x * x; (g) (x2 + y2)
Solution
(a) -t / t = -1 if t 0
(b) 0 / (2z – 1) = 0 ifz 0.5, ie. if 2z – I 0
(c) p / (4 / 2q) = p * (2q / 4) = pq / 2
(d) (p / 4) / 2q = (p / 4) * (1 / 2q) = p / 8q
(e) (2t – 3v) / (2t + 3v) cannot be simplified
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
(f) x * x = x
(g) (x2 + y2) cannot be simplified
Example 1.2
Is each of these equations an identity?
(a) (x + y) 2 = x2 + y2; (b) (x * y) 2 = x2 * y2; (c) (x / y) 2 = x2 / y2;
(d) (x + y) = x + y; (e) (x * y) = x * y; (f) (5x) 2 = 5x2;
(g) (2x + x2) / 2x = 1 + x2.
Solution
(a) No; (b) Yes; (c) Yes; (d) No; (e) Yes; (f)No; (g) No.
Example 1.3
Write each of the following as an algebraic expression. (a) three more than x; (b)
one less than half of x; (c) the amount by which y exceeds x; (d) the sum of the
squares of x and y; (e) the square of the sum of x and y; (f) the sum of x and y
squared.
Solution
(a) x + 3; (b) x / 2 - 1; (c) (y – x); (d) x2 + y2; (e) (x + y) 2; (f) x + y 2.
Example 1.4
Give your answers to the following problems in the form of algebraic expressions.
(a) How many 20-toea stamps can you buy for y kina? How many 20-toea stamps
can you buy for z toea? (b) A farmer sold p pigs for q kina each, making a total profit
of z kina. What was the cost of the pigs? What was the cost of each pig?
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
(a) No. of stamps you can buy for ykina = 100y / 20 = 5y
No. of stamps you can buy for ztoea =integral part of z / 20 (Ifyou have 70 toea, you
can buy only 3 stamps – not 3.5 or 4!)
(b) Let c = total cost of the pigs.
Then he received pq kina for selling them, so his profit was (pq – c),
i.e. z =pq – c
c =pq – z
i.e. total cost of the pigs = pq – z
Cost of each pig = (pq – z) / p, if each pig cost the same amount.
Student Learning Activity 2.1.1 12 Minutes
1 Simplify (if possible): (a) t / -3t; (b) 0 / (4a - 5); (c) v / (7 / 9w); (d) (v / 7) /
9w;
(e) (7u +2t) / (7u –2t); (f) r * r; (g) (x2 -y2)
2 Is each of these equations and identity?
(a) (x -y) 2 = x2-y2; (b) (u * v) 2 = u2 * v2; (c) (w / r) 2 = w2 / r2;
(d) (x -y) = x -y; (e) (t * u) = t * u; (f) (3x) 2 = 3x2;
(g) (4x -x2) / 2x = 2 -2x2.
3 Write each of the following as an algebraic expression. (a) eight less than t;
(b) four more than three-fifths of x; (c) the amount by which w exceeds p;
(d) the sum of the cubes of w and v; (e) the cube of the sum of w and v; (f) the
sum of w and v cubed.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
2.2 INEQUALITIES
“a is less than b”, written as a<b, means that a lies to the left of (or below) b on the
number line.
“a is greater than b”, written as a>b, means that a lies to the right of (or above) b on
the number line.
So a<b means the same as b>a
“a is less than or equal to b”, written as ab, means that either a lies to the left of (or
below) b on the number line or a = b.
“a is greater than or equal to b”, written as ab, means that either a lies to the right of
(or above) b on the number line or a = b.
So ab means the same as ba
Inequalities using < or > are called strict or strong; those with or are called
weak.
We adopt these graphical conventions to represent inequalities in relation to the
number line:
An inequality statement may be true or false, e.g.5 < 7 is true but 7 < 3 is false.
We can form compound inequalities by using the conjunctions AND and OR to
combine simple inequalities. For example, “x> 2 AND x 9” and “y< 3 OR y>
11” are compound inequalities.
A compound inequality in which two or more simple inequalities are joined by AND
conjunctions is true only if every part of the statement (i.e. every one of the simple
inequalities) is true; otherwise it is false.
For example, “x> 2 AND x 9” is true only if x lies between 2 and 9 or x equals 9.
We can represent this on the number line as follows:
A compound inequality in which two or more simple inequalities are joined by OR
conjunctions is true only if one or more of the parts of the statement is(are) true;
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
otherwise (if all parts are false), it is false.
For example, “y< 3 OR y> 11” is true for y-values less than 3 and also if y is greater
than 11, but it is not true for y-values between 3 and 11 (inclusive). We can
represent this on the number line.
Where a compound inequality involving AND defines an interval between two real
numbers, we usually abbreviate it. For example, “x>2 AND x 12” can be written as
“2 <x AND x 12” and abbreviated as “2 <x 12”.
Notice that statements like “3 < x 12” and “12 x < 3” are confusing and should
not be used – the only acceptable abbreviations have three (or more) expressions
arranged from least to greatest.
Example 2.1
Indicate the region on the number line representing each of the following.
(a) x 0 AND x< 5; (b) x< 0 OR x< 25; (c) x< 0 AND x< 25;
(d) x> 7 AND x 2; (e) x 4 OR x> 9.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
(e)
Example 2.2
Write down inequalities that are represented by the following diagrams.
Solution
(a) 5 <y 15 (b) x11 OR x 15
(c) t< -2 OR t> 0 (d) 4 w< 10
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 2.2.1 30 Minutes
1 Indicate the region of the number line representing each of the following.
(a) x 0 AND x< 5; (b) x< 0 OR x<5; (c) x< 0 AND x<5;
(d) x> 3 AND x 2; (e) x 2 OR x> 4; (f) x< 4 OR x> 1.
2 Write down inequalities that are represented by the following diagrams.
2.3 FUNCTIONS
Definitions
A function is a rule (or procedure) that determines the value of a variable from the
value(s) of one or more other variables.
The variable whose value can be calculated from the function is called the output
variable or dependent variable; the other variable(s) is (are) called input
variable(s), independent variable(s) or argument(s).
Functions may be expressed in various ways, including in words, symbols (formulas),
tables and graphs.
In a formula, any symbols may be used and the meaning of the function does not
depend on what symbols are used.
When a function is expressed as a formula with one variable standing by itself on the
left-hand side of an equation, that variable is called the subject of the formula.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 3.1
The formula y x 22 9 defines a function for two variables, x and y.
Solution
If a value is substituted for x (say, x 3), we can use the formula to calculate the
corresponding value of y 3 22 9 16.
In the formula given, the independent variable is x (on the right-hand side) and the
dependent variable is y (by itself on the left-hand side).
In words, the function is: “the value of the dependent variable can be calculated by
adding 2 to the value of the independent variable, squaring the result and then
subtracting 9”.
The function can also be expressed as t s 22 9 . Although different symbols have
been used, the function defined by this formula is exactly the same function as that
defined by the first formula: each of these formulas can be expressed in words as
“the value of the dependent variable can be calculated by adding 2 to the value of the
independent variable, squaring the result and then subtracting 9”.
Example 3.2
A storekeeper calculates his profit on the goods he sells by subtracting their cost
price from their selling price.
(a) Define a formula that describes profit as a function of cost price and selling
price.
(b) Re-arrange this formula to show selling price as the dependent variable, i.e.
make selling price the subject of the formula. Which variables are the
independent variables in this formula?
Solution
(a) Let C = cost price, S = selling price and P = profit.
Then P = S – C
(b) Re-arrange formula to: S = C + P
The independent variables in this formula are C and P.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 3.3
(a) By using the symbols defined in the previous example, write down a formula
to calculate the mark-up ratio as the profit divided by the cost price.
(b) Express this ratio as a function of C and S.
(c) Express in words the formula in (b).
Solution
(a) Let m = mark-up ratio
P
Then m
C
S C
(b) Since P S C , m
C
(c) Mark-up ratio can be calculated by subtracting cost price from selling price
and then dividing by cost price.
Function notation
In addition to using symbols to represent the variables in the formula for a function,
we can also use a symbol to represent (the name of) the function, too.
For example, we could use “f” to represent the function whose formula is:
y 4 x2 2 x 13 ; we would write y f x .
In this notation, f is the name of the function; the variable inside the brackets is the
independent variable, or argumentof the function; and the variable on the left-hand
side is the dependent variable. Notice that f is not a pronumeral and f x does not
mean “f multiplied by x”.
If there are two or more independent variables, as in the formula A 1 i , we
n
separate them with commas, thus: A C i, n, which indicates that the function C
has two arguments (here called i and n) and the dependent variable is here called
A.
However, we could also represent that same function by using other “dummy
variables” (as the subject and the arguments are sometimes called) thus:
W C r , p
This formula relates to the same function C as earlier, even though it has been
expressed using variables W , r and p , so W = (1 + r)p.
We often combine the formula and the function notation, to write (for the above
examples) f x 4 x 2 2 x 13, and C i, n 1 i .
n
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Recalling that the definition and meaning of a function does not depend on what
symbols are used to represent the arguments, we can also represent the function C
as:
C r , p 1 r or C x, y 1 x .
p y
If we want to refer to or calculate the value of the function (i.e. the value of the
dependent variable) when its argument has a particular value, we replace the
argument variable in the formula by the given value. Similar remarks apply if there
are two or more arguments.
For the above examples,
f 3 43 23 13 36 6 13 43
2
C 2,4 1 2 3 4 81
4
and
Finally, we can replace the argument in a function formula by any expression we like
– not just a single symbol.
Continuing the previous examples, we could write:
f 4 z 44 z 24 z 13
2
and C j
100
, t 2 1 100
j
t 2
and simplify these statements if possible.
Example 3.4
Make the following substitutions and simplify/evaluate the results:
(a) If g t 3 7t , find g p 5 ;
(b) If at 12 2t t 2 , find ar 3 and a2 ;
(c)
If t S 4S 2 S 1, find t S 2 1 .
Solution
(a) g t 3 7t , so g p 5 3 7 p 5 3 7 p 35 38 7 p
(b) at 12 2t t 2 , so
ar 3 12 2r 3 r 3 12 2r 6 r 2 6r 9 9 4r r 2
2
Also, a2 12 22 2 12 4 4 4
2
(c) t S 4S 2 S 1 , so
t S 2 1 4 S 2 1 S 2 1 1 4 S 4 2S 2 1 S 2 1 1 4S 4 7S 2 4
2
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 2.3.1 15 Minutes
1 A cyclist calculates the distance that he travels in a road race by multiplying
his average speed during the race by the time that he takes to complete the
race.
(a) Define a formula that describes distance travelled as a function of average
speed and time taken.
(b) Re-arrange this formula to show average speed as the dependent variable,
i.e. Make average speed the subject of the formula. Which variables are the
independent variables in this formula?
2 Make the following substitutions and simplify/evaluate the results:
(a) If hv 1 6v, find hw 3 ;
(b) If pg 9 7 g 4 g 3 , find pr 2 and p6 ;
(c)
If mL 8L2 12L 10, find m H 4 11 .
2.4 GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
If a function has only one argument, we may represent it graphically (i.e. draw its
graph) by drawing two number lines at right angles (called axes) and plotting a point
for every pair of corresponding values, measuring one variable on one axis and the
other variable on the other axis. Usually, we measure the independent variable on
the horizontal axis.
Firstly, we need to calculate some pairs of values that satisfy the function’s formula.
These pairs correspond to points on the graph of the function.
Example 4.1
In Example 3.3(b), we expressed the mark-up ratio (m) as a function of the cost price
S C
(C) and the selling price (S) thus: m . If S is fixed as 70, then this becomes
C
70 C
m .
C
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
We can calculate some corresponding pairs of values for m and C as follows:
C 0 10 30 60 70 90 120 150 200
m - 6.0 1.33 0.17 0 -0.22 -0.42 -0.53 -0.65
Note that we cannot calculate an m-value when C = 0 and that negative m-values
denote losses (when C > 70).
Each pair of values is called the coordinates of the corresponding point and is
denoted by showing in brackets the value of the independent variable and then the
value of the dependent variable, separated by a comma, e.g. (30, 1.33).
Since the independent variable is measured on the horizontal axis, the first
coordinate measures the horizontal distance of the point from the vertical axis. If
the coordinate is positive, the point lies to the right of the vertical axis; if the
coordinate is negative, the point lies to the left of the vertical axis.
The second coordinate measures the vertical distance of the point from the
horizontal axis. If the coordinate is positive, the point lies above the horizontal axis; if
the coordinate is negative, the point lies below the horizontal axis.
We then draw the axes and plot these points.
m
0
C
-1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Usually, we can join the points up with a smooth curve to represent the function.
We can use the graph to find the m-value corresponding to any given C-value and
vice versa. Thus, in our example, when C 20, m 2.5 and when m 0.5, C 140.
Although we could have calculated these values from the formula, it is convenient to
be able to read them from the graph in cases where the formula is very complicated
or where the function has been given in graphical form only.
In summary, the graphical representation of a function can be interpreted in two
ways:
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
The coordinates of any point on the curve that represents the function satisfy
the equation that defines the function.
Any pair of values that satisfies the equation constitutes the coordinate pair of
a point on the curve.
This implies that:
The coordinates of a point that is not on the curve do not satisfy the equation.
A pair of values that do not satisfy the equation constitutes the coordinate pair
of a point that is not on the curve.
There is thus a very close correspondence between a function and its graphical
representation (i.e. its graph).
Student Learning Activity 2.4.1 15 Minutes
Sketch the graph of the function p = 4q + 3 + 2 / q by calculating some p and q
values where 0.1 < q < 4.0.
2.5 LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
Suppose we have a straight-line graph with
intercepts (cutting points) b and c on the
x-axis and y-axis respectively.
Let P be a point on the line with
coordinates ( x, y) and let the slope of the
line be m .
rise y c
Then, the slope of the line between P and the y intercept is
run x 0
yc
and this is the same as the slope of the whole line ( m) , so m
x0
i.e. y mx c
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
A function whose formula is of this type (where x is the independent variable, m and
c are constants) is called a linear function (because its graph is a
straight line).
Example 5.1
For this graph and its
function,
(a) What are the x-
and y-intercepts?
(b) What is the slope?
(c) What is the
formula of the
function?
Solution
(a) x-intercept is 8 and y-intercept is 20.
0 20 20
(b) Slope 2.5
80 8
(c) Formula is y 2.5x 20
A linear function may or may not be expressed in the form y mx c.
Example 5.2
Which of these formulas relate to linear functions?
3 y 10 x y
3 x y
x x
(a) 2x ; (b) 2 ; (c) 7; (d)
5 y x y y
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
10 10
(a) 3 y 10 10 x y x , so this is linear (slope = .; intercept = ).
3 3
(b) x y 2 y x 2 , so this is linear (slope = .; intercept = ).
3x
(c) x y 7 x 7 y , if x y 8 y 6 x y , so this is linear (slope = .;
4
intercept = ).
3 x y x 3xy 3 y 2 , if y ≠ 0, so this is not linear.
x
(d)
y
Example 5.3
Using slopes and y-intercepts only, sketch the graphs of those formulas in the
previous example that relate to linear functions.
Solution
Example 5.4
Find the formulas for these graphs.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
(a) s = 0.6 r (b) q = 2 (c) v = 4
Student Learning Activity 2.5.1 20 Minutes
1 Which of these formulas relate to linear functions?
3z 8 d h4
6u 2w
t u
(a) 4y ; (b) 14 ; (c) 17 ; (d)
3 u h 2d w
2 Using slopes and vertical intercepts only, sketch the graphs of those formulas
in the previous exercise that relate to linear functions.
2.6 LINEAR EQUATIONS
If f x is a linear function (i.e. a function of the form mx c) , then f x 0 is called a
linear equation.
c
If a linear equation is given as mx c 0 , it is easy to solve for x and obtain x ;
m
otherwise, more manipulation may be required.
Example 6.1
Solve 5 x 3 12
x
.
3
Solution
x
5 x 15 12
3
15 x 45 36 x
16 x 81
x 5.0625
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Check: Substituting this value into the original equation, we have:
Left Hand Side (LHS) 5x 3 55.0625 3 10.3125
x 5.0625
Right Hand Side (RHS) 12 12 10.3125 LHS
3 3
so the solution is correct.
Often linear equations may be used to solve word problems. A general procedure for
solving such problems is:
Step 1: Read the question carefully and write down briefly what is known and
what is unknown (but required).
Step 2: Denote one of the unknown values by a pronumeral (say, x).
Step 3: Write other unknown values in terms of x.
Step 4: Determine what relationship, if any, exists between the known and
unknown values.
Step 5: Express the relationship in the form of an equation.
Step 6: Solve the equation.
Step 7: Write down the answer to the problem.
Step 8: Check the answer to ensure that it satisfies the question.
Example 6.2
The manager of a bank branch spends K1,275.00 on weekly wages for his clerical
staff of 20. If the average weekly wages are K60.00 per woman and K75.00 per
man, how many men and women does he employ?
Solution
Step 1: Known Unknown
Total wages = 1, 275 Number of men
Men + Women = 20 Number of women
Wage per woman = 60
Wage per man = 75
Step 2: Let x = number of men.
Step 3: No. of women 20 x.
Step 4: Wages paid to men + Wages paid to women = Total wages
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Step 5: Wages paid to men 75x
Wages paid to women 6020 x
So, 75x 6020 x 1,275
Step 6: 75x 1,200 60 x 1,275
15 x 75
x 5
Step 7: Manager employs 5 men and 15 women.
Step 8: Check: 5 75 15 60 1,275
Student Learning Activity 2.6.1 15 Minutes
Solve 7s 10 8 .
s
1
5
2 I went into a trade store and spent K204.80 on some mugs and some bowls.
If the mugs cost K2.40 each and the bowls cost K3.20 each and I bought 50
more bowls than mugs, how many mugs and how many bowls did I buy?
2.7 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
If we have two linear functions, y f1 x and y f 2 x , we are often interested to
know what pairs of values x, y satisfy both of these equations at the same time.
In other words, we want to solve simultaneously
y f1 x
y f 2 x
Often such equations are written in the form
ax by c
dx ey f
where a, b, c, d, e and f are constants.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
If a problem involves more than one unknown value, it is sometimes not easy to
express every unknown value in terms of one particular unknown value (as we did
earlier).
In such cases, it is better to let one pronumeral stand for each unknown value.
Although it is possible to solve equations involving more than two pronumerals, we
will consider only cases involving two pronumerals.
Example 7.1
A merchant has 2 grades of coffee, A and B. Grade A sells at K1.00 per kg and
grade B at 75 toea per kg. A customer wants to buy 100kg of a blend of the two
grades at 80 toea per kg. How much of each grade should be used in the mixture?
Solution
Known Unknown
Cost of A grade = 100 t/kg Quantity of A grade
Cost of B grade = 75 t/kg Quantity of B grade
Cost of blend = 80 t/kg
Quantity of blend = 100kg
Let x quantity of A grade required in kilograms
and y quantity of B grade required in kilograms.
Then x y 100 …………… (1)
Also, value of blend = value of grade A used + value of grade B used
and value = price quantity, so
80 100 100 x 75 y
i.e.
i.e. 4 x 3 y 320 …………… (2)
To make x - coefficients the same in both equations, multiply both sides of (1) by 4:
4 x 4 y 400 ………….. (3)
4 x 3 y 320 ………..… (2)
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Subtracting the LHS of (2) from the LHS of (3) must give the same answer as
subtracting the RHS of (2) from the RHS of (3), so
4 x 4 y 4 x 3 y 400 320
y 80
Substituting this value for y in (1) gives
x 80 100
x 20
So 20kg of grade A and 80kg of grade B should be used.
[Check: 20kg of A grade costs K20 and 80kg of B grade costs K60, so total cost
would be K80. On the other hand, 100kg of the blend at 80 t/kg would cost K80, so
the solution is correct.]
Graphically, when we solve two simultaneous linear equations, ie. find the pair of
x, y values that satisfies both equations, we are finding the coordinates of the point
where the two lines intersect.
If the lines are distinct and parallel, there is no solution, ie. y mx c1 , y mx c2 ,
where c1 c2, have the same slope but “solving” them yields c1 c 2 , which is not
true, and there is no solution.
If the lines are not parallel, there is only one solution.
Student Learning Activity 2.7.1 15 Minutes
1 Solve the simultaneous equations: 4v = 7t – 3 and 4t = 76 – 7v.
2 Where do the graphs of the functions given by y = (29 + 7v) / 26 and
v = (11y – 47) / 2 intersect?
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
2.8LINEAR INEQUALITIES
A linear inequality is of the form y mx c , or y mx c (or similar statements with
or ).
Inequalities using < or > are called strict or strong; those using or are called
weak.
The graphical representation of a linear inequality, i.e. the set of points whose
coordinates satisfy the inequality, is a half-plane on one side of the line representing
the corresponding equation. This set of points is called the solution region of the
inequality.
To find out which side of the line it is on, choose a point and determine whether its
coordinates satisfy the inequality: if they do, the solution region is the side which
includes the point; otherwise, it is the other side.
Example 8.1
Graph the region represented by y 2 x 1.
Solution
The corresponding equation y 2 x 1 has slope 2
and y - intercept 1 ; it passes through 12 ,0 .
The point (5,2) lies in the solution region because
its coordinates satisfy the inequality:
LHS 2
RHS 25 1 9 LHS.
The point (0,2) does not lie in the solution region
because its coordinates do not satisfy the
inequality:
LHS 2
RHS 2(0) 1 1 LHS.
If an inequality is strict, its solution region does not include the boundary line;
otherwise, it does. A useful graphical convention is to use a broken boundary line for
a strict inequality and a continuous line for a weak inequality.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
The solution region of a set of two or more simultaneous inequalities consists of the
intersection of the solution regions of the individual inequalities, i.e. it is the
overlapping part of those regions.
Example 8.2
Find the solution region of the three simultaneous inequalities y x ; y 1 2 x ; and
y 3.
Solution
Great care should be taken when manipulating inequalities: some manipulations that
are applied to equations also apply to inequalities; others do not.
Example 8.3
(a) If x, y and m are real and x y , under what conditions is each of these
x y
statements true? (i) x m y m ; (ii) x m y m ; (iii) mx my ; (iv) ; (v)
m m
1 1
; (vi) x 2 y 2 ; (vii) x y .
x y
(b) If x, y and m are real and x<y, under what conditions is each of these statements
x y 1 1
true? (i) x m y m ; (ii) x m y m ; (iii) mx my ; (iv) ; (v) ; (vi)
m m x y
x 2 y 2 ; (vii) x y.
82
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
(Hint: Use the number line.)
Solution
(a) If x, y and m are real and x y , the first six statements are (always) true. If x
and y are positive, the last statement is true; otherwise, it is undefined.
(b)
(i) x m y m : Always true.
(ii) x m y m : Always true.
(iii) mx my : True if m> 0. (If m< 0, sign must be reversed.)
x y
(iv) : True if m> 0. (If m< 0, sign must be reversed.)
m m
1 1
(v) : True if x< 0 and y> 0. (Otherwise, sign must be reversed.)
x y
(vi) x 2 y 2 : True if 0<x<y. (If x<y< 0, sign must be reversed; otherwise,
indeterminate.)
(vii) x y : If 0<x<y. (Otherwise, not defined.)
Example 8.4
Re-arrange the inequality 2 x 3 y 5 so as to make y the subject.
Solution
3 y 5 2x
y ≥ (5 – 2x) / 3
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 8.5
Re-arrange the inequality 3u 4t 7 so as to make t the subject.
Solution
4t 7 3u
t ≥ (7 – 3u) / (-4)
ie. t ≥ (3u - 7) / 4
Student Learning Activity 2.8.1 15 Minutes
1 Graph the region represented by z 7u 8.
2 Sketch the solution region of the simultaneous inequalities v u an v 7u 15.
3 Re-arrange the inequality 6w 13s 7 so as to make s the subject.
2.9QUADRATICFUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
A function with a formula which can be written in the standard form y ax 2 bx c ,
where a o , is called a quadratic function.
Notice that b and c are constants that may be zero but a is a non-zero constant, i.e.
a quadratic function must have an x 2 term but it may or may not have an x - term or
a constant term.
Example 9.1
Show that the function y 3x 2x 2 is a quadratic function and draw its graph.
84
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
y 3x 2x 2 3 x 4 3x 12
2 2
This is of standard quadratic form with a 3, b 0 and c 12. A table of values is:
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y 36 15 0 -9 -12 -9 0 15 36
y
40
30
20
10
0 x
-10 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-20
This shape is called a parabola; the graph of every quadratic function has this shape
(possibly inverted).
We can determine some of the properties of a parabola from its equation. For a
quadratic function in standard form y ax 2 bx c :
(1) The y-intercept is c, i.e. y = c when x= 0.
(2) The parabola has a minimum value (valley shape) if a 0 but a maximum
value (hill shape) if a 0.
(3) The turning point (where the value of y is a minimum or a maximum) has x
b
coordinate .
2a
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 9.2
For the graph of the function y 3x 2 2 x 7 ,
(a) What is its y - intercept?
(b) Is it a maximum-value or a minimum-value parabola?
(c) What is the x-coordinate of the turning point?
(d) What is the y-coordinate of the turning point?
(e) What is the value of y when x 2 ?
(f) Use this information to sketch the parabola.
Solution
(a) y - intercept is 7.
(b) Maximum value, because a o.
b 2 1
(c) x-coordinate of turning point
2a 2 3 3
2
1 2
(d) y-coordinate of turning point 3 7 7 13
3 3
(e) When x 2, y 34 22 7 1
(f)
y
10
8
6
4
2
0 x
-2 -2 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 2.9.1 15 Minutes
1 Show that the function z 7t 4t 7 is a quadratic function and draw its
graph.
2 For the graph of the function y 8x 2 3x 11 ,
(a) What is its y - intercept?
(b) Is it a maximum-value or a minimum-value parabola?
(c) What is the x-coordinate of the turning point?
(d) What is the y-coordinate of the turning point?
(e) What is the value of y when x 5 ?
(f) Use this information to sketch the parabola.
2.10QUADRATICEQUATIONS
Solving a quadratic equation
A quadratic equation is one where a quadratic function is equated to zero, i.e. it is
of standard form ax2 bx c 0.
Solving such an equation requires us to find the x -values which satisfy the equation
(if any).There are several methods of solving a quadratic equation but some of them
are not always easy to apply.
If it is possible to factorize the left-hand side of the equation as a(x – m)(x – n) = 0,
then the two solutions are x = m and x = n, since one or other of the factors in
brackets must be zero (in order to yield a zero product).
The best general method is to use the following formula:
The solutions of the quadratic equation ax 2 bx c 0 (if any) are:
b b 2 4ac
x .
2a
87
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 10.1
Solve 2 x 2 5x 25 0.
Solution
5 25 42 25 5 225 5 15
x 5 or 2.5
4 4 4
The expression under the square root sign in the solution formula b 2 4ac is called
the discriminant.
Since the square root of a negative number is undefined, the number of solutions of
a quadratic equation may be determined as follows.
If the discriminant is negative, the quadratic equation ax2 bx c 0 has no
b
solutions; if it is zero, the equation has only one solution x ; and if
2a
it is positive, the equation has two distinct solutions.
Example 10.2
How many solutions does each of these equations have and what are they?
(a) 4t 2 28t 49 0 ; (b) 5w 2 3w 6 0 ; (c) 3u 2 36u 105 0
Solution
Discriminant 28 4449 784 784 0
2
(a)
28 0
Only one solution: t 3.5
8
Discriminant 3 456 9 120 111
2
(b)
No solutions.
Discriminant 36 43105 1,296 1,260 36
2
(c)
36 36 36 6
Two solutions: u 5 or 7.
6 6
88
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 10.3
A garage owner bought some petrol for K624. When the price increased by 4
toea/litre, he received 100 litres less petrol for the same sum of money. What was
the original price?
Solution
Let p original price in toea/litre.
62,400
Quantity initially bought litres
p
62,400 62,400 62,400
After price rose to p 4 , quantity bought , and 100
p4 p4 p
Multiplying by p p 4 :
62,400 p 62,400 p 4 100 p p 4
62,400 p 62,400 p 249,600 100 p 2 400 p
p 2 4 p 2,496 0
4 16 4 2,496
p
2
4 16 9,984
2
4 10,000
2
4 100
48 or 52
2
Only the positive solution is valid, so original price 48 toea / litre.
62,400
Check: At initial price, quantity 1,300 litres
48
62,400
At new price, quantity 1,200 litres, which is 100 litres less.
52
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Graphical interpretation
The graph of a quadratic function y ax 2 bx c is a parabola.
Where the parabola cuts the x - axis, y 0 , so the x - intercepts (if any) are the
solutions of 0 ax 2 bx c.
When solving the quadratic equation ax 2 bx c 0 , we are finding the x - intercepts
of the graph of the corresponding function y ax 2 bx c. These values are called
the roots of the equation.
We can distinguish three cases, according to the value of the discriminant:
Notice that the solution formula can be written
b b 2 4ac b b 2 4ac
x
2a 2a 2a
This shows that, if the discriminant is positive, the two solutions (roots) are
b
equidistant from the x - value .
2a
b
Hence x is the axis of symmetry of the parabola in this case.
2a
In fact this is true in all cases.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 2.10.1 20 Minutes
1. Solve 3z 2 6 z 24 0.
2. How many solutions does each of these equations have and what are they?
(a) 16t 2 11t 18 0 ; (b) 6w2 20w 14 0 ; (c) 8u 2 27u 86 0
3. What is the equation of the axis of symmetry of the graph of t = 3v2 + 12v + 7?
91
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
ANSWERS
TO
STUDENT
LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
92
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 2.1.1
1
(a) - 1 / 3 if t 0; (b) 0; (c) 9wv / 7; (d) v / 63w; (e) (7u +2t) / (7u –2t) cannot be
simplified; (f) r; (g) (x2 -y2)cannot be simplified.
2
(a) No; (b) Yes; (c) Yes; (d) No; (e) Yes; (f) No; (g) No.
3
(a) t – 8; (b) 3x / 5 + 4; (c) w - p; (d) w3 + v3; (e) (w + v)3; (f) w + v3.
Student Learning Activity 2.2.1
1
93
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
2
(a) 5 <y 15 (b) x 11 OR x 15
(c) t< -2 OR t> 0 (d) 4 w< 10
Student Learning Activity 2.3.1
1
(a) Let d km = distance travelled; s km / hour = average speed; and
t hours = time taken. Then the formula is d = s * t.
(b) Re-arrange this formula to: s = d / t, in which the independent variables are d
and t.
94
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
2
(a) hv 1 6v, so h(w – 3) = 1 + 6 (w – 3) = 6w - 17.
(b) pg 9 7 g 4 g 3 , , so p(r + 2) = 9 + 7(r + 2) – 4(r + 2)3
and p(6) = 9 + 7(6) – 4*63= 9 + 42 – 4*216 = 51 – 864 = -813.
(c)
mL 8L2 12L 10, So m H 4 11 = 8(H4 – 11)2 + 12(H4 – 11) + 10
= 8(H8–22H4 + 121) + 12H4– 132 + 10
= 8H8–176H4 + 968 + 12H4 -132 + 10
= 8H8– 164H4+ 846.
Student Learning Activity 2.4.1
p = 4q + 3 + 2 / q
q 0.1 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
p 23.40 9.00 9.00 10.33 12.0 13.8 15.67 17.57 19.50
p = 4q + 3 + 2/q
p
25
20
15
10
0 q
0.10.30.50.70.91.11.31.51.71.92.12.32.52.72.93.13.33.53.73.9
Student Learning Activity 2.5.1
1 Formulas relating to linear functions are:
(a), (b) and (c).
95
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
2
(a)
y = (3z + 8) / 12
y
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00 z
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
-0.50
(b)
t = -14u
t
80
60
40
20
0 u
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
-20
-40
-60
-80
96
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
(c)
d = (4 - 18h) / 33
d
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00 h
-0.50 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
Student Learning Activity 2.6.1
1 8.611.
2 Number of bowls bought = 58 and number of mugs bought = 8.
Student Learning Activity 2.7.1
1 v = 15.76 and t = -8.58
2 The graphs intersectwhere v = 36.12 and y = 10.84.
Student Learning Activity 2.8.1
1
z > 7u + 8
z
40
30
20
10
0 u
-10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
-20
-30
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
v < u and v > 7u - 15
20
10
0 u
-4
-3
-2
-1
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0
4
1.5
0.5
2.5
3.5
-10
-20
v=u
-30
v = 7u - 15
-40
-50
3 s ≤ (6w – 7) / 13
Student Learning Activity 2.9.1
1 z = -7(t – 4)(t + 7) = -7t2 – 21t + 196, which is a quadratic function.
z = -7t^2 - 21t + 196
z
300
200
100
0 t
-100 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-200
-300
-400
-500
-600
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
2 y 8x 2 3x 11
(a) y-intercept = 11.
(b) It is a minimum -value parabola.
(c) x-coordinate of turning point = 3 / 16.
(d) y-coordinate of turning point = 10.72
(e) When x = 5, y = 196.
(f)
y = 8x^2 - 3x + 11
y
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 x
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Student Learning Activity 2.10.1
1 z = -4 or 2.
2
(a) Discriminant = -1,031, so there are no solutions.
(b) Discriminant = 336, so there are two solutions.
(c) Discriminant = -2,023, so there are no solutions.
3 Equation of the axis of symmetry is v = -2.
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UNIT 3
GEOMETRY
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this unit, you should be able to:
define parallel lines,
Find interior and exterior angles, supplementary angles and corresponding
angles
Define polygons
Calculate angles and sides of different polygons
Know different types of triangles
Calculate acute, exterior, and complementary angles
Define a parallelogram and calculate different angles
Identify quadrilaterals and calculate interior and exterior angles
Define the circle by identify the radius, circumference and calculating
perimeter and radius given required angles
Define pyramids and Solids
Find gradient of a straight lines
Use the distance formula to calculate the distance between points
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INTRODUCTION
Geometry is the branch of mathematics concerned with the shape of individual
objects, lines and angles, spatial relationships among various objects, and the
properties of surrounding space. It is one of the oldest branches of mathematics,
having arisen in response to such practical problems as those found in surveying,
and its name is derived from Greek words meaning “Earth measurement”. Eventually
it was realized that geometry need not be limited to the study of flat surfaces (plane
geometry) and rigid three-dimensional objects (solid geometry) but that even the
most abstract thoughts and images might be represented and developed in
geometric terms.
This unit covers the geometry syllabus taught in most secondary schools within
Papua New Guinea. It assumes that the following concepts and terms are already
understood: (straight) line; plane; angle; vertex; intersect. The symbols * and / are
used to represent multiplication and division respectively.
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3.1 PARALLEL LINES
Parallel lines are lines in the same plane that do not intersect.
A transversal is a line that intersects two or
more other lines at distinct points; all of the lines
lie in the same plane. In figure 2.1, t is a
transversal for lines r and s. Angles that are
formed between r and s are interior angles;
those outside r and s are exterior angles.
Interior angles: 3, 4, 5, 6
Exterior angles: 1, 2, 7, 8
Corresponding angles are two angles that lie in the same relative positions
when two lines are cut by a transversal. Angles 1 and 5 are corresponding
angles; each angle is above a line and to the left of the transversal.
Corresponding angles: 1 and 5 (above left)
3 and 7 (below left)
2 and 6 (above right)
4 and 8 (below right)
Alternate interior angles are two interior angles that have different vertices and
lie on opposite sides of the transversal. Alternate exterior angles are two
exterior angles that have different vertices and lie on opposite sides of the
transversal.
Alternate interior angles: 3 and 6
4 and 5
Alternate exterior angles: 1 and 8
2 and 7
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the corresponding angles are
equal.
Supplementary angles are two angles that add up to 180°; each is the
supplement of the other.
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Example 1.
In figure 2.2, if line l is parallel to line m and
angle 1 is 117, find:
(a) angle 2; (b) angle 5; (c) angle 4; (d)
angle 8.
Solution
(a) angle 2 = 63 (supplementary to 1);
(b) angle 5 = 117 (corresponding to 1);
(c) angle 4 = 117 (supplementary to 2);
(d) angle 8 = 117 (corresponding to 4).
Theorem 2.1. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate
interior angles are equal.
Proof: In figure 2.2, the alternate interior angles 3 and 6 are equal because
they are both supplementary to angle 4; and the alternate interior angles 4 and 5
are equal because they are both supplementary to angle 3.
Theorem 2.2. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate
exterior angles are equal.
Proof: In figure 2.2, the alternate exterior angles 1 and 8 are equal because
angles 1 and 5 are corresponding and angle 5 equals angle 8; and the alternate
exterior angles 2 and 7 are equal because angles 2 and 6 are corresponding and
angle 6 equals angle 7.
Theorem 2.3. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the interior
angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary.
Proof: In figure 2.2, the interior angles 3 and 5 are supplementary because
angles 5 and 6 are supplementary and angle 6 equals angle 3; and the exterior
angles 2 and 8 are supplementary because angles 3 and 4 are supplementary
and angle 6 equals angle 3.
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Theorem 2.4. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the exterior
angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary.
Proof: In figure 2.2, the exterior angles 1 and 7 are supplementary because
angles 1 and 3 are supplementary and angle 7 equals angle 3; and the exterior
angles 2 and 8 are supplementary because angles 2 and 4 are supplementary
and angle 4 equals angle 8.
Student Learning Activity 3.1.1 30 Minutes
1. If angle 2 in figure 2.2 = 87, find: (a) angle 3; (b)
angle 6; (c) angle 1; (d) angle 7.
2. In figure 2.3, CE is parallel to DF and CD is
parallel to EF. Prove that angles DCE and EFG
are supplementary.
3. In figure 2.4, if DE bisects CDA and angles 1
and 3 are equal, prove that ED is parallel to AB.
4. In figure 2.5, if XY is parallel to WZ and XMN
and MWZ are equal, prove that MN is parallel to XY.
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3.2 POLYGONS
A polygon is a closed figure in a plane whose sides are straight lines.
Some polygons have special names, as shown in this table.
Polygon Number of sides Polygon Number of sides
Triangle 3 Heptagon 7
Quadrilateral 4 Octagon 8
Pentagon 5 Nonagon 9
Hexagon 6 Decagon 10
An equilateral polygon is one with all its sides equal; an equiangular polygon
is one with all its angles equal; a regular polygon is one with all its sides and
angles equal.
Theorem 3.1. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon with n sides equals
(n – 2)*180°.
Proof: In a polygon with n sides, one can join up any vertex to (n – 2) other
vertices (not including the two immediately adjacent vertices) in order to form (n –
2) triangles. The sum of the interior angles of the polygon equals the sum of the
interior angles of the triangles = (n – 2)*180°.
Example 1.
Find the sum of the interior angles of a hexagon. Then find the size of each interior
angle of an equiangular hexagon.
For a hexagon, n = 6, so the sum of the interior angles of a hexagon
= (6 – 2)*180 = 720°.
In an equiangular hexagon, each of the interior angles = 720 / 6 = 120°.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 2.
Each interior angle of a certain regular polygon is 144°. Find itsnumber of sides and
identify the type of polygon that it is.
Let n be the number of sides of the polygon. All n of the interior angles are equal
and the size of each one is (n – 2)*180 / n. So (n – 2)*180 / n = 144.
(n – 2)*180 = 144n
180n – 360 = 144n
36n = 360
n = 10
So the polygon is a regular decagon.
Theorem 3.2. The sum of the exterior angles of a polygon, one at each vertex,
is 360°.
Student Learning Activity 3.2.1 30 Minutes
1. In figure 3.1, if j is parallel to k, angle 3 = 50 and angle 4 = 72, find angles 1,
2 and 5.
2. In figure 3.2, if PMK =NQK, prove that MPK = KNQ.
The area A of a rectangle whose length (longer side) is l and whose width is w
is given by
A = l*w.
The area A of a square whose sides are each of length s is given by A = s 2.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
The height of a parallelogram is a perpendicular from one side to the opposite
side, which is called the base; any side may be designated as the base – the
choice is arbitrary.
The area A of a parallelogram with a base b and height h is given by A = b*h.
Example 3. In figure 3.3,
MNPQ is a parallelogram with
PN = 8, QP = 10 and height
QR between MN and QP = 6.
Find the height SN between MQ
and NP.
The height of a triangle is a perpendicular from one vertex to the opposite side,
which is called the base; any side may be designated as the base – the choice
is arbitrary.
The area A of a triangle with base b and height h is given by A = b*h / 2.
Student Learning Activity 3.2.2 30 Minutes
1. In figure 3.4, XYZ = 90, XY = 6, YZ = 8, and A and B are midpoints.
Find the area of the shaded region.
2. In figure 3.5, RSTV is a parallelogram with VW = VT. Prove that the area of
RSTV = (RS)2.
The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of all sides of the polygon.
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Student Learning Activity 3.2.3 30 Minutes
1. In a triangle with perimeter 76 cm, the
length of the first side is twice the length of
the second side, and length of the third
side is 12 cm more than the length of the
second side. Find the lengths of the three
sides.
2. In the pentagon ABCDE in figure 3.6,
DC = DE, AE = AB = 5 and BC = 12.
Find the area of the polygon.
3.3 TRIANGLES
A scalene triangle is one in which no two sides are equal; an isosceles triangle
is one in which two sides are equal; an equilateral triangle is one in which all
three sides are equal.
The interior angles of a triangle are the three angles inside the triangle; an
exterior angle of a triangle is an angle between an extension of one side and the
adjacent side, such as ACD in figure 4.1.
Theorem 4.1. The sum of the three angles in a triangle is 180°.
Proof: In figure 4.2, DE is parallel to AB. Hence DCA =CAB (alternate
interior angles) and ECB = CBA (alternate interior angles).
DCA + ACB + BCE = 180, since DE is a straight line.
So CAB + ACB + CBA = 180 also.
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An acute triangle is one in which every angle is acute (i.e. less than 90°); an
obtuse triangle is one that has one obtuse angle (i.e. between 90° and 180°); a
right triangle is one that has one right angle (i.e. 90°); an equiangular triangle
is one in which all three angles are equal (to 60°).
Complementary angles are angles that add up to 90°; each is the complement
of the other.
Theorem 4.2. The acute angles of a right triangle are complementary.
Proof: From Theorem 4.1, the three angles in a triangle add to 180. Since
one angle in a right triangle is 90, the other two must add to 90 also, ie. the
acute angles of a right triangle are complementary.
Theorem 4.3. Each exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two
non-adjacent interior angles.
Proof: An exterior angle of a triangle is the supplement of the adjacent interior
angle, e.g. in figure 4.1 ACD and ACB are supplementary. Since the interior
angle and the other two interior angles add to 180, the exterior angle equals the
sum of the two non-adjacent interior angles. For example, in figure 4.1, ABC +
BAC = 180 – ACB = ACD.
Two triangles are similar when the angles of the first triangle equal the
corresponding angles of the second triangle.
The sides of similar triangles are proportional to each other.
Two triangles are congruent when the sides and angles of one triangle equal the
corresponding parts of the other.
If two triangles are similar and one side of one triangle equals one side of the
other, then the triangles are congruent.
If the three sides of a triangle are equal to the three sides of another triangle, then
the triangles are congruent.
The two sides of a triangle that form an angle of a triangle are said to include
that angle; similarly, two angles of a triangle are said to include the side
between them.
If two sides and the included angle of a triangle are equal to the corresponding
parts of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
If two angles and one side of a triangle are equal to the corresponding parts of
another triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
In a right triangle, the sides that form the right angle are legs; the third (longest)
side is the hypotenuse.
If the hypotenuse and a leg of a right triangle are equal to the hypotenuse and a
leg of another triangle respectively, then the triangles are congruent.
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Student Learning Activity 3.3.1 30 Minutes
1. Given that DC = AB and AD = BC in figure 4.3, prove that ΔABC and ΔCDA
are congruent.
2. In the quadrilateral ABCD in figure 4.4, AC and BD are perpendicular
bisectors of each other. Name all triangles that are congruent to: (a) ABE; (b)
ABC; (c) ABD.
3. Given that SP = SQ and that ST = SV in figure 4.5, prove that SPV and
SQT are congruent and that TPQ and VQP are congruent.
4. Given that UW is parallel to XZ, VY is perpendicular to UW, and that
XYU =ZYW = 42° in figure 4.6, find angles UYV, VYW, YUV and
YWV.
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5. Given that M is the midpoint of NQ and NP is parallel to RQ in figure 4.7,
prove that NPM and QRM are congruent.
6. Given that DF = DG and FE = EG in figure 4.8, prove that DFE = DGE.
An isosceles triangle (see figure 4.9) is one that
has two equal sides (KL and KM), called legs; the
third side (LM) is called the base. The point at
which the two legs meet (K) is the vertex of the
triangle, so the angle formed by the legs (LKM)
is the vertex angle. The two other angles (KLM
and KML) are called base angles.
Each angle of a triangle has
an angle bisector, which is
the line that bisects (i.e.
divides in half) the angle. In
figure 4.10, BS is the bisector
of ABC, i.e.ABS =SBC.
The median of an angle in a
triangle is a line joining the
vertex of the angle to the
midpoint of the opposite side.
In figure 4.10, CM is the
median from the vertex of ACB, i.e.BM = MA.
An altitude (or height) of a triangle is a line drawn from the vertex of an angle
perpendicular to the opposite side. In figure 4.10, AH is the altitude from the
vertex of BAC, i.e.AHB = 90.
The perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a line that is perpendicular
to the side and bisects it. In figure 4.10, PQ is the perpendicular bisector of BC,
i.e.BP = PC and QPC = 90.
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Theorem 4.4. Corresponding altitudes of congruent triangles are equal.
Proof: In figure 4.11, ΔABC and ΔRST are congruent and so CAD =TRV.
Since ΔCAD and ΔTRV are both right triangles, they are similar. Since AC =
RT, ΔCAD and ΔTRV are congruent. Hence CD = TV, i.e. the altitudes of ΔABC
and ΔRST are equal.
Theorem 4.5. The bisector of the vertex angle of
an isosceles triangle separates the triangle into two
congruent triangles.
Proof: In figure 4.12, ΔLKM is an isosceles
triangle, so KLN =KMN. Also KN bisects
LKM, so LKN =MKN. Hence ΔKLN and
ΔKMN are similar. Since LK = MK, ΔKLN and
ΔKMN are congruent, i.e. KN separates ΔLKM into
two congruent triangles.
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Student Learning Activity 3.3.2 30 Minutes
1. Given that angles RUS and TUV in figure 4.13 are equal and that RU =
VU, prove that STU is isosceles.
2. In BAT in figure 4.14, BR = BT = AR and RBT = 20°. Find BAT.
Theorem 4.6. If one side of a
triangle is longer than a second
side, then the angle opposite the
first side is greater than the angle
opposite the second side.
Proof: In figure 4.15 (i),
AC > BC. Join B to D so that
BC = CD, as in figure 4.15 (ii).
Since ΔBDC is isosceles,
DBC =BDC.
Clearly ABC >DBC, so
ABC >BDC...............(1).
Since BDC is an exterior angle of ΔABD, BDC =BAD + ABD, and so
BDC >BAD...............(2).
From (1) and (2), ABC >BAD, i.e. the angle opposite the longer side (AC) is
greater than the angle opposite the shorter side (BC).
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Theorem 4.7. The perpendicular line segment from a point to a line is the
shortest line segment that can be drawn from the point to the line.
Proof: Given the vertical line and the point P in figure 4.16, PD is
perpendicular to the line and E, F and G are arbitrary points on the line. PE, PF
and PG are hypotenuses of right triangles ΔPDE, ΔPDF and ΔPDG. Since the
hypotenuse is the longest side in a right triangle, each of these lines is greater
than the common side PD. Hence PD is shorter than any other line joining P to a
point on the line.
The perimeter of a triangle is the set of lines consisting of the sides of the
triangle, so the length of the perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the sides of
the triangle.
Theorem 4.8. The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater
than the length of the third side.
Proof: In figure 4.17, AD is perpendicular to BC, so BDA = CDA = 90.
BA > BD because the hypotenuse is the longest side in a right triangle; for the
same reason, AC > DC. Combining these two inequalities gives BA + AC > BD +
DC,
i.e.BA + AC > BC.
Student Learning Activity 3.3.3 30 Minutes
1. If possible, draw a triangle whose sides measure:
(a) 7, 7 and 14;
(b) 6, 7 and 14;
(c) 6, 7 and 8.
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3.4 QUADRILATERALS
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which both pairs of opposite sides are
parallel.
Theorem 5.1. A diagonal of a parallelogram separates it into two congruent
triangles.
Proof: In figure 5.1, ABCD is a parallelogram, i.e. DC is parallel to AB and AD
is parallel to BC, so DCA =CAB and DAC = ACB. Hence ΔABC and
ΔADC are similar. Since AC is a common side of these triangles, they are
congruent.
Theorem 5.2. Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
Proof: Since the triangles in figure 5.1 are congruent, ADC =ABC.
Similarly, DAB =DCB.
Theorem 5.3. Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.
Proof: Since the triangles in figure 5.1 are congruent, AD = BC and AB =
DC.
Theorem 5.4. Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Proof: In figure 5.2, ABCD is a parallelogram, so ADX =CBX and
DAX = BCX. Hence ΔDAX and ΔBCX are similar. Since AD = BC, these
triangles are also congruent. Hence DX = XB and AX = XC, ie. the diagonals
bisect each other.
Theorem 5.5. Adjacent angles of a parallelogram are supplementary.
Proof: In the parallelogram ABCD in figure 5.1, ABC + BCD + CDA +
DAB = 360, ABC = CDA and BCD = DAB, so 2*ABC + 2*BCD =
360. Hence ABC + BCD = 180, i.e.ABC and BCD are supplementary.
Similar arguments apply to the other pairs of adjacent angles.
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Theorem 5.6. If two sides of a
quadrilateral are both equal and
parallel, then the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
Proof: In figure 5.3, WXYZ is a
quadrilateral such that WX = ZY
and WX is parallel to ZY, so WYZ = YWX and YWZ = XYW. Hence
WZY and WXY are similar. Since WX = ZY, the two triangles are congruent.
Also ZWY =WYX, WZ and XY are parallel, i.e. WXYZ is a parallelogram.
Theorem 5.7. If both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal, then
the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Proof: In figure 5.4, ABCD is a quadrilateral such that AB = DC and AD = BC.
Since AC is common to ΔADC and ΔABC, these triangles are congruent. Hence
ACD =BAC and DAC = BCA. So AB and CD are parallel, and AD and BC
are parallel. Thus ABCD is a parallelogram.
Theorem 5.8. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Proof: In figure 5.5, ABCD is a quadrilateral such that its diagonals bisect
each other, ie. DX = XB and AX = XC. Also, AXD =BXC. Now, DX, AXD and
AX in ΔDXA are equal to XB, BXC and XC in ΔBXC, respectively, so the two
triangles are congruent. Hence AD = BC and AB = DC, so ABCD is a
parallelogram (by Theorem 5.7).
A kite is a quadrilateral in which one and
only one diagonal is the perpendicular
bisector of the other.
Theorem 5.9. A kite has two pairs of
equal adjacent sides.
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Proof: In figure 5.6, JKLM is a kite, i.e.
KX = XM and JXK = KXL = 90.
Hence JXM =MXL = 90. Also, JX is common to ΔJXK and ΔJXM. Now, KX,
KXJ and JX in ΔJXK are equal to XM, JXM and JX in ΔJXM, respectively, so
the two triangles are congruent. Similarly, KXL and MXL are congruent.
Hence
JK = JM and LK = LM, i.e. the kite has two pairs of equal adjacent sides.
The area A of a kite whose diagonals have lengths d1 and d2 is given by
A = d1d2 / 2.
Theorem 5.10. The line segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle
is parallel to the third side.
Proof: In ΔABC of figure 5.7 (i), M and N are the midpoints of AB and AC
respectively. Draw CD parallel to AB and extend MN until it meets CD at D, as in
figure 5.7 (ii). Since BA and CD are parallel, MAN =NCD and AMN =
NDC, so ΔMAN and ΔNCD are similar. Also, AN = NC, so ΔMAN and ΔNCD
are congruent. Now, BM = MA = DC. Since BM = DC and BM is parallel to DC,
BMDC is a parallelogram. Hence in figure 5.7 (i), MN is parallel to BC.
Student Learning Activity 3.4.1 30 Minutes
1. When the bisectors of two adjacent
angles of a parallelogram (ADC and
DCB) meet at a point on the opposite
side (E), as in figure 5.8, what can you
conclude about each of the triangles
DEC, ADE and BCE?
2. Prove that when the midpoints of
adjacent sides of a quadrilateral are joined,
the resulting quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
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A rectangle is a parallelogram that has a right angle.
Theorem 5.11. All angles of a rectangle are
right angles.
Proof: In figure 5.9, ABCD is a parallelogram
and DAB = 90. Since DA is parallel to CB,
CBA = 180 – DAB = 90. Similarly, each
other angle equals 90.
Theorem 5.12. The diagonals of a rectangle
are equal.
Proof: In figure 5.10, MNPQ is a rectangle.
Since MN is parallel to QP, MNQ =PQN and
NMP = QPM. Hence MNX and QPX are
similar. Since MN = QP, the triangles are also
congruent. Thus MX + XP = QX + XN, i.e. the
diagonals are equal.
A square is a rectangle that has all sides equal.
A rhombus is a parallelogram that has all sides equal.
Theorem 5.13. The diagonals of a
rhombus are perpendicular.
Proof: The quadrilateral VWYZ in
figure 5.11 is a rhombus. From
Theorem 5.4, the diagonals of VWYZ
bisect each other, so ZX = XW.
Now, ZV = VW and VX is common to ZVX and WVX, so these triangles are
congruent. Hence ZXV =WXV = 90, because these angles are
supplementary, i.e. the diagonals are perpendicular.
The area A of a rhombus whose diagonals have lengths d 1 and d2 is given by
A = d1d2 / 2.
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral that has
exactly one pair of parallel sides (see
PQST in figure 5.12). The parallel sides
(PQ and TS) are called bases and the
other two sides are called legs.
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The angles adjacent to each of the parallel sides are called base angles. Since
there are two bases, there are two pairs of base angles (PTS and QST in
relation to base TS, and TPQ and SQP in relation to base PQ).
Every trapezoid contains two pairs of adjacent angles that are supplementary
(STP and TPQ on left-hand side and TSQ and SQP on right-hand side).
The median of a trapezoid is the line segment joining the midpoints of the legs
(MD).
An isosceles trapezoid is a trapezoid whose legs are equal.
The area A of a trapezoid whose bases have lengths b 1 and b2 and with height h
is given by A = h(b1 + b2) / 2.
Student Learning Activity 3.4.2 30 Minutes
1. Given AB is parallel to DC, A =B = 56°, CE is parallel to DA and CF bisects
DCB, find FCE.
3.5 SIMILAR TRIANGLES
Two polygons are similar if and only if two conditions are satisfied:
1. All pairs of corresponding angles are equal.
2. All pairs of corresponding sides are proportional.
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Example 1.
If ΔABC and ΔDEF in figure 6.1 are similar, find the unknown sides and angles.
BAC = 180 – (90 + 37) = 53.
By similarity, DFE = 90, DEF = 37, and FDE = 53.
Also by similarity, AC / DF = CB / FE = AB / DE, so
3 / DF = 4 / FE = 5 / DE = 3 / 6.
Hence DF = 6, FE = 8 and DE = 10.
If each of the three sides of a triangle are proportional to the corresponding sides of a
second triangle, then the triangles are similar.
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Example 2
If ADE =ABC in figure 6.2, prove that DE / BC = AE / AC.
Since ADE =ABC and A is common to ΔADE and ΔABC, the two triangles are
similar.
Hence, DE / BC = AE / AC.
Example 3.
If M =Q in figure 6.3, prove that NP*QR = RP*MN.
Since M =Q and MPN = QPR, MPN and QPR are similar, so NP / RP = MN
/ QR.
Hence, NP*QR = RP*MN.
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Student Learning Activity 3.5.1 30 Minutes
1. If ΔABC and ΔPRC are similar, A = 67, PC = 5, CR = 12, PR = 13 and
AB = 26, find: (a) B; (b) RPC; (c) AC; (d) CB.
2. If AB is parallel to DF and BD is parallel to FG in figure 6.5, prove that ΔABC
and ΔEFG are similar.
3. If RS is perpendicular to AB and CB is perpendicular to AC in figure 6.6, prove
that ΔBSR and ΔBCA are similar.
Theorem 6.1. If a line is parallel to one side of a triangle and intersects the
other two sides, then it divides these sides proportionally.
Proof: In figure 6.7, DE is parallel to BC, so ADE =ABC. Since A is
common to ΔADE and ΔABC, these two triangles are similar. Hence AB / AD = C
/ AE and so AB / AD - 1 = AC / AE - 1,
i.e. (AB – AD) / AD = (AC – AE) / AE,
i.e. DB / AD = EC / AE.
Hence, by inversion, AD / DB = AE / EC, i.e. DE divides AB and AC
proportionally.
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Theorem 6.2. When three (or more) parallel lines are cut by a pair of
transversals, the transversals are cut proportionally by the parallel lines.
Proof: In figure 6.8, the lines AD, BE and CF are parallel. Applying Theorem
6.1 to ΔACF, AB / BC = AG / GF; applying it to ΔADF, AG / GF = DE / EF.
Hence
AB / BC = DE / EF, i.e. the three parallel lines divide AC and DF proportionally.
Student Learning Activity 3.5.2 30 Minutes
1. Given that lines l1, l2 and l3 in figure 6.9 are parallel, AB = 5, BC = x, DE = x-2,
and EF = 7, find: (a) x; (b) BC; (c) DE.
2. Given that, in figure 6.10, UT bisects WUV, WU = 8, UV = 12 and WT =
6, find TV.
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Theorem 6.3. The altitude drawn to the hypotenuse of a right triangle
separates the triangle into two right triangles that are similar to each other and to
the original right triangle.
Proof: In figure 6.11, the angles DBC and DCB of DCB are
complementary. Since ACB is 90, DCB and DCA are also complementary.
Hence DCA = DBC and so the right triangles ΔDCB and ΔDCA are similar.
Since DBC lies in both ΔDBC and ΔABC, the right triangles ΔDBC and ΔABC
are also similar.
Theorem 6.4. The square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle
equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs (Pythagoras’ theorem).
Proof: In figure 6.12, let AC = b, CB = a, AB = c, AD = x and DB = y, so
that x + y = c. From Theorem 6.3, ΔDCB, ΔABC and ΔDCA are similar, so
c / b = b / x and c / a = a / y. Hence b2 = cx and a2 = cy. However,
cx + cy = c(x + y) = c2, so a2 + b2 = c2.
Example 4
A ladder 12 m long is leaning against a wall so that its base is 4 m from the wall at
ground level. How far up the wall does the ladder reach?
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In figure 6.13, LH = 12 and LK = 4, so HK 2 = 122 – 42 = 144 – 16 = 128 and
HK = 82 m.
Example 5
One diagonal of a rhombus has the same length, 10 cm, as each side. How long is
the other diagonal?
In figure 6.14, RMBS is a rhombus, so RM = MB = BS = SR, RB = 10 and each
side equals 10 also. Since the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right
angles, RXM = 90 and RX = 5. Hence, MX2 = 102 – 52 = 100 – 25 = 75 and MX
= 75 = 53. Thus the diagonal MS = 103.
Theorem 6.5. If the hypotenuse and a leg of one right triangle are equal to the
hypotenuse and a leg of a second right triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
Proof: In figure 6.15, ΔABC and ΔDEF are right triangles, AB = DE and AC =
EF.
From Theorem 6.4, CB2 = AB2 – AC2 = DE2 – EF2 = DF2 and so CB = DF.
Since each side of ΔABC equals the corresponding side of ΔDEF, the two
triangles are congruent.
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Student Learning Activity 3.5.3 30 Minutes
1. An isosceles right triangle has each leg of length 62 metres.
What is the length of the hypotenuse?
Theorem 6.6. In a triangle whose angles are
45, 45 and 90, the length of the hypotenuse is
the product of 2 and the length of either leg.
Proof: In figure 6.16, ΔFGH is a right triangle
with each acute angle being 45, so FG = GH and
FH2 = FG2 + GH2 = 2FG2. Hence FH =2*FG.
Student Learning Activity 3.5.4 30 Minutes
1. In figure 6.17, the rectangle
HJKL has diagonals HK and
JL, and HKL = 30. Find HL,
HK and MK.
2. In figure 6.18, ΔMNQ is equiangular, NR
bisects MNQ, QR bisects MQN and
NR = 6. Find NQ.
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3.6 CIRCLES
A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are at the same distance from a
fixed point; the centre of the circle is the fixed point; a radius (plural “radii”) is a
line from the centre to any point on the circle.
The circumference of a circle is the distance around the circle.
A chord of a circle is a line joining two points on the circle; a diameter is a chord
that passes through the centre of the circle.
Congruent circles are circles that have equal radii.
Concentric circles are circles in the same plane that have a common centre.
An arc of a circle is a part of the circle; a semi-circle is an arc that is half of a
circle; a minor arc is one that is less than a semi-circle; a major arc is one that is
greater than a semi-circle.
A central angle of a circle is an angle whose vertex is the centre of the circle and
whose sides are radii (such as AOB in figure 7.1); the arc between the radii
(AB) is the intercepted arc of the angle; the measure of the intercepted arc,
denoted as m(AB) for arc AB, is the size of the central angle, i.e. m(AB) = the
size of AOB.
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Example 1
QN is a diameter of the circle in figure 7.2 and PN = ON = 12. Find the length of the
chord QP.
OP = 12, since it is a radius, so NOP is equiangular, with angles of 60. NOP and
POQ are supplementary, so POQ = 120. Since OP = OQ (radii), POQ is
isosceles and QPO = 30.
Hence QPN = 90 and QP2 = QN2 - NP2 = 242 – 122 = 3*122, so QP = 123.
Theorem 7.1. A radius drawn perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord.
Proof: In figure 7.3, OD is perpendicular to AB and OA = OB (radii), so
AC2 = OA2 – OC2 = OB2 – OC2 = CB2. Hence AC = CB, i.e. OD bisects AB.
In a circle or congruent circles, congruent arcs are arcs with equal central
angles.
Example 2
In figure 7.4, OE bisects AOD.
Find :
(a) m(AB); (b) m(BC);
(c) m(BD); (d) AOD;
(e) m(AE); (f) m(ACE);
(g) whether m(AE) = m(ED).
Solution
(a) 105°; (b) 70°; (c) 105°; (d) 150°, from 360 – (105 + 70 + 35); (e) 75°, since the
central angle (AOE) is the result of bisecting AOD; (f) 285°, from 360 – 75; (g)
they are equal because OE bisects AOD.
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An inscribed angle of a circle is an angle whose
vertex is a point on the circle and whose sides are
chords of the circle, as shown in figure 7.5; the
intercepted arc of the inscribed angle is the arc
between the chords.
Theorem 7.2. Chords at the same distance from the centre of a circle are
equal.
Proof: In figure 7.16, OA is perpendicular to
CD and OB is perpendicular to EF and OA = OB.
Since OC and OE are radii, they are equal, so
OAC and OBE are congruent (from Theorem
6.5). Hence CA = EB.
From Theorem 7.1, CA = AD and EB = EF, so
2*CA = 2*EB, i.e. CD = EF.
An angle inscribed in a semi-circle is a right angle.
If two inscribed angles intercept the same arc,
then the angles are equal.
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Student Learning Activity 3.6.1 30 Minutes
1. Given that ST = SR / 2 and SR is a diameter of the circle with centre O in figure
7.7, find:
(a) m(ST); (b) m(TR);
(c) m(STR); (d) S.
A tangent is a line that touches a circle at exactly one point; the point of
contact, or point of tangency, is the point of intersection.
A secant is a line that intersects a circle at exactly two points.
A polygon is inscribed in a circle if its vertices are points on the circle and its
sides are chords of the circle; the circle is circumscribed about the polygon.
If a quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle, then the opposite angles are
supplementary.
A polygon is circumscribed about a circle if all sides of the polygon are
tangents to the circle; the circle is inscribed in the polygon.
Theorem 7.3. A radius drawn to a tangent
of a circle at the point of tangency is
perpendicular to the tangent.
Proof: In figure 7.8, AD is a tangent to the
circle with point of contact B. C is a point
anywhere on the tangent other than at B.
Since C is outside the circle but B is on the
circle, OC > OB, i.e. OB is shorter than any
other line joining O to a point on the tangent.
Therefore OB is perpendicular to AD.
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Student Learning Activity 3.6.2 30 Minu
1. Given AB and AC are tangents to the circle in figure 7.9 whose centre is O and
ACB = 68, find:
(a) m(BC); (b) m(BDC);
(c) ABC; (d) BAC.
A number of lines are concurrent if they have exactly one point in common.
Theorem 7.4. The three angle
bisectors of the angles of a triangle are
concurrent.
Proof: In figure 7.10, AE is the
bisector of BAC and BE is the bisector
of ABC. Every point on the bisector
AE is equidistant from AB and AC, i.e.
EM = EN, where EM is perpendicular
to AB and EN is perpendicular to AC.
Similarly, every point on the bisector BE
is equidistant from AB and BC, i.e. EM = EP, where EP is perpendicular to BC.
Thus EP = EN, i.e. E is equidistant from BC and AC. Hence E is on the bisector
of ACB and the three angle bisectors are concurrent (at E).
The incentre of a triangle is the point at which the three angle bisectors of the
angles meet; it is the centre of the circle inscribed inside the triangle.
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Theorem 7.5. The three perpendicular
bisectors of the sides of a triangle are
concurrent.
Proof: In ABC in figure 7.11, HP and KP perpendicularly bisect AB and BC
respectively, so AH = HB, BK = KC, and AHP and BKP are right angles. Also
PJ is perpendicular to AC. Since ΔAHP and ΔBHP are right triangles that share a
common side (HP) and AH = HB, the two triangles are congruent. Hence AP=
BP. Similarly, ΔBKP and ΔCKP are congruent, so BP = CP. Therefore AP = CP.
Since ΔAJP and ΔCJP are right triangles that share a common side, they are
congruent. Therefore AJ = JC and PJ is the perpendicular bisector of AC, i.e. the
three perpendicular bisectors of the sides are concurrent (at P).
The circumcentre of a triangle is the point at which the three perpendicular
bisectors of the sides meet; it is the centre of the circle circumscribed around the
triangle, i.e. the circle that passes through the vertices of the triangle.
The circumference C of a circle with radius r is given by C = 2*r.
In a circle whose circumference is C, the length a of an arc whose measure is m
(degrees) is given by a = C*m / 360.
The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A =*r2.
A sector of a circle is a region bounded by two radii and the arc intercepted by
those radii.
The area A of a sector of a circle with radius r whose arc measure is m (degrees)
is given by A =*r2*m / 360.
A segment of a circle is a region bounded by a chord and its arc (e.g. Shaded
region in figure 7.12).
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 3.6.3 30 Minutes
1. Find the perimeter and area of the shaded segment of the circle with centre O
shown in figure 7.12, given that AOB = 60 and OA = 12 cm.
3.7 SOLIDS
A prism is a solid figure that results from joining with lines the corresponding
vertices of two congruent polygons lying in parallel planes in such a way that their
corresponding sides are parallel; the congruent polygons are the bases of the
prism.
In figure 8.1, P and P’ are parallel planes; ΔABC and ΔA’B’C’ are congruent
triangles; DEFG and D’E’F’G’ are congruent squares.
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If the edges of a prism (i.e. the joining lines) are perpendicular to the planes, the
prism is a right prism, its shape being indicated by the shape of the bases (i.e.
the congruent figures), e.g. the prism with bases ABC and A’B’C’ in figure 8.1 is a
right triangular prism.
A prism that is not a right prism is an oblique prism, e.g. the prism with bases
DEFG and D’E’F’G’ in figure 8.1 is an oblique square prism.
The lateral area of a prism is the sum of the areas of all its lateral faces, i.e. all its
faces except the bases.
The altitude (or height) of a prism is the perpendicular distance between the
bases (h in figure 8.1).
The lateral area L of a right prism with height h and whose base has perimeter P
is given by L = h*P.
The total area (or surface area) T of a prism is the sum of the lateral area and
the area of its bases.
The total area T of a prism with lateral area L and base area B is given by T = L +
2B.
The volume V of a right rectangular prism with length l, width w and height h is
given by V = l*w*h.
The volume V of a right prism with base area B and height h is given by V = B*h.
Example 1
The total area of the right square prism in figure 8.2 is 210 cm2. Find the length of a
side of the square base if the altitude of the prism is 8 cm.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
Let x cm be the length of a side of the square, so that the area of the base is x 2 and
the area of each of the four lateral faces is 8x. Therefore 2x2 + 4(8x) = 210,
ie. 2x2 +32x -210= 0.
The only positive solution of this equation is x = 5, so each side of the square base
measures 5 cm.
A pyramid is a solid figure that results from joining with lines the vertices of a
polygon in a plane to a fixed point that is not in the plane; the base of the pyramid
is the polygon and the vertex of the pyramid is the point.
The lateral edges are the joining lines and the base edges are the sides of the
polygon.
A lateral face of a pyramid is a triangle whose sides are two adjacent lateral
edges and the base edge between them; the lateral area of a pyramid is the sum
of the areas of all the lateral faces.
The altitude (or height) of a pyramid is the perpendicular distance from the
vertex to the base.
A regular pyramid is a pyramid whose base is a regular polygon and whose
lateral edges are all equal; the lateral faces of a regular pyramid are congruent to
each other.
The slant height of a regular pyramid is the altitude of any of the lateral faces.
The lateral area L of a regular pyramid with slant height s and base perimeter P is
given by L = s*P / 2.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 2
Find the lateral area of a regular pentagonal pyramid with base edges each 8 cm and
lateral edges each 10 cm.
Solution
Let s be the slant height of the pyramid shown in figure 8.3 (i), i.e. s is the altitude of
each lateral face, as in figure 8.3(ii).
Hence s2 = 102 – 42 = 84, so s = 84 = 221. Since the perimeter of the base is
5*8 = 40, the lateral area is 221*40 / 2 = 4021.
The total area (or surface area) of a pyramid is the sum of the lateral area and
the area of the base.
The total area T of a pyramid with lateral area L and base area B is given by T =
L + B.
The volume V of a pyramid with base area B and height h is given by V = B*h /
3.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 3.7.1 30 Minutes
1. For the right prism in figure 8.4, find its:
(a) lateral area L;
(b) total area T;
(c) volume V.
2. The roof of a church steeple has the shape of a right square pyramid. The
length of a side of the square is 10 metres and the height of the pyramid is 12
metres. What is the area of the roof?
A circular cylinder is a solid figure that results from joining with lines
corresponding points of two congruent circles lying in parallel planes; the
congruent circles are the bases of the cylinder.
In figure 8.5, P and P’ are parallel planes; A, B, C and A’, B’, C’ are corresponding
points on two congruent circles; X, Y, Z and X’, Y, Z’ are corresponding points on
two congruent circles.
If the joining lines are perpendicular to the planes, the cylinder is a right circular
cylinder (e.g. the cylinder with bases containing points A, B, C and A’, B’, C’);
otherwise, it is an oblique circular cylinder (e.g. the cylinder with bases
containing points X, Y, Z and X’, Y, Z’).
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The altitude (or height) of a cylinder is the perpendicular distance between the
bases (h).
The axis of a circular cylinder is the line joining the centres of the bases.
The lateral area of a right circular cylinder is the area of the curved surface
between the bases.
The lateral area L of a circular cylinder with height h and whose bases have radii
of length r is given by L = 2 *r*h.
The total area (or surface area) of a circular cylinder is the sum of the lateral
area and the area of its bases.
The total area T of a right circular cylinder with height h and base radius r is given
by T = 2 *r*h + 2 *r2 = 2 *r (r + h).
The volume V of a right circular cylinder with height h and base radius r is given
by V = *r2*h.
A circular one is a solid figure that results
from joining with lines points on a circle in a
plane to a fixed point that is not in the plane,
as shown in figure 8.6; the base of the
coneis the circle and the vertex of the
coneis the point.
The altitude (or height) of a coneis the
perpendicular distance from the vertex to
the base.
The axis of a circular coneisthe line from
the vertex (P) to the centre of the base (O).
A rightcircularcone is one such that the
axis is perpendicular to the base; an
oblique circular cone is a circular cone
that is not a right circular cone.
The slant height of a right circular cone is the distance from any point on the
base to the vertex (s).
The lateral area of a right circular cone is the area of the curved surface between
the vertex and the base.
The lateral area L of a right circular cone with slant height s and base radius r is
given by L =*r*s.
The total area (or surface area) of a circular cone is the sum of the lateral area
and the area of the base.
The total area T of a right circular cone with slant height s and base radius r is
given by T =*r*s + *r2 = *r (s + r).
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 3
For the right circular cone with height 6 cm and base radius 3 cm, find: the lateral
area and the total area.
In figure 8.6, let h =6 and r = 3.
Now, s2 = h2 + r2 = 62 + 32 = 45, so s = 45 = 35.
Hence lateral area (L) = π*3*35 = 9π5 cm2, and total area (T) = 9π5 + π*32
= (9π5 + 9π) = 9π(1 + 5) cm2.
The volume V of a right circular cone with height h and base radius r is given by
V =*r2*h / 3.
Student Learning Activity 3.7.2 30 Minutes
1. If the volume of a right circular cone is 200 cm 3 and its altitude is 8 cm, what is
the radius of its base?
2. For a certain right circular cone, the ratio of the slant height to the radius is 5:3.
If the volume of the cone is 96 cm3, find the lateral area of the cone.
A sphere is the set of all points in space
that are at the same distance from a fixed
point, as shown in figure 8.7; the centre
of the sphere is the fixed point (O); a
radius of the sphere is a line from the
centre to any point on the sphere (r).
A diameter of a sphere is a line joining
two points on the sphere that passes
through the centre (QP).
A great circle of a sphere is the intersection of the sphere and a plane that
contains the centre of the sphere.
The surface area A of a sphere with radius of length r is given by A = 4*r2.
The volume V of a sphere with radius of length r is given by V = 4*r3 / 3.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 3.7.3 30 Minutes
1. A sphere is inscribed within a right circular cylinder whose height and diameter
are equal, as shown in figure 8.8. Find:
(a) the ratio of the surface area of the cylinder to that of the sphere;
(b) the ratio of the volume of the cylinder to that of the sphere.
2. A right circular cone is inscribed within a sphere of radius 6 cm, as shown in
figure 8.9. If the slant height of the cone is equal to its diameter, find the length of:
(a) the radius of the base of the cone;
(b) the altitude of the cone.
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3.8 COORDINATE GEOMETRY
8.1 Linear function and gradient
A linear function of a variable x is one which involves only a term in x and a
constant term, i.e. a function of the form: y = m x + b. It is represented by a straight-
line graph.
When x = 0, y = b, i.e. the graph cuts the y-
axis at y = b, which is called the y-intercept.
If P(x0, y0) is a point on the line, its
coordinates must satisfy the equation, so y0 =
m x0 + b
y0 b
m = tan
x0
This ratio (height of triangle / width of
triangle) is called the slope or gradient of the
line. Hence, the form y = mx + b is called the
Gradient-intercept form of a linear function (equation).
The sign of m indicates whether the line slopes upwards or downwards to the
right.
If m > 0, the line slopes upwards to the right;
if m< 0, it slopes downwards;
if m = 0, it is horizontal (y = b).
The gradient of a line through two points
may be determined as follows.
Slope of line = BF/AF, so
y 2 y1
m
x 2 x1
Note that the points may be taken in
y1 y 2 y y1
either order, because 2 .
x1 x 2 x 2 x1
A set of points are collinear if they all lie on the same straight line.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 1
Show that the points A (-1, -3), B(3, 5) and C(8, 15) are collinear.
53 8
Gradient of AB 2
3 1 4
15 5 10
Gradient of BC 2
83 5
Thus AB and BC have the same gradient and both pass through B, so A, B and C
are collinear.
Example 2
Does the line 3x – 2y + 4 = 0 pass through the points (-2, -1) and (4, 7)?
When x = -2 and y = -1,
LHS = 3(-2) – 2(-1) + 4 = -6 + 2 + 4 = 0 = RHS, so 2,1 lies on the line
(because the coordinates of the point satisfy the equation).
When x = 4 and y = 7,
LHS = 3(4) – 2(7) + 4 = 12 – 14 + 4 = 2 RHS, so (4, 7) does not lie on the line.
8.2 Equations of straight lines
The equation of the line through (a, b) parallel to the x-axis is y = b, since the y-
coordinate of every point on the line is b (the x-coordinate may be any real number).
The equation of the line through (a, b) parallel to the y-axis is x = a, since the x-
coordinate of every point on the line is a (the y-coordinate may be any real number).
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Let us find the equation of a line passing through the point Q(x1, y1) with slope m.
y y1
If P(x, y) is any point on the line, slope of QP = = m.
x x1
So the equation of the line may be expressed as the Point-gradient form:
y y1
m
x x1
or
y y1 mx x 1
Example 3
A line passes through (2, 3) and has gradient 2 / 3. What is its equation?
y3 2
Slope of the line =
x2 3
So the equation of the line is 3y – 9 = 2x – 4
i.e. 2x – 3y + 5 = 0
Example 4
Prove that the points A (-1, 1), B (0, 4) and C(2, 10) are collinear and find the
equation of the line on which they lie.
4 1
Slope of AB = 3
0 1
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
10 4 6
Slope of BC = 3
20 2
Since AB and BC have the same slope and both pass through B, the 3 points are
collinear.
Equation of line with slope 3 through (-1, 1) is:
y 1
3
x 1
i.e. y – 1 = 3x + 3
i.e. 3x – y + 4 = 0
Let us find the equation of a line through two points A (x1, y1) and B(x2, y2).
If P(x, y) is any point on the line,
slope of AP = slope of AB .
This gives the Two-point form:
y y1 y y1
2
x x1 x 2 x1
Example 5
Find the equation of the line through A(-1, 3) and B(3, 8).
Does it also pass through (7, 18)?
y3 83 5
Equation of AB is:
x 1 3 1 4
4y – 12 = 5x + 5
5x – 4y +17 = 0
When x = 7 and y = 18,
LHS = 5 (7) – 4(18) + 17
= 35 – 72 + 17
= -20
RHS
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Hence (7,18) does not lie on the line, because its coordinates do not satisfy the
equation of the line.
Let us find the equation of the line cutting off intercepts of a and b on the x-axis
and y-axis respectively.
The line passes through (0, b) and (a, 0), so its
equation is:
yb 0b b
x0 a 0 a
ay – ab = -bx
bx + ay = ab
Dividing by ab gives the Intercept form:
x y
1
a b
Example 6
Find the equation of the line having an x-intercept of 5 and a y-intercept of -2.
Express the equation in the general form Ax + By + C = 0.
x y
The equation of the line is: 1
5 2
2x – 5y = 10
i.e. 2x – 5y – 10 = 0
8.3 Parallel and perpendicular lines
If two lines are parallel, their slopes are equal.
Example 7
Find the equation of the line through (2, 5) parallel to 3x + 2y = 7.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Given line is 2y = -3x + 7
i.e. y = -3x / 2 + 7 / 2
Its slope is (-3 / 2); hence slope of required line is also (–3 / 2).
y5 3
Equation of required line is:
x2 2
2y – 10 = -3x + 6
i.e. 3x + 2y - 16 = 0
Let us see how the slopes of perpendicular lines (lines at right angles to each
other) are related.
Let y = m1x + b1 and y = m2x + b2 be two perpendicular lines with slopes m 1 and
m2 respectively
It can be shown that m1 m2 = -1
i.e. for perpendicular lines with slopes m1 and m2, m1m2 1
Example 8
Find the equation of the line which is perpendicular to 2x – 5y + 7 = 0 and
passes through (2, 5).
Given line is 5y = 2x + 7
i.e. y = 2x / 5 + 7 / 5
Its slope is (2 / 5) so the slope of any line perpendicular to it is (-5 / 2).
y5 5
Hence, the required line is:
x2 2
i.e. 2y – 10 = -5x + 10
i.e. 5x + 2y - 20 = 0
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 9
Show that the line joining (6, 3) and (9, 5) is perpendicular to the line joining (5, 7)
and (9, 1).
53 2
Slope of the first line =
96 3
1 7 6 3
Slope of the second line =
95 4 2
Since the product of these slopes is 1 , the lines are perpendicular.
8.4 Intersection of two straight lines
If two lines have different slopes, they must intersect at a point; the coordinates
of this point must satisfy both equations, ie. at that point the equations are both true
simultaneously (at the same time). To find the point of intersection, then, we must
find the point whose coordinates satisfy both equations.
Example 10
Find the point of intersection of the lines whose equations are:
2x + 3y = 17 ………………… (1)
9x – 2y = -1 …………………. (2)
Multiply (1) by 2 and (2) by 3:
4x + 6y = 34
27x – 6y = -3
The sum of the two left-hand sides must equal the sum of the two right-hand sides,
so 4x + 27x = 34 - 3
i.e. 31x = 31
x=1
Substituting x = 1 in (1) yields
2(1) + 3y = 17
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
3y = 15
y=5
Hence, the lines intersect at (1, 5).
8.5 Points and distances
Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be any two
points.
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
AB2 = AC2 + CB2
i.e. AB2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
AB x 2 x 1 2 y 2 y1 2
Distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
x 2 x 1 2 y 2 y1 2
Note that the order in which the points are taken does not matter, since
(x2 – x1)2 = (x1 – x2)2 and (y2 – y1)2 = (y1 – y2)2
Example 11
Find the distance between the points G (7, 2) and H (-3, 1).
GH2 = (-3 – 7)2 + (1 – 2)2
= (-10)2 + (-1)2 = 100 + 1 = 101
GH =101 = 10.05
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Let us find a formula for the midpoint M between two given points A (x1, y1) and
B(x2, y2).
ADM and ACB are similar, so:
AD AM
AC AB
x x1 1
i.e. , since M is the midpoint of
x 2 x1 2
AB
2x – 2x1 = x2 – x1
2x = x2 + x1
x1 x 2
x
2
y1 y 2
Similarly, y
2
x x 2 y1 y 2
Midpoint of interval from (x1, y1) to (x2, y2) is 1 ,
2 2
Example 12
Find the midpoint of the interval between the two points in the previous example.
7 3 2 1
Midpoint = , = (2, 1.5)
2 2
Student Learning Activity 3.8.1 30 Minutes
1 The points D (-1, 3), E (1, 7) and F(3k – 4, 3 + 2k) are in one straight line. Find
the value of k.
2 Which of the points (4, 2), (-1, 3) and (0, 2.5) lie on the straight line x + 4y = 11?
3 Show that the figure ABCD whose vertices are the points (0, 2), (6, 5), (3, 1)
and (7, 3) is a trapezium.
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4 Show that the line joining (6, 3) and (9, 5) is perpendicular to the line joining (5,
7) and (9, 1).
5 Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the point (-1, 3) and is
parallel to the line joining the points (2, 1) and (5, 5).
6 Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the origin and through
the point of intersection of the lines 4x – y – 3 = 0 and x + 2y – 12 = 0.
7 P and Q are the points (2, -1) and (4, 5) respectively. Produce the line PQ in
both directions and find the coordinates of A and B such that AP = PQ = QB.
8 Find the distance of the point (2, 3) from the midpoint of the line joining (7, 9)
and (3, 5).
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ANSWERS
TO
STUDENT
LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
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Exercises Answers Exercises Answers
3.1.1 1. (a) 87; (b) 87; (c) 93; 3.5.3 1. HL = 6; HK = 12;
(d) 87. MK = 6.
2. 63.
3.2.1 1. (a) 122; (b) 58; (c) 72. 3.5.4 1. (a) 60; (b) 120;
(c) 180; (d) 60.
3.2.2 1. 12 units2. 3.6.1 1. (a) 136; (b) 224;
(c) 68; (d) 44.
3.2.3 1. 16 cm, 32 cm, 28 cm. 3.6.2 1. Perimeter = (12 + 4)
2. 96 units 2 cm;
area = (24 - 363)
cm2.
3.3.1 2. (a) CBE, ADE, CDE; 3.6.3 1. (a) 105 m2;
(b) ADC; (c) CBD. (b) (105 + 157 / 2) m2;
(c) 1057 / 4 m3.
4. UYV = 48;
VYW = 48; 2. 260 m2.
YUV = 42; and
YWV = 42.
3.3.2 2. 40. 3.7.1 1. 5 cm.
2. 60π cm2.
3.3.3 1. ∆DEC is a right triangle; 3.7.3 1. (a) 3:2; (b) 3:2.
∆ADE and ∆BCE are
2. (a) 33 cm;
isosceles triangles.
(b) 9 cm.
3.4.1 1. 6. 3.8.1 1. k = 1.5
2. Only the second point
lies on the line.
5. 4x – 3y + 13 = 0.
6. 5x – 2y = 0.
7. A is (0, -7); B is (6, 11).
8. 5.
3.4.2 1. (a) 23; (b) 67; (c) 10;
(d) 24.
3.5.1 1. (a) 7; (b) 7; (c) 5.
2. 9.
3.5.2 1. 12 m.
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UNIT 4
TRIGONOMETRY
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this unit, you should be able to:
define the basic trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine and tangent);
state the trigonometric formula for calculating the area of a triangle;
state the values of the trigonometric ratios for common angles;
solve problems involving inverse trigonometric ratios;
solve problems relating to right-angled triangles;
solve problems involving angles of elevation and depression;
state and apply the trigonometric form of Pythagoras’ theorem;
state and apply the sine and cosine rules.
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INTRODUCTION
Trigonometry is a powerful tool for solving problems involving a triangle, i.e.
calculating the lengths of its sides and the sizes of its angles. This can be done
because there are known relationships between these quantities.
Any polygon can be divided into a number of triangles. If all the triangles comprising
a polygon have been solved, then the polygon can be solved, i.e. the lengths of its
sides and the sizes of its angles can be determined.
The disciplines of surveying and navigation rely very heavily on the use of
trigonometry.
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4.1 BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
For a right-angled triangle, we define the three basic trigonometric ratios, sine,
cosine and tangent in terms of the lengths of the sides of the triangle as:
sine = opposite (to ) / hypotenuse = QR / PQ
cosine = adjacent (to ) / hypotenuse = PR / PQ
tangent = opposite / adjacent = QR / PR
Note:
(1) The square symbol at R indicates that R is a right angle.
(2) The terms sine, cosine and tangent are abbreviated to sin, cos and tan
respectively.
(3) The symbol for a degree is , e.g. a right angle is 90, but for convenience the
symbol will be omitted in this unit.
Since the angles of a triangle add to 180 degrees, PQR = (90 - ) and:
sin (90 - ) = PR / PQ = cos
cos (90 - ) = QR / PQ = sin
Two angles that total 90, eg. and (90 - ), are called complementary.
Note: When considering only one triangle, it is usual to name the angles of the
triangle with upper case letters, e.g. A, B and C, and then use the
corresponding lower case letters, i.e., b and c, for the sides of the triangle
opposite the respective angles. This convention is used in this unit where
required. However, this should generally not be done for a diagram with more
than one triangle, because such abbreviated references then often become
ambiguous.
Example 1.1
By dropping the perpendicular AP from the vertex A to the opposite side of a triangle
ABC, show that
a = b cos C + c cos B, using the A,
B, C, a, b, c naming convention.
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Solution
cos C = CP / b, so CP = b cos C
cos B = PB / c, so PB = c cos B
a = CP + PB = b cos C + c cos B
Example 1.2
Use the diagram in the previous example and the geometric formula for the area of a
triangle (area of triangle = * base * height, where * means “multiply”) to show that
area of the triangle = a b sin C = a c sin B.
Solution
Area of triangle ABC = * base * height = ah
Now sin C = h / b , so h = b sin C
and sin B = h / c so h = c sin B
Area of triangle ABC = a b sin C = a c sin B.
Similarly, by dropping a perpendicular from B, one can show that
area of triangle ABC = b c sin A.
In words: the area of a triangle equals a half of the product of any two sides and the
sine of the angle between them.
Example 1.3
In this diagram W is a well, AB and AC are
fence lines, the perpendicular from W to AB
= 200 metres, the perpendicular from W to
AC = 40 metres and BAC = 30 degrees.
The line BC is to be drawn through W in
such a way that the area of triangle ABC is
6 hectares. Find AB and AC.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
Area of ABC = 6 hectares = 60,000 square metres
Let AB = x metres and AC = y metres
Area of ABC = 0.5 x y sin BAC = 60,000 ... (1)
Area of ABW = 0.5 x (200) = 100 x
Area of ACW = 0.5 y (40) = 20 y
Area of ABW + Area of ACW = Area of ABC
100 x + 20 y = 60,000 …………. (2)
From (2), y = (60,000 – 100 x) / 20
Substituting this in (1) gives
x 60,000 - 100x
sin 30 60,000
2 20
60,000 x – 100 x2 = 2,400,000 / sin 30 = 2,400,000 / 0.5
100 x2 - 60,000 x + 4,800,000 = 0
x2 - 600 x + 48,000 = 0
x (600 360,000- 192,000) / 2
= (600 168,000) / 2
= (600 409.878) / 2
= 504.94 or 95.06
y = (60,000 – 50,494) / 20 or (60,000 – 9,506) / 20
= 475.3 or 2,524.7
Hence there are two solutions: AB = 505m and AC = 475 m
or AB = 95 m and AC = 2,525 m
Note: Unless otherwise stated, for convenience, distances in this unit are assumed
to be measured in metres and the units are not specified.
Example 1.4
Find the length of each line segment in this
diagram in terms of a and functions of the
angles and .
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Solution
tan = DB / AB, so DB = AB tan = a tan
cos = AB / AD, so AD = AB / cos
cos = DC / DB, so DC = DB cos = a tan cos
sin = CB / DB, so CB = DB sin = a tan sin
Student Learning Activity 4.1.1 10 minutes
1 In the triangle ABC, ABC = 90, AB = 3, BC = 4 and AC = 5. Find sin, cos
and tan of ACB.
2 In the triangle PQR, RPQ = 90, PQ = 12, RP = 5 and QR = 13. Find sin,
cos and tan of PQR.
4.2 RATIOS OF 0, 30, 45, 60 AND 90 DEGREES
In a right-angled triangle ABC, if ACB = 90 degrees
and BAC = 45 degrees, then ABC = 45 degrees and
AC = BC.
If we let AC = 1 unit, then BC = 1 unit and
AB = (12 + 12) = 2 units by Pythagoras’ theorem.
In summary,
sin 45 = 1 / 2; cos 45 = 1 / 2; tan 45 = 1
In this diagram, FGH is an equilateral triangle with
each side equal to 2 units.
Each angle of FGH = 60 degrees.
GP is perpendicular to FH.
FGP =PGH = 30 degrees, so GP bisects FGH.
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FGP and PGH are similar, i.e. of the same shape (because their corresponding
angles are equal). Also, their hypotenuses are equal, so they are congruent, i.e.
identical in size and shape.
FP = PH = 1 unit
PG =(22 - 12) = 3
In summary,
sin 30 = 1 / 2; cos 30 = 3 / 2; tan 30 = 1/3;
sin 60 = 3 / 2; cos 60 = 1 / 2; tan 60 = 3
Consider the trigonometric ratios of as AX is rotated clockwise about A.
sin = XP / AX
cos = AP / AX
As AX is rotated closer to AB, becomes smaller and
smaller, i.e. it becomes closer and closer to 0. At the same
time, XP becomes smaller and smaller, while AX stays
constant, so sin becomes closer and closer to 0.
Furthermore, AP becomes closer and closer to AC (which
equals AX), so cos becomes closer and closer to 1.
Eventually, sin 0 = 0 and cos 0 = 1.
Of course, sin 90 = cos 0 =1 and cos 90 = sin 0 = 0, since 0 and 90 are
complimentary angles.
In summary,
sin 0 = 0; cos 0 = 1; tan 0 = 0;
sin 90 = 1; cos 90 = 0; tan 90 is undefined
Example 2.1
In MNP, MN = 40, MNP = 90 degrees and
MPN = 60 degrees. What are MP and PN?
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Solution
sin 60 = MN / MP = 40 / MP
MP = 40 / sin 60 = 40 * 2 / 3 = 80 / 3 = 46.19
tan 30 = PN / MN = PN / 40
PN = 40 tan 30 = 40 / 3 = 23.09
Example 2.2
In PQR,
PQR = 90 degrees,
PQ =19 and PR = 38.
What is PRQ?
Solution
sin PRQ = PQ / PR = 19 / 38 = 0.5
PRQ = 30 degrees
4.3 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
In this last example (Example 2.2), we say PRQ = arcsine 0.5 (or arcsin 0.5 or
sin -1 0.5), meaning that PRQ is the angle whose sine is 0.5. This arcsine
function is called the inverse function of the sine function, because it deals with
going from a sine ratio to an angle instead of going from an angle to a sine ratio.
(Logically the arcsine function would be better described as a “reverse function” of
the sine function, but the term “inverse function” has become the accepted one.)
Notice that the notation sin -1 does not mean (1 / sin) – it is an accepted notation for
an inverse sine function and has nothing to do with taking a reciprocal!
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The inverse functions arcos and arctan (or artan) are defined in a similar way, i.e.
arcos x means the angle whose cosine is x, and arctan x means the angle
whose tangent ratio is x.
Notice also that arcsin, sin -1 etc. are names of functions and must be written before
their argument, e.g. you must write arcsin (0.92) - not (0.92) arcsin.
Note: The values of inverse functions may be determined with a scientific calculator
by using the “Shift” or “Inv” key, e.g. pressing Shift + sin keys will give the
value of arcsin.
Example 3.1
Use the “Inv” or “Shift” key on the calculator in order to evaluate these inverse
functions.
(a).arcsin (0.66); (b) artan 3.72; (c) arcos 0.545; (d) sin -1(0.747).
Solution
(a).arcsin (0.66) = 41.30; (b) artan 3.72 = 74.95; (c) arcos 0.545 = 56.98;
(d) sin-1(0.747) = 48.33.
Student Learning Activity 4.3.1 10 minutes
1 Use the “Inv” or “Shift” key on the calculator in order to evaluate these inverse
functions: arcsin (0.09); arctan 77.16; arcos 0.222; cos-1(0.814).
2 Use your calculator to find the acute angle if:
(a) sin = 0.9364
(b)cos = 0.2381
(c) tan = 1.7321
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4.4SOLVING RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES
The examples in this section illustrate the use of the above definitions and results in
order to solve various problems involving right-angled triangles.
Example 4.1
The angle between the two tangents from a point to a circle is 82 degrees. What is
the length of one of these tangents if the radius of the circle is 80?
Solution
PTO is 90 degrees because a tangent forms a
right angle with the radius drawn through the point
of contact of the tangent.
TPO = 41, by symmetry
tan TPO = OT / PT
so PT = OT / tan TPO
= 80 / tan 41
= 80 / 0.8693
= 92.0
Example 4.2
The diagonals of a certain rhombus are 320 and 240 in length. Find the angles of
the rhombus.
Solution
A rhombus is a parallelogram with equal sides; the diagonals of a rhombus bisect
each other at right angles.
By symmetry, DX = 120 and AX = 160.
tan ADX = AX / DX = 160 / 120 = 1.333
ADX =arctan 1.333 = 53.1, from a calculator.
DAX = 90 – 53.1 = 36.9
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
BAD =BCD = 2 * DAX, by symmetry = 73.8º
and ADC = ABC = 2 * ADX, by symmetry
= 106.2º
Example 4.3
A rectangle has sides of 170 and 130.
What are the angles between the diagonals?
Solution
tan QPR = QR / PQ = 130 / 170 = 0.7647
QPR =artan 0.7647 = 37.4
By symmetry, PQS =QPR
POQ =SOR = 180 – 2 * 37.4
= 180 – 74.8 = 105.2 degrees
POS =QOR = 180 – 105.2 = 74.8 degrees
Example 4.4
In this diagram, find the angles LMP and
NMQ. LMNP is a rectangle because it is a
parallelogram with a right angle in it.
Solution
LP = MN = 80
and PN = LM = 150
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tan LMP = LP / LM = 80 / 150 = 0.5333
LMP =arctan 0.5333 = 28.1 degrees
QN = PN – PQ = 150 – 90 = 60
tan NMQ = QN / MN = 60 / 80 = 0.75
NMQ =arctan 0.75 = 36.9 degrees
Student Learning Activity 4.4.1 30 Minutes
1 In the triangle ABC, ABC = 90, CAB = 35 and AC = 30. Find BC.
2 In the triangle PQR, RPQ = 90, QRP = 60 and RP = 8.7. Find PQ.
3 Find the height of a flagpole which casts a shadow of 9.32 m when the sun
makes an angle of 63 to the horizontal.
4 A rectangle is 9.2 m by 3.8 m. What angle does its diagonal make with its
longer side?
5 The diagonal and the longer side of a rectangle make an angle of 43.2. If the
longer side is 12.6 cm, find the length of the shorter side.
6 A rhombus has diagonals of length 12 cm and 7 cm respectively. Find the
larger angle of the rhombus. [Hint: The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each
other at right angles.]
4.5ANGLES OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION
If an observer is looking up at an object, the angle between the horizontal and his
line of sight is called an angle of elevation. If an observer is looking down at an
object, the angle between the horizontal and his line of sight is called an angle of
depression.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
is the angle of elevation of B from A is the angle of depression of N from P
Example 5.1
From a point level with the base of a tree and 65m
from it, the angle of elevation of the top of the tree
is 32 degrees. Find the height of the tree.
Solution
tan BPT = BT / BP
BT = BP tan BPT
= 65 tan 32
= 65 * 0.6249 = 40.6 m
Example 5.2
From a point on a light-house 76 m above sea
level, the angle of depression of a fishing boat is
28 degrees. How far is the boat from the foot of
the light-house?
Solution
FBL =BLH = 28
tan FBL = LF / BF
BF = LF / tan FBL= 76 / tan 28
= 76 / 0.5317= 142.9 m
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 5.3
A tourist viewing Hong Kong harbour from a
building 180 m above sea level observes a ferry
which is 850 m from the base of the building.
Find the angle of depression of his line of sight.
Solution
Angle of depression =FTH = BFT
tan BFT = BT / BF = 180 / 850 = 0.2118
BFT =arctan 0.2118 = 11.96
Angle of depression = 12 degrees
Student Learning Activity 4.5.1 25 Minutes
1 Find the angle of elevation to the top of a 56 m high building from point A, which
is at ground level 113 m from its base. What is the angle of depression from the
top of the building to A?
2 The angle of depression from the top of a 120 m high vertical cliff to a boat B is
16. Find how far the boat is from the base of the cliff.
3 Sarah measures the angle of elevation to the top of a tree as 23.6 from where
she is standing at a point 250 m from its base. Her eye level, where the angle
measurement was taken, is 1.5 m above the ground. Assuming the ground is
horizontal, find the height of the tree.
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4 From a point A, which is 40 metres from the base of a building B and on the
same level, the angle of elevation to the top of the building C is 51, and to the
top of the flagpole D on top of the building the angle of elevation is 56. Find the
height of the flagpole.
5 The angle of depression from the top of a 150 m high cliff to a boat at sea is 7.
How much closer to the cliff must the boat move for the angle of depression to
become 19?
4.6PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM
According to Pythagoras’ theorem for the triangle ABC,
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
1 = AB2 / AC2 + BC2 / AC2
1 = (AB / AC)2 + (BC / AC)2
1 = (sin )2 + (cos)2
For convenience, we write (sin )2 as sin2 and similarly for the other trigonometric
ratios, so we have the trigonometric form of Pythagoras’ theorem as:
sin2 + cos2 = 1
Notice that, in general, sin2 = (sin )2 = (sin )(sin ) sin (2) and similarly for
the other trigonometric ratios.
Example 6.1
If = 7, show that sin2 sin 2.
Solution
sin = sin 7 = 0.1219
sin2 = (sin )2 = (0.1219)2 = 0.0149
But sin 2 = sin 49 = 0.7547
Hence, sin2 sin 2 in this case.
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Example 6.2
If sin = 0.4822, what is cos?
Solution
cos2 = 1 - sin2 = 1 – (0.4822)2 = 1 - 0.2325 = 0.7675
cos = 0.7675 = 0.8761
Student Learning Activity 4.6.1 15 Minutes
1 If cos= 0.5719, what are sin and tan ?
2 If sin= 0.2429, what are cos and tan ?
3 If cos= 0.2245, what are sin and tan ?
4.7 SINERULE
In ACD, sin C = h / b, so h = b sin c
In ABD, sin B = h / c, so h = c sin B
b sin C = c sin B
b / sin B = c / sin C
Similarly, by drawing a perpendicular from C to AB, we can show that:
a / sin A = b / sin B.
Hence we have the sine rule for any triangle ABC:
In words, in any triangle, the sides are proportional to the sines of the opposite
angles.
The rule applies to an acute-angled triangle, i.e. one whose angles are each 90
degrees or less; the rule also applies to an obtuse-angled triangle, i.e. one with an
angle greater than 90 degrees.
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The sine rule is a general rule that applies to any triangle. It is not necessary to use
it in relation to a right-angled triangle, since the definitions of the basic trigonometric
ratios may be used in order to solve the triangle without reference to the sine rule.
Example 7.1
In this triangle ABC, find BC.
Solution
a b
sin A sin B
BC AC
sin BAC sin ABC
AC sin BAC 9.6 sin 62
BC 14.08
sin ABC sin 37
Example 7.2
In the triangle ABC, A = 47 degrees, B = 73 degrees and b = 14.6 km. Find a:
Solution
a b
sin A sin B
a = b sin A / sin B
= 14.6*sin 47 / sin 73
= 14.6*0.7314 / 0.9563= 11.17 km
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Example 7.3
P and Q are two trees 490 m apart beside a river. F is a flagpole on the other side of
the river. If QPF = 43 degrees and QFP = 36 degrees, find PF.
Solution
PQF = 180 – 36 – 43 = 101
q f
sin Q sin F
PF = q = f sin Q / sin F
= 490 sin 101 / sin 36
= 490 * 0.9816 / 0.5878
= 818.28 m
Example 7.4
AB is a 12 m flagpole on top of a building.
Given QPB = 56 37, and QPA = 43 19,
find PB.
Solution
QBP = 90 - 56 37 = 33 23 = 33.3833
BPA = QPB - QPA
= 56 37 - 43 19 = 13 18 = 13.3
BAP = 180 – 33.3833 – 13.3 = 133.3167
PB AB
In BAP,
sin BAP sin BPA
PB = AB sin BAP / sin BPA
= 12 sin 133.32 / sin 13.3
= 12 * 0.7276 / 0.0576
= 151.58 m
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
An alternative formula for the area of triangle can be derived as follows. In any
triangle XYZ, from the sine rule we have:
y = x sin Y / sin X and z = x sin Z / sin X
Area of triangle = 0.5 y z sin X
= 0.5 (x sin Y / sin X) (x sin Z / sin X) sin X
= x2 sin Y sin Z / 2 sin X
This can be rearranged as: in any triangle XYZ, x2 = 2 Area * sin X / sin Y * sin Z.
Thus, if the area and angles of a triangle are known, this formula may be used to
solve the triangle (i.e. find all the sides).
Student Learning Activity 4.7.1 25 Minutes
1 A tower 42 m high stands on top of a hill. From a point some distance away
from the hill and level with the bottom of the hill, the angle of elevation of the
top of the tower is 13.2 and the angle of elevation of the bottom of the tower
is 8.3. Find the height of the hill.
2 From the foot of a building I have to look up at an angle of 22 from the
horizontal in order to see the top of a tree. From the top of the building, 150 m
above ground level, I have to look down at an angle of 50 from the horizontal
in order to see the top of the tree. (a) How high is the tree? (b) How far from
the building is this tree?
3 Two observation posts are 12 km apart at A and B. A third post C is located
such that CAB is 42 and CBA is 67. Find (a) the distance of C from A;
and (b) the distance of C from B
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4.8 COSINE RULE
In ACD, h2 = b2 – x2, by Pythagoras’ theorem and cos C = x/b, so x = b cos C.
In ABD, h2 = c2 – (a - x)2
Equating these two expressions for h2,
b2 – x2 = c2 – (a - x)2
b2 – x2 = c2 – a2 + 2 a x - x2
c2= a2 + b2 – 2 a x
c2= a2 + b2 – 2 a b cos C
Similarly, we can derive expressions for a2 and for b2, which gives three equivalent
versions of the cosine rule for any triangle ABC:
a2= b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos A
b2= a2 + c2 – 2 a c cos B
c2= a2 + b2 – 2 a b cos C
In words, in any triangle, the square of any side equals the sum of the squares of the
other two sides less twice the product of those two sides and the cosine of the angle
between them.
This rule is a generalization of Pythagoras’ theorem (i.e .if one of the angles is 90
degrees, the corresponding equation reduces to Pythagoras’ theorem, because
cos90 = 0).
Like the sine rule, the cosine rule is a general rule that applies to any triangle. It is
not necessary to use it in relation to a right-angled triangle, since the definitions of
the basic trigonometric ratios may be used in order to solve the triangle without
reference to the cosine rule.
Example 8.1
Find the angles in a triangle with sides of 15, 18 and 22.
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MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Solution
a2= b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos A
222= 152 + 182 – 2 (15) 18 cos A
cos A = (152 + 182 - 222) / 2 * 15 * 18
= (225 + 324 - 484) / 540
= 65 / 540
= 0.1204
A = arcos 0.1204 = 83.09 degrees
Similarly, b2= a2 + c2 – 2 a c cos B
or cos B = (a2 + c2 - b2) / 2 a c
= (222 + 182 - 152) / 2 * 22 * 18
= 583 / 792
= 0.7361
B = arcos 0.7361 = 42.60 degrees
C = 180 - 83.09 – 42.60 = 54.31 degrees
Example 8.2
Find the largest angle in a triangle with sides x = 75, y = 63 and z = 51.
Solution
Largest angle is opposite the longest side, ie. Largest angle is X.
x2= y2 + z2 – 2 y z cos X
cos X = (y2 + z2 - x2) / 2 y z
= (512 + 632 - 752) / 2 * 51 * 63
= 945 / 6,426
= 0.1471
X = arcos 0.1471 = 81.54 degrees
175
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Example 8.3
ABCD is a parallelogram in which AB = 12,
BC = 17 and ABC = 65 degrees. What is
the length of the diagonal AC?
Solution
In ABC,
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2 a c cos B
= 172 + 122 - 2 (17) 12 cos 65
= 289 + 144 - 408 * 0.4226
= 433 -172.4283 = 260.5717
AC = 16.14
Student Learning Activity 4.8.1 15 Minutes
1 A football goal is 5 m wide. When a player is 26 m from one goal post and 23
m from the other, he shoots for a goal. What is the angle of view of the goal
posts that the player sees?
2 Tom and Pale start walking at point A. They each walk in a straight line at an
angle of 120 to each other. Tom walks at 6 km/hr and Pale walks at 8 km/hr.
How far apart are they after 45 minutes?
3 An orienteer runs for 5.5 km, and then turns through an angle of 32 and runs
for another 3 km. How far is she from her starting point?
176
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
ANSWERS
TO
STUDENT
LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
177
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 4.1.1
1 sin ACB = 0.6; cosACB = 0.8; tanACB = 0.75.
2 sin PQR = 0.3846; cosPQR = 0.9231; tanPQR = 0.4167.
Student Learning Activity 4.3.1
1 arcsin (0.09) = 5.16; arctan 77.16 = 89.26; arcos 0.222 = ;
cos-1(0.814) = 35.51.
2
(a) = arsin (0.9364) = 69.46 degrees.
(b) = arcos (0.2381) = 76.23 degrees.
(c) = arctan (1.7321) = 60.00 degrees.
Student Learning Activity 4.4.1
1 17.21.
2 15.07.
3 18.29 m.
4 22.44 degrees.
5 11.83.cm.
6 119.49 degrees.
Student Learning Activity 4.5.1
1 Both angles are 26.36 degrees.
2 418.49 m.
3 110.72 m.
4 9.91 m.
5 786.02 m.
178
MATRICULATION BASIC MATHEMATICS
Student Learning Activity 4.6.1
1 sin = 0.8203 and tan = 1.4343.
2 cos= 0.9701 and tan = 0.2504.
3 sin = 0.9745 and tan = 4.3408.
Student Learning Activity 4.7.1
1 69.11 m.
(a) 37.98 m.
(b) 94.00 m.
(a) 11.68 m;
(b) 8.49 m.
Student Learning Activity 4.8.1
1 6.38 degrees.
2 9.12 km.
3 8.12 km.
179
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