CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The purpose of the literature review is to evaluate and summarize what is already known

and researched about rubber, shell, and tin can wastes as additives in making hollow blocks. it

will give a full review of all the relevant literature. The review will be set up by theme and focus

on the most important ideas and debates in the literature. The chapter will point out where there

are gaps in the research and explain how the study will help fill these gaps.

Related Literature

Rubber

Rubber is a stretchy material that can be made from either the sprouts of tropical plants or

from oil and natural gas. Most of the molecules in rubber are called elastomers. Elastomers are

made of molecules that look like long chains and can be stretched out a lot before going back to

their original shape. Rubber is used for many things because it can bend, bounce back, and is

strong. It is the main part of tires for cars, trains, and other types of transportation.(Rubber |

Tropical Plants, Petroleum, & Natural Gas, n.d.)

Since buildings are always exposed to weather conditions, it is important that the building

materials can stand up to heat, sunlight, ozone, corrosion, and water, as well as noise pollution.

This view is supported by Rubber's (2018) literature, which indicates that one benefit of rubber is

that it holds up to extreme heat and cold. This means it can be used in building projects around

the world, even where it will be exposed to the harshest of climates. In some climates, it will be

exposed to both heat and cold and will experience warming and cooling over the course of the

day, so rubber is an ideal choice as it does not expand and contract like metal does. It can limit
the life span of materials and mean more frequent maintenance and repairs, so it is important to

use materials that will resist degradation as much as possible. Another benefit of rubber is that it

doesn’t absorb water and is resistant to mold and rust. This is important in the use of buildings,

as mold can be a safety risk and public health hazard, rendering a building unusable and

degrading the materials it is made of.

Shell

A considerable amount of literature has been published on composition and properties of

shells. A shell, also called a clam or sea shell, is a hard, protective covering that is usually made

by an animal that lives in the ocean. De Decker et al., (2016) explains that shells may look very

different, but pretty much every shell you pick up on the beach is made of the same stuff:

calcium carbonate (CaCO3), otherwise known as the mineral calcite. Covering the entire shell is

an organic protein layer, called the periostracum. This is an organic layer that helps isolate the

area in which active shell formation takes place and provides the organic framework against

which the calcium carbonate is laid down. It helps protect the shell, giving it increased water

resistance and durability.

However, there has been relatively little literature published on the industrial utilization

of calcium carbonate. According to Major Industrial Applications Use CaCO3 Calcium

Carbonate in Everyday Life (n.d.), calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime.

It is made when calcium ions in hard water mix with carbonate ions to make limescale. Calcium

carbonate is an important part of the building industry, both on its own as a building material

(like marble) and as an ingredient in cement. It helps make mortar, which is used to stick

together bricks, concrete blocks, stones, roofing shingles, rubber mixtures, and tiles. Calcium

carbonate breaks down into carbon dioxide and lime, which is used to make steel, glass, and
paper, among other things. Because calcium carbonate is an antacid, it is used in industry to

neutralize acidic conditions in dirt and water.

Tin Can

A tin can, which is also called a tin (especially in British English) or a can, is an airtight

metal container used to ship or store goods. Due to the high energy costs of getting aluminum out

of rock, aluminum cans have always been one of the most popular and cost-effective things to

recycle. Reusing old metal cans to make new ones takes only 2%–4% of the energy it would take

to make them from ore. (Tin | Definition, Properties, Uses, & Facts, n.d.)

Hollow Blocks

There exists a significant amount of literature related to the utilization of hollow blocks

in the field of construction. A hollow block is a variety of concrete blocks that has the ability to

be utilized in the construction of both interior and exterior walls. Hollow concrete blocks are

used in the construction of residential structures to form the walls and partitions of the housing.

Hollow blocks have a lower density than solid blocks, thereby contributing less mass to the

overall structure of the building. In addition, the empty spaces within the blocks may be filled

with insulation materials in order to enhance the thermal and acoustic properties of the structure.

The implementation of this measure is expected to result in a reduction of energy consumption in

the building, while simultaneously enhancing the level of comfort for its occupants. Furthermore,

gaps within the blocks have the potential to be filled with insulation material. The enhancement

of thermal and acoustic properties renders them a suitable option for constructing buildings that

are energy-efficient and provide a tranquil environment (Machine, 2021).

 Nonetheless, there exists a paucity of scholarly works pertaining to the manufacturing

procedure of hollow blocks. The extant body of literature predominantly centers on the

manufacturing process of hollow blocks. According to Cabonell (2021), hollow blocks are

created using a mixture of water, sand, gravel, and Portland cement powder. The production

method consists of four steps: mixing, molding, cubing, and curing. The raw elements are

combined to create concrete, which is then molded into the desired shape of the block. The

blocks are subsequently "cured," or kept warm and damp, to allow the concrete to set. For

decorative reasons or to prevent water from leaking through the outer walls, various

manufacturers offer different types of hollow blocks.

Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of a solid material refers to the maximum amount of

compressive stress that it can withstand without cracking, when subjected to a gradually applied

load. The compressive strength (CS) of a material can be determined by dividing the force (F) at

the point of failure by the cross-sectional area. It is imperative to conduct compressive strength

tests on the test material with equivalent opposing forces. Certain materials experience breaking

when they reach their limit of compressive strength, while others endure irreversible

deformation. The compressive strength variable holds significant importance in the process of

designing structures (What Is a Compressive Strength? - Definition From Corrosionpedia, n.d.).

Concrete is a commonly utilized construction material within the building industry. The

strength of concrete is a crucial factor that provides a comprehensive assessment of its quality, as

it has an immediate relationship with the long-term reliability and effectiveness of the concrete

infrastructure. Concrete contractors are responsible for ensuring the strength of concrete, which

is a sign of a structure's capacity to endure diverse loads such as dead load, live load, earthquake
load, wind load, and others. Various tests can be performed to evaluate the strength of concrete,

including compressive, tensile, and flexural strength assessments. In the field of high-strength

and high-performance concrete, the structure of aggregates assumes greater significance due to

the utilization of an extremely low w/c ratio (Patel, 2018).

Durability

The aspect of durability is a crucial element in the field of sustainable product design and

has been the focus of extensive academic inquiry. According to Sabhadiya (2022), durability is

the ability of a physical product or material to keep working with normal use over the time it was

made to last without needing too much maintenance or repair. It is a way to figure out how long

a product can work in its surroundings without breaking or needing maintenance. How long

something lasts and how many hours it is used can be used to figure out how durable it is. Every

durable product must be able to keep up with changes in technology, design, and new ideas.

When it comes to buildings, durability means that the structure and materials don't break down in

a way that makes them less useful than when they were first built. A building must last at least as

long as its planned working life, and during this time, all of the maintenance steps that should be

set for the system must be done. Buildings made of concrete blocks can last for a long time.

Some have been used for more than 50 years. Structures made of concrete, like those made of

masonry with concrete blocks, can stand up to attacks from things like high humidity, wind-

driven rain, ultraviolet light, and bug attacks. Product longevity depends on how easy it is to fix

and remake, as well as how well it is taken care of. Longer product life spans can help with eco-

efficiency and sustainability, slowing consumption so that we can get to a level of consumption

that is sustainable.
 Related Studies

Rubber wastes in hollow block production

A considerable amount of literature has been published on the utilization of waste tire

rubber in civil engineering applications. Ahmad et al. (2022) suggest that the incorporation of

scrap tire rubber in concrete offers various advantages, such as reducing waste and potentially

improving the performance of concrete. However, the utilization of rubber tires as a substantial

aggregate encounters certain challenges due to their insufficient structural strength and

insufficient binding efficiency with the cementitious matrix. The findings of the study indicate

that further research is required to facilitate the future adoption of rubberized concrete.

A comparative study by Bekhiti et al. (2014) found that rubber powder shows a range of

cohesion values lasting from 6.5 to 50 kPa, while the friction angles demonstrate an increase

from 8 to 25° as the particle size increases. Empirical relationships were generated utilizing the

results obtained from the waste tire powder rubber study, which established a correlation

between cohesion, friction angle, and particle size. The cubic regression model was determined

to be a more suitable option when compared to both linear and quadratic models. The study's

findings indicate that waste tire rubber powder has the potential to serve as a viable substitute

material in various civil engineering applications.

On the other hand, the study by Intaboot and Kanbua (2022) focuses on the use of crumb

rubber in the production of concrete blocks for building walls to improve and develop the

properties of the blocks. The use of crumb rubber results in a reduction in the density of the

blocks, while concurrently leading to an increase in their porosity and water absorption. The

study indicates that an increase in crumb rubber content is associated with a decrease in
compressive strength, static modulus of elasticity, and thermal conductivity of the blocks. In

contrast, the blocks exhibit enhanced flexibility and sound absorption with an increase in crumb

rubber content. According to the research findings, crumb rubber concrete blocks exhibit

favorable characteristics for the fabrication of wall construction components and possess the

potential for reducing environmental impact.

The research to date has tended to focus on the physical and mechanical characteristics of

waste tire rubber in concrete, as well as its effect on the properties of the resulting mixture. Sofi's

(2018) contribution to this study involves a study into the viability of utilizing waste tyre rubber

as a substitute for fine aggregate in concrete, with a weight percentage of up to 12.5%. There

exists an inverse relationship between the amount of crumb rubber incorporated and the

compressive and flexural strength of rubberized concrete. The empirical evidence suggests that

the rubberized concrete exhibits enhanced abrasion resistance when compared to the standard

mixture. It is important to acknowledge that the water flexibility of rubberized concrete is

relatively greater in comparison to the commercial concrete mixture. In addition, it was noted

that all of the concrete mixtures that incorporated 0-12.5% crumb rubber surpassed the 60 MPa

threshold in the assessment of compressive strength.

Kulinski (2019) reports the first systematic study of injecting rubber layers into precast

concrete hollow blocks to improve their damping coefficient against mechanical waves. The

study can be concluded that injecting rubber layers into precast concrete hollow blocks can

significantly improve their damping coefficient against mechanical waves. This can be achieved

by using a special form made of plastic or steel to create hollows in the concrete block, which

can then be filled with recycled rubber material. The shape of the rubber injects has a significant
influence on the damping effect, and the reduction in block compressive strength is insignificant

due to the relatively small volume of rubber injects. The proposed solution is innovative and

relatively easy and cheap to implement in the production process. The research was conducted

using numerical analyses with different shapes of rubber injections and different concrete

strength classes, and the ADINA code based on finite element method was used for the analyses.

Shell wastes in hollow block production

Numerous research projects have been done to study the utilization of waste materials,

including seashell waste, in the manufacturing of concrete. According to Hapinat and Montero's

(2019) findings, the utilization of pulverized oyster shells, discarded glass, and plastics as

composite materials in the production of concrete hollow blocks is an appropriate strategy in

terms of both compressive strength and durability. According to the research, these materials

show an important level of hydrophobicity and have the ability to enhance the mechanical

properties of the concrete matrix. The adoption of this innovative technology is recommended by

the authors for local government units that have plenty sources of shells, as a means to recycle

waste materials and mitigate issues pertaining to solid waste. This initiative has the potential to

offer alternative sources of income for nearby communities. According to Mo et al.'s (2018)

research findings, seashell waste can serve as a viable fine filler material in concrete due to its

comparable composition to limestone. The utilization of seashell waste in the production of

concrete can yield satisfactory workability and strength, provided that the maximum replacement

levels do not exceed 20%. Nevertheless, the durability properties of seashell waste in concrete

remain inadequately investigated. The utilization of seashell waste in concrete is feasible for

non-structural or insulation purposes, provided that durability is not a primary concern. The

implementation of this approach has the potential to mitigate waste generation in the shellfish
and fisheries sector, while also reducing the dependence on primary resources in the construction

field. Nonetheless, both investigations emphasized the necessity for additional research

concerning the durability of seashell waste when utilized in concrete.

Another study by Lejano (2019) explored the use of pig hair fibers and powdered green

mussel shells as waste materials in improving the performance of compressed earth blocks.

Lejano (2019) conducted a study that investigated the potential of utilizing pig hair fibers and

powdered green mussel shells as waste materials to enhance the efficacy of compressed earth

blocks. The use of waste materials, namely pig hair fibers (PHF) and powdered green mussel

shells (GMS), has the potential to enhance the quality of compressed earth blocks (CEB). The

performance of CEB can be enhanced by specific mix combinations of PHF and GMS, whereas

other combinations may lead to inferior performance compared to the control sample. The

combined effect of utilizing GMS and PHF has demonstrated efficacy in enhancing the

mechanical strength and durability of compressed earth blocks (CEB). The optimal combine was

found to be CEB containing 0.75% PHF and 10% GMS, resulting in a 67% enhancement in

compressive strength and a 626% improvement in flexural strength.

In the study conducted by Chen et al. (2019), The addition of appropriate amounts of

crushed oyster shell, fly ash, and blast furnace slag had a beneficial impact on the strength and

durability of marine concrete. However, the addition of oyster shell content exceeding 20%

showed negative effects on the mechanical properties of marine concrete. The study emphasizes

the significance of careful regulation of the amount of waste materials used for the production of

concrete for achieving the best possible performance.

Tin Can wastes in hollow blocks production

 Data from several studies have identified the potential of incorporating natural fibers into

concrete to enhance its mechanical properties. It has been suggested that this approach can lead

to more sustainable and eco-friendly construction practices. One such natural fiber is soft drink

can fiber. It has been demonstrated that in a recent study by Sambrano (2022), the addition of

fibers from recycled soft-drink cans into non-load-bearing concrete hollow blocks (CHB) has

been found to enhance their compressive strength and durability. Response Surface Methodology

(RSM) was employed in the investigation to identify the most suitable combination of fiber

content and fiber length in CHB for the purpose of attaining the highest possible compressive

strength. The study findings indicate that a suitable blend of 3.0% fiber content from soft drink

cans and 25mm fiber length can produce a compressive strength of 508.89 psi for CHB, which

exceeds the minimum compressive strength requirements set by the Philippine National Standard

(PNS). The previously mentioned proposition indicates that the addition of soft drink can fiber

into low-cost construction may potentially enhance the overall compressive strength of CHB,

without requiring additional cement. This could lead to a decrease in expenses and encourage the

utilization of this eco-friendly product.

The study conducted by Akhund et. al (2017) offers additional support for the feasibility

of using fiber from soft drink cans in concrete. The study conducted by the authors involved

experimentation, which revealed that the addition of soft drink tins fiber in concrete can enhance

its workability, compressive strength, and density. The research used varying proportions and

dimensions of soft drink cans' fibers to create fiber-reinforced concrete.

The findings of both studies provide evidence that the addition of soft drink cans' fibers

in concrete can serve as a replacement for traditional fibers, leading to reduced expenses and
encouraging the adoption of this eco-friendly material. Akhund et al. (2017) conducted an initial

comprehensive investigation on the utilization of soft drink tins fiber in concrete. On the other

hand, Sambrano (2022) used the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to establish the ideal

combination of fiber content and fiber length in CHB, which would result in the highest

achievable compressive strength. However, there is inconsistency with the argument that using

natural fibers in concrete is always more sustainable than using conventional fibers, given that

the production and transportation of natural fibers can have environmental impacts. This view is

supported by some scholars, who argue that the sustainability of using natural fibers in concrete

should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, taking into account various factors such as the

source of the fibers and their production processes.

Compressive strength comparison

Several studies have considered the relationship between the use of waste materials in the

production of construction materials. Data from these studies have identified the potential of

utilizing recycled materials to enhance the compressive strength and durability of concrete. The

utilization of concrete waste materials (CWMs) in the production of hollow concrete blocks

(HCBs) has been proposed as a sustainable measure to reduce waste from landfills and conserve

resources.

The first systematic study of HCBs using CWMs was reported by Shantveerayya et al.

(2020). In the study, CWMs were successfully used instead of traditional materials to make

HCBs. The HCBs were made by adding between 10% and 20% of CWMs by weight to the

HCBs. The data showed that the HCBs with CWMs were 40% stronger, absorbed 16% less

water, and were 11% heavier than the HCBs that were already on the market. The HCBs with
CWMs had the same block density and moisture flow as the other HCBs, which suggests that

they reduce almost the same amount. XRD patterns showed that carbonate was the main

ingredient in the HCBs that were made. The study comes to the conclusion that HCBs with

CWMs can be used for building.

On the contrary, the research conducted by Harvey (2017) indicates that the study's

findings suggest that the addition of recycled materials and sustainable cements into concrete has

a discernible impact on its compressive strength. The addition of certain materials may lead to a

variation in the strength, either an increase or a decrease in strength. The study involved the

examination of various waste materials, such as plastics, alum residual, granular/powdered active

carbon, Lafarge slag cement, and Lafarge silica fume. The blend comprising of sustainable

cements demonstrated the maximum compressive strength, whereas the blends comprising of

recycled aggregates exhibited a reduction in strength as compared to the control blend.

According to the research, the integration of waste materials into concrete has the potential to

serve as a feasible substitute for traditional concrete, thereby contributing to the reduction of

waste accumulation in landfills.

In another study, Canono (2020) demonstrated that the utilization of dog’s manure as a

replacement material in the field of construction may represent an acceptable strategy to promote

sustainability, while simultaneously reducing potential hazards to public health and preserving

valuable resources. According to the study, the addition of dog manure and polystyrene into

hollow blocks can enhance their durability and cost efficiency. Researchers suggest conducting

additional investigations on this approach as it shows the potential to be marketed as an efficient

and cost-effective substitute for conventional hollow blocks. Furthermore, the research highlights
the significance of utilizing hollow blocks with increased compressive strength in building

construction for ensuring strong foundations and additional support.

Durability comparison

Data from several studies have identified the potential for using waste materials to

improve the properties of concrete. Hamza et al. (2017) conducted a study to explore the

effectiveness of using waste materials, specifically marble dust and crushed bricks, into concrete

with the aim of enhancing its strength and durability. The utilization of waste materials as a

substitute for natural fine aggregates, combined with the partial replacement of cement with

silica fume, was implemented. The findings indicated that the utilization of marble dust as an

alternative material resulted in an improvement of the mechanical properties of concrete, in

contrast to the addition of crushed bricks did not make significant improvements to the

improvement of strength. The utilization of waste materials and silica fume resulted in an

interesting decrease in the water permeability of concrete. The result has been attributed to the

pozzolanic reaction and the filler effect of the waste materials. Utilizing waste materials into

concrete has been found to improve its resistance to freeze and warm cycles. According to the

researchers, the utilization of waste materials in concrete contributes significantly to the

enhancement of its durability, primarily through the pozzolanic reaction and resulting growth of

its internal structure.

In a comparable manner, Medina et al. (2019) arrived at the conclusion that alternating

the use of 10% and 20% of Portland cement with bottom ash (BBA) collected from biomass-

fired power plants does not result in any evident compromise in the quality of cement. The

addition of BBA in the new cement has resulted in a comparable or better resistance as compared
to the standard reference material, thereby establishing its efficacy in reducing corrosion to a

degree that is at least equivalent to that of OPC. The novel cement displays reduced reduction

and swelling in comparison to traditional cement and demonstrates reduced peak heating, rate of

heat release, and total heat flow values, particularly at higher replacement ratios. The partial

replacement of cement with BBA has no impact on the durability of the recycled product, which

meets the requirements for strength class 42.5, type II/A cement.

Both studies provide evidence that indicates that using waste materials and by-products in

concrete can potentially improve its properties and life expectancy. The investigation conducted

by Hamza et al. (2017) centered on the utilization of crushed bricks and marble dust. In contrast,

Medina et al. (2019) explored the feasibility of using biomass bottom ash as an alternative for

Portland cement.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this literature review has highlighted the potential of rubber, shell, and tin

can wastes as additives in making hollow [Link] existing literature shows that the utilization

of rubber, shell, and tin can waste materials can enhance the mechanical properties of hollow

blocks, which includes their compressive strength and durability. The utilization of rubber waste

has the potential to enhance the elasticity and toughness of hollow blocks, whereas the addition

of shell waste has the potential to enhance the thermal insulation and acoustic properties of the

blocks. Furthermore, the utilization of waste materials in the manufacturing of hollow blocks can

yield environmentally friendly advantages, such as waste reduction and preservation of natural

resources.
 Despite the potential advantages, the literature under review also highlights different

variables that impact the utilization of waste materials in the production of hollow blocks,

including the measurement and setup of the waste materials, the proportion of waste materials to

other components, and the production methodology. Furthermore, the existing research shows

that hollow blocks manufactured from waste materials have mechanical properties that are

comparable to or beat those of conventional hollow blocks. Nevertheless, additional study is

necessary to comprehensively comprehend the factors that influence the compressive strength

and durability of hollow blocks produced from waste materials.

The present literature review offers a significant combination of the existing research

regarding the utilization of rubber, shell, and tin can wastes as wastes in the production of hollow

blocks. According to the literature review, waste materials have the potential to serve as a

feasible and eco-friendly alternative for conventional components in the production of hollow

blocks. However, more analysis is required to comprehensively comprehend the potential

advantages and limitations of utilizing waste materials in the producing of hollow blocks, along

with the development of similar techniques for combining waste materials into the production of

hollow blocks. In summary, the literature review emphasizes the necessity for ongoing study and

progress in sustainable construction methodologies, and highlights the possibility of waste

materials to make a valuable contribution towards achieving this crucial objective.

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