LECTURE 2

1
Basic organization of the body
A collection of cells of similar morphology performing a
specific function is termed tissue.
There are four basic tissues:
i) Epithelium
ii) Connective tissue
iii) Muscle tissue
iv) Nervous tissue
Organs and systems
An association of different tissues which perform
certain function is called Organ e.g., bone, muscle,
heart, stomach and urinary bladder.

A group of organs working harmoniously to discharge a

specific function forms a system.
The following systems are formed in the human body.
Body Systems
 Integumentary
 Skeletal
 Circulatory
 Digestive
 Respiratory
 Urinary
 Reproductive
 Nervous
 Muscular
 Endocrine
 Lymphatic
 Body Regions
❖The human body is partitioned into two
main regions, called the axial and
appendicular regions.
▪ the axial region includes the head, neck, and
trunk which comprise the main vertical axis of
our body
▪ our limbs, or appendages, attach to the body’s
axis and make up the appendicular region
Body Cavities
 Body cavities are internal chambers holding vital organs
 Cavities protect vital organs
 Cavities allow organs to change in shape and size
 Two body cavities
 Dorsal body cavity includes the cranial cavity and the
spinal cavity
 Ventral body cavity includes the thoracic cavity and the
abdominopelvic cavity
Thoracic Cavities
 The thoracic cavity contains the heart and lungs.
 The thoracic cavity is subdivided into:
 Left and right pleural cavities (each pleural cavity contains
one lung) lined by the visceral and parietal pleura
 The mediastinum contains the pericardium (pericardial
cavity), another serous membrane that surrounds the heart
Abdominopelvic Cavity
 The abdominopelvic cavity is lined by the peritoneum
 The abdominal cavity extends from the diaphragm to the
superior margins of the pelvis
 liver, stomach, spleen and most of the large intestine
 The pelvic cavity is bordered by the pelvis, with a floor of muscle
 reproductive organs, urinary bladder and the final portion of the
large intestine
 Body Quadrants

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

 Parts of the body :
 Head
 Neck
 Trunk …………thorax (chest)
 abdomen
 pelvis
 Limbs………….upper limb
 lower limb
The basic body systems and
sciences that deal with them
 Integumentary system (dermatology)
 Skeletal system.(osteology)
 Articular system.(arthrology)
 Muscular system (myology)
 Nervous system (neurology)
 Circulatory system (Angiology) (cardiovascular system
and lymphatic system)
 Digestive or alimentary system (gastroenterology)
The basic body systems and
sciences that deal with them
 Respiratory system (pulmonology)
 Urinary system (urology)
 Reproductive or genital system (gynecology for
females and andrology for males)
 Endocrine system. (endocrinology)
The Integument/ The skin
The skin that covers your body.
Skin is also known as the cutaneous
membrane.
Integumentary system consists of
the skin and its derivatives—nails,
hair, sweat glands, and sebaceous
glands.
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Skin
 Is the outer covering of the human body, largest organ
of the body
 composed of a superficial cellular layer(epidermis) and
a deeper connective tissue layer (dermis).
 The skin thickness varies in different parts of the body
and is thinner in women than in men.
 The epidermis is thicker in the palms and sole of the
feet.
 The dermis is thicker on the posterior aspect of the
body than anteriorly.
Langer’s lines
 The direction of the rows of the collagen is known as
lines of cleavage ( Langer’s lines) and they tend to run
longitudinally in the limbs and circumferentially in the
neck and trunk.
 Incisions parallel to these lines tend to heal with lesser
scar formation
Fasciae
 Superficial fascia
 Deep fascia
 Itermuscular septa
 Retinacula
 Bursae
 Aponeurosis
Bones
 A living tissue, is a highly specialized hard form of
connective tissue that makes most of skeleton.
 Functions of bones:
 1. support for the body
 2. protection of vital structures
 3. the mechanical basis for movement.
 4. storage of salts (ex. Calcium)
 5. formation of new blood cells by bone marrow.
 Periosteum is a connective tissue layer investing the
outer surface of bones, functions of periosteum:
 1. nourish the external surface of bones.
 2. laying down more bone (specially during a fracture
healing)
 3. provide an interface for attachment of tendons and
ligaments.
Histological types of bone
 Compact bone
 Spongy ( trabecular or cancellous) bone
Classification of Bone by
Organization  Axial:
 Skull
 Vertebral column
 Thorax:
 Sternum
 ribs

 Appendicular:
 Pectoral Girdle
 Pelvic Girdle

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Classification of Bone by Shape
 Long
 Short
 Flat
 Irregular

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 Long bones
 are found in the limbs (e.g., the humerus, femur,
metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges).
 Their length is greater than their breadth. They have a
tubular shaft

 Short Bones
 are found in the hand and foot (e.g., the scaphoid,
lunate, talus, and calcaneum).
 Flat Bones
 are found in the vault of the skull (e.g., the frontal and
parietal bones).

 The scapulae, although irregular, are included in this

group

 Irregular Bones
 include those not assigned to the previous groups (e.g.
the vertebrae, and the pelvic bones).
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 Sesamoid Bones
 are small nodules of bone that are found in certain tendons
where they rub over bony surfaces.
 The largest sesamoid bone is the patella, which is located
in the tendon of the quadriceps femoris.
 Other examples are found in the tendons of the flexor
pollicis brevis and flexor hallucis brevis.
 The function of a sesamoid bone is to reduce friction on
the tendon; it can also alter the direction of pull of a
tendon.
Bone markings
 Linear elevation…………line, ridge, crest
 Rounded elevation……..tubercle, protuberance,
tuberosity, malleolus
 Sharp elevation………….spine, styloid process
 Small flat area for articulation……facet
 Depressions………….notch, groove, sulcus
cartilage
 Is a form of connective tissue in which the cells and
fibers are embedded in a gel like matrix.
 It is firm and resilient, except on exposed surfaces in
joints a fibrous membrane called perichondrium
covers the cartilage.
Types of cartilage:
 1. hyaline cartilage:
 2. fibrocartilage
 3. elastic cartilage
 Cartilage
 tracheobronchial, articular cartilage of typical synovial
joints and epiphyseal growth plates of bones are
hyaline cartilage.
 Fibrocartilage
 It is found in
intervertebral discs, the
labrum of the shoulder
and hip joints, the
menisci of the knee
joints and at the
articular surface of
bones
 (squamous temporal,
mandible and clavicle).
Both hyaline cartilage
and fibrocartilage tend
 to calcify and they may
even ossify in old age.
 Elastic cartilage
 has a matrix that contains a large
number of yellow elastic fibres.
 It occurs in the external ear, auditory
(Eustachian) tube and epiglottis.
 Elastic cartilage never calcifies.

 Fibrocartilage has a sparse blood supply, but hyaline

and elastic cartilage have no capillaries, their cells
being nourished by diffusion through the ground
substance.
Ligaments
 Are cords of connective tissue uniting two structures.
Commonly found in association with joints.
 Fibrous ligaments prevent excessive movement in a
joint
Joints
 A site where two or more bones come together. Is of
three types Joints are classified according to the tissues
that lie between the bones: :
 1. fibrous joints.
 2. cartilaginous a. primary
 b. secondary
 3. synovial joints
 Fibrous Joints
 The articulating surfaces of the bones are joined by
fibrous tissue
 very little movement is possible.
 The sutures of the vault of the skull and the inferior
tibiofibular joints are examples of fibrous joints.
 Cartilaginous Joints
 can be divided into two types: primary and secondary.
 A primary cartilaginous joint is one in which the bones
are united by a plate or bar of hyaline cartilage.
 A secondary cartilaginous joint is one in which the
bones are united by a plate of fibrocartilage and the
articular surfaces of the bones are covered by a thin
layer of hyaline cartilage
Types of synovial joints
 1. plane joints sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular
joints
 2. hinge joints elbow, knee, and ankle joints
 3. pivot joints The atlantoaxial and superior
radioulnar joints are good examples.
 4. condyloid joints The metacarpophalangeal joints
or knuckle joints are good examples
 5. ellipsoid joints wrist joint
 6. saddle joints carpometacarpal joint of the thumb
 7. ball and socket joints The shoulder and hip joints
Muscles
 There are 3 types, skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
muscles
 they are contractile.
Skeletal muscles
 They produce the movements of the skeleton, they are
volantary and striated. The structural unit is the
muscle fibers or cells….the functions:
 1. produce movement
 2. maintains posture
 3. stabilizes joints
 4. generates heat
 Skeletal muscles have two or more attachments
 The attachment that moves the least is called origin
 The attachment that moves the most is called the
insertion.
 The fleshy part is called muscle belly
 The ends of the muscle which is attached to the
skeleton are called tendons.
 Occasionally flattened muscles are attached by a thin
sheet of fibrous tissue called aponeurosis.
Internal structure of skeletal
muscles
 The structural unit is muscle fiber.
 Each muscle fiber is surrounded by connective tissue
layer called endomysium.
 Groups of of muscle fibers ( fasciculi) have a
connective tissue sheath called perimysium.
 The outer surface of a skeletal muscle have a
connective tissue sheath called epimysium.
Naming of skeletal muscles:
 According to shape:
Deltoid , delta shaped
Trapezius, trapezium in shape, rhomboid, rhombic
2. size, major, minor
3. Number of heads, triceps..biceps
4. action: extensor, flexor
5. attachment: sternocledomastoid
6. depth: superficialis,,profundus
7. length: longus …brevis
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Nerve supply of skeletal
muscles
 Nerves supplying the skeletal muscles are mixed
nerves.
 Motor fibers supply the muscle fibers and stimulate
them to contract.
 The site where a nerve fiber meets a muscle fiber to
supply it is called motor end plate.
 A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and all
muscle fibers that it innervates.
Nerve supply of skeletal
muscles
 The sensory fibers arise from specialized sensory
endings lying within the muscle or tendons called
muscle spindles and tendon spindles respectively.
 These are stimulated by tension in the muscle which
may occur during active contraction or passive
stretching.
 The function of these sensory fibers is to convey to
central nervous system information regarding the
degree of tension of muscles which is essential for
maintenance of muscle tone and body posture and to
carry out coordinated voluntary movement.
Nerve supply of skeletal
muscles
 The nerve supplying the muscle also contains
sympathetic fibers for the wall of its blood vessels for
regulation of blood flow to the muscle.
 If a nerve trunk of a muscle is severed the muscle can
not contract and lead to paralysis of the muscle and
there will be loss of the muscle tone in that muscle.
Muscle tone
 While resting every skeletal muscle is in a partial state
of contraction, this condition is referred to as muscle
tone.
Smooth muscle
 They are involuntary muscles.
 They are non-striated when examined by microscope.
 In the tubes of the body it provides the motive power
for propelling the contents.
 In the wall of blood vessels control the caliber of these
vessels.
 They are made to contract by nerve impulses from the
autonomic nervous system or by hormonal
stimulation, or by local stretching of the fibers.
Cardiac muscle
 They are involuntary.
 They are striated.
 Present in the myocardium of the heart.
 They have the property of spontaneous and rhythmic
contraction.
Questions?