KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY

KUMASI, GHANA.

TOPIC: ASSESSMENT OF THE USAGE OF BURNT BRICKS IN

PROMOTING GREEN AND CONSTRUCTION (CASE STUDY ACCRA)

STUDENTS:

SOWAH-LARYEA FELIX ANYETEI

SARPONG ENERST

SUPERVISOR: MR. JC DANKU

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

To achieve the main aim of this research topic the following objectives has to be achieved.

The objective of the study includes the following;

 To find out the quality of burnt bricks from the various manufacturers or outlets in

the study area.

 To assess the usage and patronage of burnt bricks by builders and developers of

housing.

 To identify how the usage of burnt clay bricks can promote the course for green

construction.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 THE REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 CLAYS

Clay is the most widely used raw material for brick production. It is characterized by a blend of

natural deposits of fine-grained earthen material which contains clay minerals and its formation

is by weathering of specific rocks. It is typically plastic and cohesive, contracting when dry and

expanding when wet. It gains strength with retention of shape on firing and with a particle size

range of 2µm and below (BSI, 1990). It occurs abundantly in Ghana and can be found in all the

districts (Kesse, 1985). Clay is a standout amongst most of the richest characteristic mineral

materials on earth (BIA, 2006).

Brick production requires clay to have some particular properties and qualities, for example,

pliancy, which allows it to be formed or shaped when mixed with water. In addition, it must have

sufficient wet and air-dried strength to maintain their shape after formation.Furthermore the clay

particles must be able to fuse together when subjected to appropriate temperatures (Brick

industry association, 2006)

.2.1.1 TYPES OF CLAY

Surface Clays Surface clays may be the upthrusts of older deposits or of more recent

sedimentary formations. As the name implies, they are found near the surface of the earth (Brick

industry association, 2006)

Shale Shales are clays that have been subjected to high pressures until they have almost

solidified into slate. (Brick industry association, 2006)

Fire Clays Fire clays are usually mined at deeper levels than other clays and have refractory

qualities. Surface and fire clays have different physical structure from shales but are similar in

chemical composition. All three types of clay are composed of silica and alumina with varying

amounts of metal oxides. Metallic oxides act as fluxes promoting fusion of the particles at lower

temperatures. Metallic oxides (particularly those of iron, magnesium and calcium) influence the

colour of the fired brick. (Brick industry association, 2006)

2.2 BURNT CLAY BRICKS

Bricks are one of the most established known building materials going back to 7000BC where

they were first found in southern Turkey and around Jericho (Lloyd, 1933).
The first patent for a clay-working machine was granted in the year 1619. Mechanization,

however, did not start by taking over the place of the existing manual methods of making bricks

until somewhere around the nineteenth century. The moulded bricks were placed in an inefficient

intermittent or static kiln and fired, until the 1858 era, when Hoffmann presented a nonstop oven,

which empowered all procedures associated with the firing to be done simultaneously and

ceaselessly. Since the introduction of clay working machinery and the Hoffmann Kiln, the

Industry has gained extraordinary grounds, especially since 1930, the production rate of bricks in

Great Britain was multiplied somewhere around 1930 and 1938. (IBSTOCK, 2005)

Clay bricks are man-made materials that are generally utilized as a part of a building, structural

work, and landscape design in Ghana (Ahiabor, 2014). Clay bricks usage in Ghana can be

tracked back to the pre-colonial era, this can be seen from the presence of some old brick

buildings in Kumasi, Accra, Takoradi, and Cape Coast which was put up by the missionaries

who visited the then Gold Coast. According to (Hammond, 1997), One of the legacies of the

colonial government was the scattered pieces of colonial and government flats built with clay

bricks dotted within the country, particularly along the beach front regions.

.According to (Hammond, 1997), the practice of burnt clay brick manufacturing for housing

subsided until after the Second World War. Within the period of the war, the evangelists,

strikingly, Scottish and Basel's evangelists kept on producing bricks and tiles on a minor

production and all the techniques were taught in their teacher training colleges and schools.

(Hammond, 1997) Further reported that in 1954, the Ghana Industrial Holding Corporation

(GIHOC) set up a brick and tile processing plant in Ghana and the products were in very high

demand. Towards the later part of the 1960s, new blocks and tiles, industrial facilities were set

up in Ghana taking after the achievement of GIHOC. Through a mass importation of Brazilian
brick making machines, more production facilities were introduced in the late 1970s and early

1980s. However, their products had little impact on the construction industry due to the closure

of some huge scale processing plants.

As said by the managing Director of Adidome Ceramic Company Limited, Mr. Graham J. Smith,

the brick industry in Ghana is dying gradually, and he credited the circumstance to the failure of

partners to incorporate the utilization of burnt clay bricks in their building projects. (Ahiabor,

2014).

2.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS

Clay bricks can be grouped in accordance with their varieties, qualities, and classes.

COMMON BRICKS

Common burnt clay bricks are normally used for general brickwork where no special claim for

attractive appearances is required or needed. Common brick wall requires a finish in the form of

rendering or plastering. (Clay bricks, 2006)

FACING BRICKS

Facing bricks are quality burnt clay bricks, with an attractive appearance in both its colour and

texture. It doesn’t require rendering, plastering, or surface treatments. (clay bricks, 2006)

ENGINEERING BRICKS

Engineering bricks are produced at very high temperatures. They have a thick and solid semi-

vitreous body and conform to the defined limits for strength and water absorption. They are
basically utilized as a part of structural designing works that requires high load-bearing capacity,

good damp-proofing, and chemical resisting characteristics. (Clay bricks, 2006)

DAMP PROOF COURSE

Clay bricks of specified low water absorption used at the foundation level of a wall (least two

courses) to oppose the upward movement of ground water. Their use is recommended for free

standing wall where otherwise a sheet of DPC material would create a plane of weakness

causing the wall to be defenseless against parallel. (clay bricks, 2006)

2.2.2 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCES OF BRICKS

Brick industry association (2006) in their research brought to foreknowledge that raw material

composition and the manufacturing process of brick affects its basic properties and that most

manufacturers blend different clays to achieve the required quality of the raw materials and of

the burnt brick. Bricks are made from clay by burning it at high temperatures. The use of heat

offers rise to a sintering process that causes the clay particles to intertwine

and develops extremely strong ceramic bonds in the burnt clay bodies. Such bonds are highly

stable. As a result, brick can withstand the severe weathering actions and are inert to almost all

normal chemical attacks. (claybricks, 2006)

STRENGTH

Bricks are popularly known for their high compressive strength. Their compressive strength

relies on:

1. The raw materials used,

2. The manufacturing process, and

 3. The shape and size.

(claybricks, 2006)

Bricks made by removing air through an extruder and fired to adequately high temperature can

without much of a stretch withstand a compressive pressure exceeding N/mm2 (4,000 psi). They

are suitable for almost all civil engineering building applications (claybricks, 2006)

AESTHETIC APPEAL

Brick is gifted with natural and beautiful colours of burnt clay. Colour formation of burnt clay

bricks is obtained through a convoluted or complex physical chemical reaction amid the firing

process. As opposed to the colour of the stained body, brick colour is perpetual and won't be

blurred amid climate changes. Distinctive clay syntheses, firing temperatures or atmospheric

condition of the kiln can prompt diverse colours of the burnt products. By manufacturing control

of these factors, bricks can be produced to display an endless variety of natural and appealing

colours.

Other than richness in colour, bricks can be made with different surfaces. It is the blend of colour

and texture that gives brick its distinctive feature which is everlasting with age. In the

perspective of the high cost to keep up the appearance of a building, unique feature of brick

become an incomparable advantage to housing design. (claybricks, 2006)

POROSITY

Porosity is an essential characteristic of brick. As opposed to other shaped or pre-cast building

materials, the porosity of brick is ascribed to its fine capillaries. Due to the capillary effect, the

rate of dampness transport in the brick is ten times speedier than in other forms of materials.

Dampness is discharged amid day-time and re-consumed amid evening time. The capacity to
discharge and re-ingest dampness ("breathing" procedure) by capillary effect is a standout

amongst the most valuable properties of brick that controls the temperature and humidity in a

house. This distinctive property makes brick an outstanding construction material, especially

suitable for buildings in the tropics. On the other hand, every single permeable material is

vulnerable to chemical attacks and at risk of sullying from weathering agents like running water

and polluted air. Porosity of building material is an essential element to consider in appreciation

to its execution and applications

Experiment results demonstrate that bricks with water assimilation rate at 8% are 10 times

sturdier in resisting salt attack than that with water retention rate at 20%. Well, burnt brick has a

normal water absorption rate less than 10% in contrast to that of solid block and cement mortar

surpassing 15%. This clarifies why brick walls require comparatively less maintenance in the

course of time.

To relieve the unfriendly impacts, however in the meantime hold the favorable circumstances

connected with porosity, the rate of water absorption of factors bricks for masonry brickwork

should preferable are maintained around 10%.

A seldom known property of brick is its starting rate of retention (SRR). It is, in fact, the

starting rate of retention that plays a key part influencing the quality of the bond between bricks

and mortar amid bricklaying. The high value of SRR tends to expel intemperate water from

mortar quickly and in this way hampers the best possible hydration of cement. Experiments

demonstrate that and an increase of SRR from 2 kg/m2/min t kg/m2/min decreases the quality of

brickwork by half. For the most part, bricks with SRR surpassing 2 kg/m2/min will give rise to
difficulties laying using normal cement mortar. Recent brick extruder with de-airing action

produces denser brick with lower SRR (claybricks, 2006)

FIRE RESISTANCE

Brick is natural with phenomenal imperviousness to fire. 100 mm brickwork with 12.5 mm

normal plastering will give a fire-resistance of 2 hours and 200 mm non-plastered brickwork will

give a maximum rating of 6 hours for non-load bearing situations. Brick can withstand a

significant amount of load even when heated to 1000oC as opposed to a concrete wall at just up

to 450oC because of the loss of water.

It is a fact that the non-combustibility of brick advances its utilization in building houses

against the flame. There have been numerous examples in the past that individuals utilized

bricks for their homes after an overwhelming flame that torched the entire city. Maybe a most

well-known example is the great London Fire in 1666, after which rebuilding was to a great

extent done if not by any means in brick. (claybricks, 2006)

SOUND INSULATION

The brick wall provides great insulation property because of its dense structure. The sound

insulation of brickwork is usually 45 decibels for a 4 in. thickness and 50 decibels for a 9-in.

thickness for the frequency range of 200 to 2,000 Hz. (claybricks, 2006)

THERMAL INSULATION

Brick generally shows preferable thermal insulation property over other building materials like

concrete. Perforation can enhance the thermal insulation property of bricks to some degree.
Besides, the mass and dampness of blocks keep the temperature inside the house generally

steady. In other words, bricks absorb and discharge heat gradually and in this way keep the

house cool during daytime and warm during nighttime.

Conservation of energy by the brick house is exceptional. A study commissioned by the Brick

Institute of America had shown that a building of bricks can conserve energy up to 30% as

compared to that of wood. (claybricks, 2006)

WEAR RESISTANCE

The wear resistance of a substance relies on its particulate bonds. A brick indicates high wear

resistance due to its greatly solid clay bonds shaped by the impact of heat at high temperature.

EFFLORESCENCE

Efflorescence is an occurrence by which soluble salts dissolved in water are carried, conveyed,

stored and continuously aggregated on the brick surface that forms an unattractive scum. The

soluble salts might have originated from raw materials used in moulding bricks. But in most

cases, efflorescence is caused by the presence of salts from external sources such as

contaminated atmosphere, ground water, mortar ingredients and other materials in contacts with

the bricks. (claybricks, 2006)

FLEXIBILITY OF APPLICATION

Brick is utilized for an amazingly extensive variety of uses in an equally broad scope of building

and engineering structures. Specifically, it can be utilized as load bearing structures, which
simplifies the construction procedure and saves materials, time and labour; besides bricks can be

made into convenient shape and size to encourage the construction work. (claybricks, 2006)

DURABILITY

Brick is amazingly sturdy and maybe is the toughest man-made basic building material so far.

There has been various antiquated brick-remaining for a considerable length of time as an

affirmation of the perseverance of burnt clay brick.

Bricks are made in various colours, for example, dim red, dark brown, or dull brown, depending

upon the flame temperature amid assembling. The firing temperature for brick production varies

from 900°C to 1200°C (1650°F to 2200°F). (claybricks, 2006)

2.2.3 USES OF BRICKS

As a structural unit

Since the clay bricks or burnt bricks are strong, hard, durable, resistance to abrasion and fire,

therefore, they are used as a structural material in different structures

 Buildings

 Bridges

 Foundations

 Arches

 Pavement (Footpath, Streets)

As an Aesthetic Unit/Surface Finish

Bricks can be used in different colors, sizes and orientations to get different surface designs. As

an aesthetic material, bricks can be used

In Pavements

 As Facing Brick

 For Architectural Purposes

2.3.0 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING OF BURNT CLAY BRICKS

Source: IBSTOCK ``Innovation in Clay``

Burnt brick creation has achieved a high level of mechanization and automation in numerous

nations, yet conventional little scale generation techniques are still extremely broad in most

developing nations. Thus, there is a great variety of manual and mechanized procedures for clay

winning, preparation, moulding, drying and burning. (Bot et al, 2011)

2.3.1 SOIL SELECTION

A vast variety of clay soils are available for this process, the important property is its plasticity to

allow for moulding. Although this depends on the clay content, excessive proportions of clay can
be the reason for cracking and high shrinkage, which is inappropriate for brickmaking. The

qualities of fired clay products vary not only according to the type and quantity of other

constituents of the soil but also to the type of clay mineral. Soil selection is not only a matter of

experience, simple field tests and subsequent laboratory tests are vital. (Bot et al, 2011)

2.3.2 CLAY TESTING.

The main field tests are by sight, smell, touch, by making balls, ribbons and threads, by

sedimentation in a glass container and by dropping. Research laboratory apparatus is needed for

molecule size examination by sieving, for deciding shrinkage, versatility, dry quality,

compressibility, ideal dampness substance and cohesion. As a rough guideline, the slightest clay

contents essential for the production of bricks is 40 %. Experience and expert advice is required

to decide the ideal clay content, as high rates can prompt shrinkage and cracking. (Bot et al,

2011)

2.3.3 CLAY WINNING

Clay deposits are found at the foot of hills or on agricultural land close to rivers. It must, in any

case, be recollected that the rich topsoil required for agriculture is not used for brickmaking. 30

to 50 cm of soil needs to be removed before excavating clay for brickmaking. The criteria for

choosing a suitable location are the nature of clay, accessibility of level ground and closeness of

a motorable street for transports. Hand-digging in small and medium-sized manufacturing plants

are frequently done to a depth of less than 2 m. (Bot et al, 2011) Heavy earth-moving equipment

such as scrapers, bulldozers and mechanical shovels are used to extract the clay (Rajgor et al,

2013). Mechanical methods, using dragline and multi-bucket excavators, are required for large-

scale brick making plants. These methods require proportionately less excavating area but make

deep cuts in the landscape. (Bot et al, 2011)

2.3.4 CRUSHING AND BLENDING

After being transported from the pit by truck or a conveyor, the materials are stored to enable

mixing of the different sorts of clay. (Rajgor et al, 2013). Sorting is done by picking out roots,

stones, limestone nodules, etc., or in some cases by washing the soil. Crushing is required

because dry clay usually forms hard lumps. Manual pounding is common but difficult. However,

simple labour-intensive crushing machines have been developed (Bot, et al, 2011). The clays

sustained independently by container or transport to the essential crushers. In South Africa, rolls

or hammer mills are usually used. These diminish the molecule size down to 3 – 5 mm or less.

The blending of clay follows, to impart the desired properties, such as colour and strength.

(Rajgor et al, 2013).

2.3.5 GRINDING

Conveyors carry the blended clay away for secondary crushing, which is generally done by

means of a pan mill. The pan mill has two heavy steel wheels on an axle that is connected to a

focal vertical shaft around which they pivot, pulverizing the clay against the base of the pan.

The base is perforated to permit the pounded material to fall through. This procedure, when

finished with dry mud, smashed the weak particles into little pieces. When the pan mill is used

with wet clay, the plastic material is crushed through the perforations and afterward falls

between rapid rollers which complete the grinding process (Rajgor et al, 2013).
2.3.6 SCREENING – DRY PROCESSING

Before being shaped, the clay is screened and oversize pieces are returned to the pan mill for

further crushing. (Rajgor et al, 2013).Screening regularly is completed by a method for two or

more multi-deck inclining screens that are mechanically or electromagnetically vibrated.

Pugmills are used for blunging, and rotary, fluid bed and vibrating grate dryers are used for

drying clay materials. (Mukherjee, 2013)

2.3.7 SHAPING

Bricks are hand formed, pressed or extruded into their final shape. The strategy used to shape the

blocks influences their last appearance and texture and sets certain impediments on the handling

methods employed during manufacture. (Rajgor et al, 2013).But according to( Suryakanta,

2014) bricks formed from numerous ways depending on nature of the product to be made.

Normally the moulding is done in the following two ways:

 Hand moulding

 Machine moulding

o For hand moulding, the tempered clay is formed in the mould in such a way that it

fills all the corners of the mould. Additional clay is removed either by wooden

strike or frame with wire. Mould is then lifted up and raw brick is left on the

ground.

o Machine moulding is used where large numbers of bricks are to be made.

Machines used for moulding is generally of two kinds.

 Plastic clay machines

  Dry clay machines

In plastic clay machine, the clay in the plastic state is compelled to rectangular openings of a size

equivalent to the length and width of the bricks and is then cut into pieces of the thickness of the

brick with wires in casings. In dry clay machines, dry clay is reduced to powdery form and filled

dry into a brick mould by the machine and then with the required amount of pressure subjected it

forms hard and well-shaped bricks. (Suryakanta, 2014)

2.3.8 DRYING OF BRICKS

In the brick manufacturing process, the clay is refined and water is added in order to form the

brick. Before the bricks can be fired, they must be dried up appropriately; there are two ways of

drying bricks – the natural and the artificial. Natural drying is done in the open under the sun, but

a protective covering (e.g. leaves, grass or plastic sheeting) is suitable to prevent quick drying

out. If it is likely to rain, drying should be done under a roof. But conventionally, bricks are only

prepared in the dry season. (Bot et al, 2011). This operation has the disadvantage that it may

make the procedure tedious, especially in the wet season. (Rajgor et al, 2013).To reduce the

drying cycle, brick makers have introduced some mechanical means of drying. The two most

common methods are tunnel or chamber driers. The energy (heat) for the drying is produced in a

supplementary coal heater or reused off the oven and the hot air is fed into the driers. These

methods work as follows:

• Tunnel driers: bricks are created and afterward off-set on level rail trolleys or furnace cars. The

cars are pushed through the tunnel. This procedure can last about 40 to 50 hours, from green to

dry. (Rajgor et al, 2013).

• Chamber driers: Patented chamber driers are large rooms where bricks are placed on pallets.
The chamber might have a limit of 50 000 to 60 000 bricks. Heated air is fed into the chamber.

Drying time is somewhere around 30 and 45 hours – much snappier than the 14 to 21 days

required for sun based drying. (Rajgor et al, 2013).

Drying shrinkage is unavoidable and causes no exceptional problems if beneath 7 % linear

shrinkage. 10 % direct shrinkage ought not to be surpassed; in this manner, if essential, the clay

content must be diminished by including sand or grog (pulverized brick rejects) (Bot et al,

2011). Therefore to reduce the tendency of shrinkage, the moisture content must be decreased to

8% of the volume of the clamp kiln (Rajgor et al, 2013).

2.3.9 FIRING

Bricks are left under temperatures between 1 000° and 1 200°C, depending on the clay. Light-

coloured clays usually require higher firing temperatures than dark-coloured ones (Rajgor et al,

2013).

There are two kinds of kilns for burning bricks: intermittent and continuous kilns.

 Intermittent kilns include clamps and scove kilns (customary field kilns), updraught and

downdraught kilns. Their fuel efficiency is very low, but they are versatile to changing

market trend. They come in different sizes from 10 000 to 100 000 bricks.

 Down-draught kilns consist of a rectangular space with a barrel-vaulted roof and an

opened or perforated floor open to vents underneath. Green bricks (40 000 to 100 000 at

once)) are stacked in the oven. Flames are lit in fireboxes at the edges and the hot gasses

fire up to the bended roof, down through the bricks and from there to the chimney stack.

Flames are fuelled by coal, gas or oil. At the point when the needed temperature has been
 achieved, the temperature is kept up for a particular period and the flames are then

permitted to die. The kiln cools down, the fired bricks are removed and another batch of

green bricks is placed in the kiln for firing.

 In clamp kilns, some fuel is placed into the body of each brick. The bricks are packed

into a pyramid molded formation. The clamp has a deposit of coal, equal to two courses

of bricks, packed at the base. This deposit of coal (scintle) is set ablaze, it flares up the

fuel in the base layer of bricks and gradually, each brick in the pack catches fire. Clamp

kiln firing lasts the duration of about three weeks and although the bricks might have

finished burning by then, it might last longer before they are sufficiently cool to be

sorted. Temperatures can be as high as 1400°C in the centre of the clamp. (Rajgor et al,

2013)

 Continuous kilns incorporate different forms of the Hoffmann kiln mainly the high draught

kiln and the Bull's trench kiln. These are extremely fuel effective. Tunnel kilns, in which the

bricks are passed through a stationary fire, are very sophisticated and capital-intensive. (Bot

et al, 2011)

 Firing in the T.V.A. kiln is continuous. Each day, green bricks are placed, in cleared

chambers, before the flame and burnt bricks are retrieved from the back, with a few

adjacent wickets being kept open for this reason. At the point when a chamber is full, the

wicket is bricked up and coal, oil or gas is fed in among the bricks through gaps in the top

of the kiln. The flame is made to push ahead by “taking on” a row of flame openings at

the front and dropping a row at the back, every 2 to 4 hours in an average sized kiln. .

Thusly the flame moves right around the kiln every 10 to 14 days. The hot gases from the

firing zone are drawn forward to preheat and dry out the green bricks while the fired
 bricks are chilled off by air going from the open wickets behind the firing zone (Rajgor et

al, 2013).

 The tunnel kiln is also a continual kiln; however fire is fixed while the bricks move past

it on kiln cars. As in the T.V.A. kiln, the unfired bricks are preheated by the spent

combustion gases. After the fire, heat released by the cooling bricks may be drawn off for

use in the associated driers. With this interchange of heat, the tunnel kiln uses less fuel

than the intermittent type of down-draught kiln. It has several other advantages. For

example, cars can be loaded and unloaded in the open factory, and always at the same

loading points, so that handling problems are simplified; and the kiln car acts as a

conveyor belt so the bricks are fired as they pass through the firing zone (Rajgor et al,

2013).

2.3.10 DELIVERY

Machine handling of bricks is a usual sight in South Africa. In pack systems, sign strapped packs

of +500 bricks are arranged in a suitable stack and bound together by bands or plastic wraps. The

packs are lifted by forklift or crane truck. Handling on the site may be by hoist or brick barrows.

(Rajgor et al, 2013)

2.4.0 ADVANTAGES OF USING BURNT CLAY BRICKS

2.4.1 FULL BRICK HOUSES ARE COOLER IN COLD WEATHER

Brick houses get cooler in hot climate compared to full sandcrete block houses. The thick mass

of full brick walls retains and traps heat energy delaying the entry of heat through the wall. That

is the reason a full brick wall stabilizes internal temperature dealing with the highs and lows.

2.4.2 FULL BRICK HOUSES ARE WARMER IN HOT WEATHER

In icy climate, the inward layer of a full brick wall makes its mark, engrossing, putting away and

gradually discharging heat that is generated inside the house. As the temperature falls the

brickwork gradually discharges the putaway warmth into the house. The outcome is a

characteristic level of solace without the need to always turn to warming.

2.4.3 FULL BRICK HOUSE IS A HAVEN OF QUITE

The dense nature of bricks and techniques used in laying them (two leaves) sometimes creates an

effective boundary to outside sounds. Brick partition walls between rooms or zone of the house

decrease the transmission of sound inside of the house.

2.4.4 FULL BRICK HOUSES ARE SOLID, SAFE AND SECURE.

Safety and security rates are exceedingly considered by the property as a factor. They appreciate

the solid construction, high level of natural comfort and the fire resistance brickwork.

Unlike some building materials, bricks don't radiate any gasses or chemicals, binders.

2.4.5 FULL BRICK HOUSE ARE TERMITE RESISTANT

Bricks have the capability of lessening drastically the amount of structural timber particularly at

the helpless ground level where timber is easily attacked by termites.

2.4.6 FULL BRICK HOUSES ARE A UNIQUE INVESTMENT

Full brick houses attract a premium price over a comparable brick veneer. Brick houses have low

maintenance cost, repainting of face brickwork and the potential of lower heating and cooling

bills.

2.4.7 FULL BRICK HOUSES HAVE LOW MAINTENANCE COST.

Bricks unlike other materials for constructions when used last for a lifetime and longer.

Full bricks house takes durability to another level, it does not only resist the bumps and scrapes

of everyday life with the most minimal maintenance and also provides the framework for

generations of additions and extensions.

2.4.8 BRICKS ARE DURABLE AND AESTHETICALLY PLEASING

Well, fired bricks are very durable against abrasion and aesthetically pleasing. Some epical types

like the conduit or casing bricks in which electrical cables are laid during construction, this is

better than the traditional practice where the walls are cut to lay such cables which sometimes

disfigure the beauty of the structure.

2.4.9. BURNT CLAY BRICK PERFORM SATISFACTORY WHEN THERE IS AN

EARTHQUAKE

PERU EARTHQUAKE (AUGUST 15, 2007)

An earthquake of magnitude 7.9 struck Pisco, Peru at 6.40 p.m. local time, killing at least 519

people and injuring 1090. The modern properly engineered buildings found were the confined
masonry buildings. This type of construction consists in constructing first the clay brick walls

while leaving empty space with reinforcement which is later filled in by concrete, obtaining a

solid joint between the RC frame and the clay bricks. In this way, the stiffer masonry walls

provide most of the resistance than the skeleton frame structure.

(Sventlana Brzev 2007).

2.5 GREEN BUILDING

The green movement has extraordinarily affected the design and construction of built

infrastructure across the globe (Obonyo et al, 2010). There is a growing concern in providing

high-performance building systems. A high-performance building is as defined in the Energy

Policy Act of 2005 (Bomberg, and Onyskoa, 2008) A building that incorporates and enhances all

significant high-performance building attributes, including energy efficiency, durability, life-

cycle performance, and occupant productivity. This perspective reverberated when they launched

a formal initiative which underscored the linkages between energy efficiency, durability and the

quality of the indoor environment (Energy Policy Act, 2005).

There are numerous meanings of what a green building is or does. Definitions might go from a

building that is "not as terrible" as the normal building regarding its effect on the environment or

one that is “notably better” than the average building, to one that may even represent a

regenerative process where there is really a change and reclamation of the site and its

encompassing surroundings. The ideal “green” saves and restores natural surroundings that are

key to maintaining life and turns into a net producer and exporter of resources, materials, energy

and water rather than being a net consumer. A green building is one whose development and

lifetime of operation guarantee the most advantageous conceivable environment while

representing the most proficient and minimum problematic utilization of land, water, energy and

resources. (Building Green, n.d)

2.5.1 BENEFITS OF GREEN BUILDING

 SAVING ENERGY

Green building addresses environmental change and other energy-related air discharges

in two fundamental ways: first (and above all), by lessening the amount of energy used to

light, heat, cool and operate buildings and their appliances, and second, by replacing for

what presently is mostly carbon-based energy with substitutes that do not involve the

production of greenhouse gases and other harmful air emissions. It is normal now for

more advanced green structures to routinely decrease energy use by 30, 40, or even 50

percent over percent over conventional buildings, with the most efficient buildings now

performing more than 70 percent better than conventional properties (Commission for

Environmental Cooperation, 2008).

 REDUCING WASTE

Decreasing waste through better product plan, recycling, and re-use of materials will

bring in remarkable decreases in both raw material use and also in associated ecological

effects, and also the expense of the private sector and local governments of discarding

these materials. Building-related construction and demolition debris sum up

approximately 136 million tons per year in the United States, representing almost 60

percent of the total non-industrial waste generation there (Commission for Environmental

Cooperation, 2008)
 An expected 20 to 30 percent of building-related construction and demolition debris is

recovered for processing and reusing. In Canada, construction, renovation, and

demolition waste account for about 17 to 21 percent of the total mass of waste landfilled

annually. (Epagov, 2016).The volume of demolition waste in Mexico City is estimated

between 3,500 and 5,000 tons a day. Lessening construction waste and creating reusable

and recyclable building components are key strategies for addressing these environmental

impacts (Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 2008).

 IMPROVING HUMAN HEALTH AND PRODUCTIVITY

While energy-related issues drive a significant part of the green building policy

discussion, some organizations, energy costs represent a minimal expense of working as

compared with the compensations of representatives. Considerable research supports the

benefits to human health and profitability from green features such as daylighting,

increased natural air ventilation, and moisture reduction, and the use of low-emitting floor

carpets, glues, paint and other interior finishes and furnishings. (Lblgov, 2016)

Poor indoor air quality worsens asthma, allergies, and is the reason for sick building

syndrome. In the United States, the annual cost of building-related sickness is estimated

to be $58 billion. According to researchers, green building has the potential to produce an

extra $200 billion yearly in worker performance in the United States by creating offices

with better indoor air (Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 2008)

2.6.0 SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION

Sustainable construction has appeared as a guiding paradigm to create a new kind of built

environment: “one that focuses on the concerns of people in the present without limiting the

capabilities of future generation to focus on their own concerns” (Ofori, 2001). Sustainable
development according to (United Nations, 1987) is a development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

An essential objective of sustainability is to decrease humankind's natural or environmental

activities that results in environmental destruction.

The construction industry is the biggest destroyer of the ecosystem (Woolley, 2000). It is a major

consumer of non- renewable resources, produces considerable waste, contaminates air and water,

and adds to land desolation (Wallbaum and Buerkin, 2003).

Sustainable development has given rise to green buildings. Most green building practices fall

into seven basic categories: land saving, energy saving, material conservation, storm water

runoff-reducing and decreases pollution (ECO Northwest, 2001). A green building utilizes a

normal of 30% less energy than ordinary building (Economist, 2004). Material waste produced

throughout construction is lessened or reused. Energy efficiency is enhanced, maybe by

depending on the utilization of regular light and ventilation or sun oriented power (solar). Less

water is used, or rainwater collection system is introduced to guarantee wiser use. Measures

taken to make buildings and construction more sustainable maintainable depends on life cycle

approaches.

2.7.0 BUILDING MATERIALS

All most all construction materials are imported into the nation, materials sector was divided into

three manufacturing groups (Adogbo and Kolo, 2009):modern or customary building materials

which are based on modern conventional production methods like concrete, steel, and glass;

conventional materials which incorporate those materials that have been in local production from

olden times using small-scale basic technologies, for example, gravel, laterite, straw, thatch,
Azara, stabilised mud, and raphia palm; and new materials which are materials developed

through research efforts intended provide an alternative to import-based materials. (Baiden et al,

2014).

Material use has a significant impact on both the environment as a whole and the construction of

high-performance building units. Building materials can amount to 70–75% of the overall cost of

construction. (Obonyo et al, 2010).

2.7.1 GREEN BUILDING MATERIAL

Green building materials are made out of renewable, rather than nonrenewable resources.

Green materials are ecologically dependable in light of the fact that effects are considered over

the life of the (Spiegel and Meadows, 1999).

SELECTION CRITERIA FOR GREEN MATERIAL:

 Recycled Content: A product featuring recycled content has been partially or entirely

produced from post-industrial or post-consumer waste. The incorporation of waste

materials from industrial processes or households into usable building products reduces

the waste stream and the demand on virgin natural resources. (Kim and Rigdon, 1998).

Boral (2009) identified that brick can be made from unwanted materials, such as the mine

tailings that constitute brown fields in some communities. In addition, waste products

such as sawdust can be incorporated in brick in a burnout process that creates an end

product that is lighter than but just as sturdy as regular brick

 Natural Plentiful or Renewable: Natural materials are generally lower in embodied

energy and toxicity than man-made materials. They require less processing and are less

damaging to the environment. Many, like wood, are theoretically renewable. When
 natural materials are incorporated into building products, the products become more

sustainable (Kim and Rigdon, 1998). Scarcity is one of the concerns at the core of

sustainability. However, the primary ingredients of brick are clay and shale, which can be

found in every region of the world and are easily removed from the ground without the

damaging environmental effects that accompany the mining of much more elusive

resources that may only occur deep in the earth (Boral, 2009).

 Resource efficient manufacturing process: This includes the energy of the fuel used to

power the harvesting or mining equipment, the processing equipment, and the

transportation devices that move raw material to a processing facility (Kim and Rigdon,

1998). Products manufactured with resource efficient Processes including reducing

energy consumption, minimizing waste (recycled, recyclable and or source reduced

product packaging), and reducing greenhouse gases (The contractor, 2016).

Manufacturers have significantly reduced the energy required to mine, manufacture and

transport brick. Brick plants today make use of non-fossil fuel resources, such as burning

methane captured from landfills, sawdust and agricultural waste products (Boral, 2009).

 Locally available: Building materials, components, and systems found locally or

regionally saving energy and resources in transportation to the project site. Salvaged,

refurbished, or remanufactured: Includes saving a material from disposal and renovating,

repairing, restoring, or generally improving the appearance, performance, quality,

functionality, or value of a product (The contractor, 2016). Using locally produced

building materials shortens transport distances, thus reducing air pollution produced by

vehicles. Often, local materials are better suited to climatic conditions, and these

purchases support area economies. It is not always possible to use locally available
 materials, but if materials must be imported they should be used selectively and in as

small a volume as possible (Kim and Rigdon, 1998). Brick making raw material is

available all over the earth.

 Reusable or Recyclable: Select materials that can be easily dismantled and reused or

recycled at the end of their useful life (The contractor, 2016). Recyclability measures a

material’s capacity to be used as a resource in the creation of new products. Many

building materials that cannot be reused in their entirety can be broken down into

recyclable components. Reusability is a function of the age and durability of a material,

very durable materials may have many useful years of service left when the building in

which they are installed is decommissioned, and may be easily extracted and reinstalled

in a new site. Windows and doors, plumbing fixtures, and even brick can be successfully

reused (Kim and Rigdon, 1998).

 Durable: Materials that are longer lasting or are comparable to conventional products

with long life expectancies. (The contractor, 2016).

 A key element of construction sustainability is employing architectural design to reduce

the use of energy over a building’s usable life. Brick provides an energy-efficient

envelope for a building that reduces the amount of energy necessary to heat or cool the

interior. Because of its durability, brick also all but eliminates the need for exterior

maintenance and outlasts most exterior cladding products on the market today, avoiding

the energy usage involved in upkeep and replacement (Boral, 2009).

Knowing Green Building materials is an important step in designing a green building to be more

efficient and energy saver. Green Building

The materials list is presented below.

1. Aluminum:

Aluminum, got from bauxite mineral, requires a lot of crude material to create a little measure of

final product. Up to six pounds of ore may be required to yield one pound of aluminum.

Aluminum production is a large consumer of power, which originates from burning fossil fuels.

The refined bauxite is blended with caustic soda and heated in a kiln, to make aluminum oxide.

This white powder, in turn, must undergo an electrolytic reaction, where the direct electrical

current is used to separate out the oxides and smelt the material into aluminum. The material

must be heated to almost 3000°F for this process to occur. A byproduct of the smelting process

(called “pot liner”) contains fluoride and chlorine and must be disposed of as hazardous waste.

Aluminum can be used in a variety of ways. Aluminum can be used as canopies, windows,

doors, blinds and so on (The contractor, 2016 b).

2. Rock:

Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest enduring building

material accessible, and is normally promptly accessible. There are numerous sorts of rock all

through the world all with varying characteristics that make them better or worse for particular

uses. Rock is an exceptionally thick material so it gives a considerable measure of assurance as

well, its main drawback as a material is its weight and awkwardness. Its energy density is also

considered a big drawback, as the stone is hard to keep warm without using large amounts of

heating resources. Mostly stone buildings can be seen in most major cities, some civilizations
built entirely with stone such as the Pyramids in Egypt, the Aztec Pyramid and the remains of the

Inca civilization (The contractor, 2016 b).

3. Mud and clay:

The amount of each material used leads to different styles of buildings. The deciding factor is

usually connected with the quality of the soil being used. Larger amounts of clay usually mean

using the cob/adobe style, while low clay soil is usually associated with the sod building. The

other main ingredients include more or less sand/gravel and straw grasses. Soil and especially

clay are good thermal mass; it is very good at keeping temperatures at a constant level. Homes

built with earth tend to be naturally cool in the summer heat and warm in cold weather. Clay

holds heat or cold, releasing it over a period of time like a stone. Earthen walls change

temperature slowly, so artificially raising or lowering the temperature can use more resources

than in say a wood built a house, but the heat/coolness stays longer (The contractor, 2016 b).

4. Fabrics:

The tent used to be the home of choice among nomadic groups the world over. Two well-known

types include the conical teepee and the circular yurt. It has been revived as a major construction

technique with the development of tensile architecture and synthetic fabrics.

Modern buildings can be made of flexible material such as fabric membranes, and supported by a

system of steel cables (The contractor, 2016 b).

5. Ceramics:

Ceramics used to be just a specialized form of clay pottery firing in kilns, but it has evolved into

more technical areas through kiln firing is still usually a major step in its creation. Ceramics tend

to be more water resistant and heat resistant than other types of pottery, due to its high firing

temperature. Ceramics often are used to make such things as tiles, fixtures, etc. Ceramics are
mostly used as fixtures, ceramic floors, walls, counter-tops, even ceilings. Many countries use

ceramic roofing tiles to cover many buildings. Other uses of ceramics include international space

programs, which have used ceramic tiles to cover the undersides of spacecraft such as the space

shuttle program, high-temperature engines, and dental implants and synthetic bones (The

contractor, 2016 b).

6. Plastic:

The term plastics cover a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or

polymerization products that can be molded or extruded into objects or films or fibers. Their

name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the

property of plasticity. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency.

Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics

ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today (The contractor, 2016 b).

7. Glass:

Glass making is considered an art form as well as an industrial process or material. Clear

windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. They

provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping the

inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates, in a very

hot fire stove called a kiln and are very brittle. Very often additives are added to the mixture

when making to produce glass with shades of colors or various characteristics (such as

bulletproof glass, or light remittance). The use of glass in architectural buildings has become

very popular in the modern culture. Glass “curtain walls” can be used to cover the entire facade

of a building, or it can be used to span over a wide roof structure in a “space frame”. These uses
though require some sort of frame to hold sections of glass together, as glass by its self is too

brittle and would require an overly large kiln to be used to span such large areas by itself (The

contractor, 2016 b).

8. Metal:

Metal is used as a structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an external

surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose

major component is iron and is the usual choice for metal structural building materials. It is

strong, flexible, and if refined well and/or treated lasts a long time. Corrosion is metal’s prime

enemy when it comes to longevity. The lower density and better corrosion resistance of

aluminum alloys and tin sometimes overcome their greater cost. Brass was more common in the

past but is usually restricted to specific uses or specialty items today (The contractor, 2016 b).

9. Wood

Wood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes

when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar materials. It is a

generic building material and is used in building just about any type of structure in most

climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is

incredibly strong when compressed vertically. There are many differing qualities to the different

types of wood, even among same tree species. This means specific species are better for various

uses than others. And growing conditions are important for deciding quality. Historically, wood

for building large structures was used in its unprocessed form as logs. The trees were just cut to
the needed length, sometimes stripped of bark, and then notched or lashed into place. In earlier

times, and in some parts of the world, many country homes or communities had a personal

woodlot from which the family or community would grow and harvest trees to build with. These

lots would be tended to like a garden (The contractor, 2016 b).

10. Bamboo:

Bamboo is one of the most amazingly versatile and sustainable building materials available. It

grows remarkably fast and in a wide range of climates. It is exceedingly strong for its weight and

can be used both structurally and as a finish material. There is a long vernacular tradition to the

use of bamboo in structures in many parts of the world, especially in more tropical climates,

where it grows into larger diameter canes One tricky aspect to the use of bamboo is in the

joinery; since its strength comes from its integral structure, it cannot be joined with many of the

traditional techniques used with wood (The contractor, 2016 b).

11. Adobe:

Adobe is one of the oldest building materials in use. It is basically just dirt that has been

moistened with water, sometimes with chopped straw or other fibers added for strength, and then

allowed to dry in the desired shape. Commonly adobe is shaped into uniform blocks that can be

stacked like bricks to form walls, but it can also be simply piled up over time to create a

structure. The best adobe soil will have between 15% and 30% clay in it to bind the material

together, with the rest being mostly sand or larger aggregate. Too much clay will shrink and

crack excessively; too little will allow fragmentation (The contractor, 2016 b).
BURNT BRICK USAGE IN GHANA

The construction industry is a standout amongst most robust and developing sectors of our

economy. As a developing lower middle income country this sector offers the vital

engine for economic growth. Without a doubt, the construction subsector contributed

9.7 percent to the 2012 GDP (Ghana Statistical Service, 2013).

The most prominently used walling unit for housing construction in the two densely populated

regions of Ghana, Greater Accra, and Ashanti is the sandcrete block (Baiden et al, 2014). In

Ghana the use of cement in the construction industry is much extensive and more widespread

making it the most common building material used, which is employed right from the start to the

finish of a construction work; i.e., in manufacturing sandcrete block (Ghana homes, 2014)

Equally, brick, which is gotten from burnt clay, is not all that much patronized by builders

despite the effort of the government of Ghana encouraging the use of this indigenous local

material to solve the housing problem of the country (Ghana homes, 2014) According to (Baiden

et al, 2014), if part of the costs currently incurred in the importation of clinker is invested in the

production and usage of burnt clay bricks, some substantial gains could be made in solving the

nation’s housing deficit. (Danso, 2013) indicates to this assertion by stating that there is an

acute lack of affordable houses which is largely due to the high cost of the

conventionally processed construction materials such as steel and Portland cement.

It is estimated that Ghana spends over US$150 million per annum to import clinker, the main

semi-finished raw material for cement manufacture (Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2010).

. The housing deficiency in Ghana is in an overabundance of 800,000 housing units. Housing

supply growth changes between 25,000 and 40,000 units for each year as against the yearly
requirements of 100,000 units. Brick houses in Ghana constitutes 15% of the housing stock,

further demonstrating the levels at which brick are used in Ghana, despite the fact that all the 10

regions of Ghana have deposits of clay which is the best material utilized in the manufacturing of

brick. ( Obeng and Atteamo, 2000)

Sustainable construction requires a critical review of prevailing practices, techniques and

sources for raw materials (Danso, 2013). Currently, there is over reliance on foreign

and imported materials especially for building as the nation import about 80 percent of

construction materials at the expense of local content (Tamakloe, 2012). The use of

natural, locally-available materials makes good housing available to more people, and

keeps money in the local economy rather than spending it on imported materials

(Deboucha and Hashim, 2011).

In Ghana particularly Kumasi, most of the brick buildings which were put up during the

colonial era are still same house size as the cement blocks, thus, if four hundred

cement blocks were needed to build an average of one bedroom house, a thousand or more

burnt bricks will be needed to build the same type of house (Damptey, 2006). This

finding is parallel with the view of Danso (2013) that burnt bricks used for building

houses are small in sizes and, therefore, require a lot of labour works to construct such

houses.

The scarcity of the usage of bricks in building projects, according to research, has led to the

gradual killing of the brick industry in Ghana even though; the country is endowed with clay

deposit in almost all 10 regions.

Some experts in the construction industry have argued that the gradual diminishing of bricks in

Ghana is due to the fact that many people believe that, “It is more costly and less convenient to

build with bricks than cement blocks. (Ghana homes, 2014)

COST COMPARISM OF BRICK AND BLOCK

A number of Blocks or Bricks needed - The block sizes used are mainly the 6-inches for

construction at the foundation level and the 5-inches for the building itself while the brick; on the

other hand; being smaller in size, a number of 6 pieces would be needed to make 1 single block.

This sums up to the fact that more bricks would be required than blocks in the building. (Ghana

homes, 2014)

The cost of Production: Most people believe that it may be expensive putting up a brick

building because of the initial cost to be incurred as compared with the block building. In the

case of brick, more fuel is needed for the entire production, which involves mixing, drying, firing

and fabrication, including hand moulding. Consequently, more fuel would be needed for this

kind of work, and this calls for more money, having its own repercussions on the pocket of the

builder with respect to the rampant increase in fuel prices in Ghana lately. The block, on the

other hand, does not require much more input to be produced as in the case of the bricks. It

involves moulding and drying. (Ghana homes, 2014)

Labour Intensity - It is obvious that the labour force in a brick building is greater than the

labour force needed in block building. More workers would be needed in the brick case to

undertake the various production processes of mixing, drying, firing and moulding; whereas only

a few of the workers would be needed in the block building. For instance, if 8 workers are

needed in the brick production, with 2 of them taking up one of the production processes,
equally, only 2 workers will be needed in the block production – one worker for the mixing and

moulding, and the other for the drying. More workers simply mean more cash to pay them.

(Ghana homes, 2014)

Building Processes - Obviously, the building process involved in both block and brick would be

different, with the other requiring more people on board and using more time than the other.

Bricks, for instance, require more skills right from the production to the building, not to mention

that they are smaller in size and also heavier, making it more difficult to be installed by few

workers. This can cause a prolonged time of completion, meanwhile prices of goods and services

would be going up. For the block, only a few people can handle the entire building process.

(Ghana homes, 2014)

Expensive Machines - The machines used in bricks production is undoubtedly more expensive

than the machine used in producing blocks. Therefore, it is easy to raise money in acquiring a

block producing machine than that of the brick-producing.

The high cost involved here has accounted for the non-usage of the bricks and scarcity of brick

buildings in Ghana; however, the maintenance costs are as low. The bricks building do not need

plastering and painting as would be needed in the block building. Also, when building in a water-

logged area or on a wetland, bricks are the best choice the reason being that they are stronger and

can absorb the water without collapsing, unlike the block building.

Despite these conveniences and advantages, cement block remains builders’ first choice. This

has brought about monopoly in building materials, making cement expensive with a bag of

cement being now sold at Gh¢31.00 in some areas of Accra (Ghana homes, 2014)