Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

UNIT 14 ALEXANDER’S INVASION OF THE

NORTHWEST*

Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Sources
14.3 Alexander of Macedonia
14.4 Arrian’s Indike
14.5 Alexander’s Successors and Seleucus Nicator
14.6 Impact of Alexander’s Invasion
14.7 Summary
14.8 Key Words
14.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
14.10 Suggested Readings

14.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, you will know about:
Alexander’s invasion of the north-western India;
The different sources about Alexander and their significance;
Alexander’s battle with various principalities of India including Porus;
Arrian’s Indike;
The impact of Alexander’s invasion on India; and
Megasthenes, who was a Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya’s court.

14.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit you learnt about the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas which
emerged in northern India in the sixth century BCE. In this unit we will focus on
the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent and learn how it became a
vibrant seat of activity due to events related to Alexander’s invasion in the fourth
century BCE.

14.2 SOURCES
The period of Alexander is well attested by a number of sources. At first instance,
these sources seem impressive and remarkable. There are full length histories of
the reign by Arrian and Curtius Rufus, a formal biography by Plutarch, a whole
book of Diodorus Sirculus’ Bibliotheca, and substantial passages in the later
books of Strabo’s Geography. However, despite giving an impression of being
substantial, their value as primary sources is put to question as they are all late.
For instance, Diodorus’s works are dated to the third quarter of the first century
* Dr. Suchi Dayal, Academic Consultant, Faculty of History, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi 249
India: 6th Century BCE to 200 BCE; Plutarch and Arrain in the second century CE. Thus, there is a gap of two
BCE
to three centuries between Alexander’s death and the first connected narratives
of his reign. Some of these works are accused of being imaginatively fictitious,
preoccupied with rhetoric, full of trivial details, grossly exaggerated, and are
without checks to test their authenticity. Despite all these handicaps, scholars
have been able to sift significant information that is both credible and useful in
the context of India. Arrian’s account is the most sober rendition of Alexander’s
reign. Arrian was a simple soldier who paid his tribute to the memory of Alexander
by selecting the best possible sources and reproducing them faithfully. His seven-
book ‘History of Alexander’ was based on the accounts of Ptolemy, Aristobulus,
Nearchus and Eratosthenes. Ptolemy, Aristobulus and Nearchus were all
eyewitnesses to the campaigns of Alexander and were sometimes active
participants. The companion work Indike deals with India and the voyage of
Alexander’s fleet in the Southern Ocean and is based on the sources such as
Eratosthenes, Megasthenes and Nearchus.

Some Prominent Classical Figures Associated with Alexander

Quintus Curtius Rufus- (probably 1st century CE). He is the author of the
only extant Latin monograph on Alexander the Great, usually called
Historiae Alexandri Magnii, the liveliest account of Alexander’s exploits
in Asia.
Plutarch- Plutarches in Greek (born 46 CE), was a biographer and author
whose works strongly influenced the evolution of history writing in Europe
from 16th-19th century.
Strabo- (Born 64 BCE). He was a Greek geographer and historian whose
‘Geography’ is the only extant work covering the whole range of peoples
and countries known to both Greeks and Romans during the reign of
Augustus (27 BCE-114 CE)
Aristobulus of Cassandreia. He accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.
He served throughout as an architect and military engineer.
Diodorus Siculus- (1st Century BCE) Greek historian
Nearchus- (d. 312 BCE). He was officer in the Macedonian army under
Alexander, who on Alexander’s orders, sailed from the Hydaspes river in
western India to the Persian Gulf and up the Euphrates to Babylon.
Erastosthenes- Full name- Erastothenes of Cyrene (b. 276 BCE) was a Greek
scientific writer, astronomer and poet.

14.3 ALEXANDER OF MACEDONIA

In the sixth century BCE, India’s northwest was a site of conflict between various
principalities. Kambojas, Gandharas and Madras fought with each other. Since
there was an absence of an overarching powerful kingdom, the principalities of
the north-west could not be organized into one kingdom. Due to its political
disunity, the Achaemenian kings of Persia were attracted to this region. In 516
BCE, the Achaemenian ruler Darius invaded the north-west and annexed Punjab,
west of the Indus, and Sindh. At this time Iran had a total of 28 satrapies of
which India’s northwest constituted the twentieth province. The Indian satrapy
included the Sindh, the north-west frontier and part of the Punjab that lay to the
250 west of the Indus. It paid a hefty tribute in gold which accounted for one-third of
the total revenue Iran received from its Asian provinces. Indian provinces provided Alexander’s Invasion of the
Northwest
mercenaries for the Persian armies fighting against the Greeks in the fifth century
BCE. This part of the Indian territory continued to be a part of the Iranian empire
till Alexander invaded it in 330 BCE.

Iranian invasions paved for the development of cultural exchanges between Iran
and the northwest. A new script was introduced by the Iranian scribes called the
Kharoshthi script. It was written from right to left like the Arabic. It was derived
from Aramaic, then current in the Achaemenid empire. Trade also existed between
the two regions as corroborated by the finds of Persian type of coins in the North
West Frontier Province.
Macedonia
There was a distinction in the ancient Greek world between those who lived
south of the Mount Olympus and those who lived to its north. The people
who lived to the north of the mountains were called the Macedonians. The
latter were called ‘Makedones’, a Greek word in origin. As late as by the
end of the fourth century BCE, the Greeks referred to them as ‘Barbarians’
indicating that they did not see them as Greeks.
Macedonia is sometimes called Macedon. It was an ethnically mixed region
in the ancient past, surrounded by Greek states to the south and tribal
kingdoms in other directions. In the north and the west, the mountainous
terrain of the Balkans defined the landscape, while the southern region was
fertile alluvium. Both these regions were mired in conflict with each other
and it was Philip, the father of Alexander, who united the territories for the
first time. In the fourth century BCE, Macedonians and Greeks were engaged
in ethnic rivalry. The two people were distinct and separate. It was Philip II
who consolidated his control over the Greeks in 337 BCE. Though Alexander
mistakenly is referred to as a Greek, he was not! He was always wary of the
Greeks. The Greeks were more sophisticated then the Macedonians and did
not share the same cultural heritage.

Alexander was born in July 356 BCE. He was the son of Philip II, the ruler of
Macedonia. By 337 BCE Philip II had consolidated his control over the Greeks
by creating a union of Greek states called the League of the Corinth. The Union
was bound together under the hegemony of the Macedonian king and owed
allegiance to the League. Among his many exploits, his campaigns in Persia are
noteworthy. Philip announced his intention to invade Persia in order to avenge
on behalf of the Arthenians for having faced sufferings and destruction to their
temples during the Persian war and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor. He
was assassinated in 336 BCE. Upon his death the Greek states revolted from the
Macedonian rule. These were suppressed by Alexander after his accession.
Alexander invaded Persia in 334 BCE with a mighty army and defeated king
Darius of Persia.

A. K. Narain citing Tarn’s work says that since India was part of the Iranian
empire, Alexander’s interest in India was the inevitable result of his completion
of his conquest of the Persian Empire. However, Arrian says that Alexander was
more ambitious than that and he harboured a zeal to conquer India. Had it not
been so, he would not have crossed the Indus as the Indus river was the boundary
between India and Ariana (a possession of Persia). Ariana was situated to the
251
India: 6th Century BCE to 200 west of India and at this time was under the possession of Persians. River Indus
BCE
was the eastern most boundary of Darius I’s empire.

Among his many victories, Alexander’s campaigns in India are the most
noteworthy. In 327 BCE, Alexander marched from Bactra through the Hindukush
and advanced towards the plains of the Indus. One section of his advancing
force secured the communication route of the Hindukush and the other section
under his own control entered Swat. He subjugated Swat after fighting fierce
battles with the people of these mountain tracts. In 326 BCE, the two forces met
at the Indus and after crossing the Indus he marched to Taxila. The political
condition in the north-west was suitable for Alexander as it was divided into
small independent monarchies and tribal republics. Among the more famous
was Porus, who ruled a kingdom between the Jhelum and the Chenab. The
communication between Porus and Alexander when they met has become
legendary. Coming back to the Indus, Alexander crossed it and was met by Ambhi,
the prince of Taxila. Both Ambhi and Porus together could have defeated

Map 14.1: Conquests of Alexander in India. Credit: The Loeb Classical Library, Arrian
Anabasis of Alexander’. Source: Wikimedia Commons
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander Conquests In India.jpg
252
Alexander but they could not put up a joint front. Ambhi did not oppose Alexander Alexander’s Invasion of the
Northwest
and welcomed him with lavish gifts. Alexander decided to leave his kingdom in
peace but appointed Phillipus as a Satrap and left a garrison there. Alexander
was keen to meet Porus who had refused to submit to him and proceeded to
Jhelum (Hydaspes). The weather conditions were very unfavourable as the entire
region was covered under snow. He faced great adversity but managed to cross
the Jhelum and mounted an attack on Porus’ army which was stationed at the
opposite bank.

Fig.14.1: ‘Alexander and Porus’. A Painting by Charles Le Brun Depicting Alexander and
Porus (Puru) during the Battle of Hydaspes. Credit: http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/
le-brun/, Source: Wikimedia Commons
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Brun,_ Alexander_ and_Porus.jpg)

Porus was wounded and retreated (Figure 14.1). Alexander was very impressed
by his military prowess and persona and decided to reinstate Porus who then
became his ally. Alexander’s victory was momentous, and he celebrated it by the
founding of two cities-Nicaea and Bucephala (Map 14.1). The latter was founded
after his horse Bucephalus who had died due to exhaustion following the battle.
Alexander also issued a commemorative coinage at a mint in Babylon (Figure
14.2).

Fig.14.2: Victory Coin of Alexander the Great minted in Babylon in c. 322 BCE, following
his Campaigns in the Indian Subcontinent. Obverse: Alexander being Crowned by Nike.
Reverse: Alexander attacking King Porus on his Elephant. Silver. Credit: British Museum.
Source: Wikipedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander_ victory_ coin_Babylon_silver_c_
322_BCE.jpg)
253
India: 6th Century BCE to 200 Alexander continued his march into the Indian subcontinent and crossed the
BCE
Chenab and Ravi (Acesines and Hydraotes). He defeated many principalities
and fought a fierce battle with the Kathas of Panjab. The Kathas did not submit
easily and fought valiantly. Alexander was able to capture Sagala, the hill fortress
of Kathas and razed it to ground. Thereafter he was informed by a nearby king
about the might of the Nandas, east of Beas. His information was corroborated
by Porus too. Alexander wanted to proceed but his troops refused to advance
(Figure 14.3).

Fig. 14.3: Alexander’s Troops Beg to Return Home from India. Plate 3 of 11 by Antonio
Tempesta of Florence, 1608. Credit: “alexanderstomb.com”. Source: Wikimedia Commons.
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander_ troops_ beg_to_return_home_from_
India.jpg)

Hence, he was forced to return to Jhelum. He handed all the country between
Jhelum and Beas to Porus and sailed down Jhelum for his return journey. Below
the confluence of Jhelum and the Chenab, he fought his last important campaign
against the Malavas (Malloi). The republican states of Malavas and Kshudrakas
wished to form a confederacy against Alexander but the latter was successful in
preventing Kshudrakas from joining with the Malavas. The Malavas fought
bravely but were defeated. The Kshudrakas also could not stand anywhere before
Alexander.
It is believed that during the last days of Alexander in Babylon, Chanakya and
Chandragupta Maurya along with Porus attempted to unify the Punjab. Later the
Mauryas established themselves by bringing a major onslaught upon the Nandas
of the Ganga valley.
Three years after his campaigns in India, in 324 BCE, Alexander was back at
Susa in Persia. In the following year he died at Babylon. Upon being asked at his
death bed as whom his empire should be bequeathed to, he supposedly replied
‘to the strongest’. Thereafter ensued a long series of struggles between his generals
and governors for the control of his vast empire. The struggle among the Diadochi,
the successors, was a prelude to the establishment of the Hellenistic suzerainty
254 in the region. By 317 BCE, even the Greek outposts in India were given up.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Alexander’s Invasion of the
Northwest
1) Write a note on the sources which have been used to reconstruct Alexander’s
invasion of India.
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2) Write a few lines about Alexander’s invasion of the Northwest India.
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Fig.14.4: Ptolemy Coin with Alexander, Wearing an Elephant Scalp, Symbol of his Conquests
in South Asia. Credit: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2011). Source: Wikimedia Commons https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tetradrachm_Ptolemaeus_I_obverse_CdM_Paris_FGM2157. jpg

Arrian
Lucius Flavius Arrianus or Arrian, as he is usually called in the English
language – was born in Nicomedia, one of the Greek towns in the Roman
empire, between 85 and 90 CE. It is important to remember that all accounts
about Alexander date from three centuries after the death of Alexander. All
these accounts are based on now lost primary accounts which are flawed
and biased to begin with. For the events between 334- 323 BC, scholars
depend on Arrian’s account.

Arrian was a commander of a large army in the service of the Roman Empire.
He had literary leanings and authored texts on hunting, cavalry tactics and
wrote the biography of Alexander. He claimed that for his work on
255
India: 6th Century BCE to 200
BCE Alexander, he had relied on the most trustworthy of the primary sources
viz. Ptolemy and Aristobulus, who were part of the Alexander’s staff in his
campaign to the east. He authored Anabasis (‘Journey up country’) of
Alexander, which consisted of seven books. Indike (his book on India) was
a shorter companion work of Anabasis.

Source: Alexander the Great. Selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch

and Quintus Curtius. Edited by James Romm. Hackett Publishing Co. Inc.
Indianapolis/Cambridge

14.4 ARRIAN’S INDIKE

Arrian described himself as a philosopher, a statesman, a soldier and a historian.
He is best known for the Asiatic expedition of Alexander; whose narrative is
remarkable in accuracy and clarity. His work on India, Indike, is written in the
Ionic dialect. It consists of three parts: the first part gives a general description of
India, based chiefly on the accounts of India by Megasthenes and Eratosthenes.
The second is an account of Nearchus’ journey on the Indus and the third contains
proofs showing that the southern parts of the world were not suited to habitation
due to excessive heat.

The first part of Indike has been translated by J W Mc Crindle and is richly
supplemented with notes regarding history, geography, archaeology and the
identification of Greek proper names with Sanskrit originals.

Map 14.2: Asia in 323 BCE. The Nanda Empire in relation to Alexander’s Empire and neighbours. Credit:
Talessman at English Wikipedia. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Asia_323bc.jpg)
256
Based on the accounts of Megasthenes and Nearchus, Arrian manages to weave Alexander’s Invasion of the
Northwest
succinct and interesting details about India. He begins by describing the
boundaries of ‘India Proper’ which he tells lies to the east of the Indus. He
delineates the boundary of the lands of India by mentioning Hindukush in the
north, river Indus in the west and Pattala in the south. (Alexander Cunningham
identifies Pattala with Nirankol or Haidarbad. The old name was Patasila. He
says that Patala is the designation bestowed by the brahmanas on all the provinces
in the west, in antithesis to Prasiaka [the eastern realm] in the Ganges land. For
Patala is the mythological name in Sanskrit of the underworld and consequently
of the land of the west)

Mc Crindle feels that the measurements given by Strabo are more accurate than
those of Arrian. However, Cunningham remarks that Arrian’s measurements are
in close agreement with the actual size of the country and this is very remarkable
as it shows that the Indians, even at that early date in their history, had a very
accurate knowledge of the form and extent of their native land.

His account of the different tributaries of Indus and Ganges, tribes of India,
castes of India has been borrowed from Megasthenes’ description. Arrian writes
much detail on rivers, mentions the barbarous Indians of old times, their
dependence on nomadism; how Dionysos, the conqueror of India who came
even before the mighty Alexander, taught the Indians agriculture, introduced
them to the plough and laws.

Arrian also spends some time in describing Pataliputra which he calls ‘the greatest
city of Palimbothra’. (Alexander Cunningham says that Strabo and Pliny agree
with Arrian in calling the people of Palibothra by the name Prasii which modern
writers have referred to as the Sanskrit Prachya or ‘eastern’. But Cunningham
feels that Prasii is the Greek form of Palasa which is the actual and well-known
name of Magadha, of which Palibothra was the capital)

Arrian writes about the absence of slavery in India, modes of hunting elephants,
and of course of gold-digging ants which he himself is not sure about since
Megathenes’ account of gold-digging ants was based on hearsay.

14.5 ALEXANDER’S SUCCESSORS AND

SELEUCUS NICATOR
Alexander after his retreat from India and Persia did not organise his conquests
in any systematic fashion. As part of his arrangements, most of the conquered
states were restored to their rulers who accepted his authority. His territorial
possessions were divided into three parts and placed under Greek governors.
Soon destabilisation and anarchy marked the period. Successor kingdoms emerged
under the various satraps and Macedonia lost its importance.

At Alexander’s death, the number of satrapies was twenty. By 308 BCE they
terminated all contacts with Macedonian kingdom and coalesced into three
separate groupings under Antigonus, Seleucus and Ptolemy. Seleucus Nicator
was at the helm at the satrapy of Babylonia. After being thrown out of Babylon
by Antigonus, Seleucus reclaimed it and was successful in expanding his
dominions right down to the Indus, placing all the eastern satraps under his
sway. In the meantime, Chandragupta Maurya was busy capturing the Ganga
257
India: 6th Century BCE to 200 plains. He proceeded to the north-west to exploit the power vacuum created by
BCE
Alexander’s departure. Once he reached the Indus, he came face to face with
Seleucus Nicator, who had a stronghold in that region. The battle between the
two was won by Chandragupta as evident from the terms of the treaty of 303
BCE. The Seleucid territories of eastern Afghanistan, Makran and Baluchistan
were ceded to Chandragupta. In return Seleucus obtained 500 elephants. Seleucus
also gave his daughter in marriage to Chandragupta. With this victory, the routes
and important regions of northwest region came under Mauryan control.

Friendly relations seem to have been established between Sandracottos, as

Chandragupta was referred to by the Greeks, and the Seleucids. Seleucus’s envoy
Megasthenes spent time at the court of Chandragupta and left an account entitled
Indica. The original account is lost, and paraphrases of this text are preserved in
the writings of later writers such as Diodorus, Strabo and Arrian. Friendly relations
were carefully cultivated between the two. Several Greek ambassadors visited
the court such as Megasthenes, Daimachos, Hegesandros.

14.6 IMPACT OF ALEXANDER’S INVASION

As mentioned earlier, Alexander’s campaigns in India were not as significant as
Alexander would want to believe. In fact, R. K. Mukherjee believes that
Alexander’s campaigns in India were not an example of brilliant military
achievement as he did not come face to face with any powerful Indian monarch.
The effects of his campaigns were at best indirect. According to A.K. Narain,
the people of the northwest realized that small states and principalities were no
match to the disciplined and organized campaigns of Alexander. Chandragupta
was quick to realise the importance of erecting a huge empire. He went about to
unite the whole of Punjab and later, northern India after overthrowing the Nandas.
He not only added the southern states but also integrated the four satrapies of
Aria, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Paropamisadae which were ceded by Seleucus to
Chandragupta after the demise of Alexander.

Friendly contacts were maintained between the Greeks and Indians. According
to a Greek writer, Athenaeus, an Indian ruler Amitrochates wrote to Antiochus I
of Syria to send him sweet wine, figs and a sophist to which the Syrian king
replied that he would happily send sweet wine and figs, but a sophist cannot be
sold in Greece. Stabo refers to the sending of Deimachus to the court of
Allitrochades, son of Sandrokottos; Pliny mentions another envoy, Dionysius,
from Ptolemy II of Egypt. Besides this, Ashoka also maintained close relations
with the yavanas of West Asia and Egypt. His thirteenth rock edict, the version
of which has been found in Greek at Kandahar, refers to his Dhammavijaya in
the kingdoms of Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy Philadelphus II of Egypt,
Antigonus Gomatas of Macedonia, Magas of Cyrene and Alexander of Corinth.
Ashoka is also supposed to have arranged for the medical treatment of cattle and
men in the kingdom of Antiochus II and his neighbours. Not only does his
description of himself as Devanampiya Piyadassi reflect the practice of deification
current among Greek kings in the Hellenic west, but also the style of his edicts
were influenced by the edicts of Darius. Kautilya and Megasthenes both refer to
a state department looking after the welfare of the foreigners who were mostly
Yavanas and Persians. Taxila, Sarnath, Basarh and Patna have yielded terracotta
motifs with distinct Hellenistic influence.

258
Alexander’s invasion also allowed for the establishment of Greek paramouncy Alexander’s Invasion of the
Northwest
in Bactria, and in the regions that are called today as Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Some forty-one rulers of Yavana descent are known from coins. Strabo refers to
these kings as someone who subdued large number of tribes, more than that by
Alexander. Menander and Demetrius, son of Euthydemus, the king of Bactrians,
were the most notable. The Indo Greek kings were equally influenced by Indian
religion and culture. Many of their coins carried Indian legends. An inhabitant of
Taxila, Heliodorus, son of Dion, was an envoy from the court of Antialcidas, an
Indo-Greek king, to the court of Indian king Bhagabhadra. The details are known
from the Heliodorius Besnagar Inscription (Besnagar near Bhilsa in Madhya
Pradesh), which mentions that he was a follower of the Bhagawat sect of
Hinduism. Some of the coins of Menander carry the image of wheel which scholars
believe is the Buddhist emblem of Dharmachakra, the wheel of righteousness.

Alexander’s campaigns in the north-west India brought this part of the world in
direct contact with the Greek world. Land and routes by sea opened up through
which Greek merchants and craftsmen came to have access to these faraway
lands. Greek settlements were established in this region for example, Alexandria
in the Kabul region, Boukephala on the Jhelum, Alexandria in Sindh. Alexander
also intiated geographical explorations of the harbours and coast from the mouth
of the Indus to that of Euphrates. His historians have left valuable information of
geographical merit. Besides providing a corrective to Indian chronology, Greek
accounts tell us about Indian practices such as the sati, sale of girls in the market
place by poor parents and good breed of oxen. In fact, some 2, 00,000 oxen were
sent from India by Alexander to Macedonia. The Greeks also found that Indians
excelled at the art of carpentry and they built chariots, boats and ships.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Write a few lines about Arrian’s Indike.
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2) What was the impact of Alexander’s invasion on India?
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14.7 SUMMARY
In this Unit, we learnt that India’s northwest was a region which attracted the
attention of invaders quite early in Indian history. After the Achaemenid invasions,
Alexander conquered the principalities and kingdoms of the north-western India. 259
India: 6th Century BCE to 200 He was successful in subjugating the Indian powers despite the valiant struggle
BCE
that was put against him. He was able to cross Hydaspes (Jhelum) at night and
met Porus who was defeated but was so impressed by his valour that he allowed
Porus to retain his kingdom. Alexander was not able to go beyond Chenab and
Ravi (Acesines, Hydraotes) as his troops refused to march any further. We also
learnt that the Arrian’s accounts are the main source of Alexander’s campaigns.
Arrian has left in his Indike some factual, some fanciful account of India which
is based on the account of other travellers. Among Alexander’s successors, the
most notable was Seleucus Nicator who fought with Chandragupta Maurya but
was defeated. He sent Megasthenes, a Greek Ambassador, to Mauryan king’s
court, who has left an interesting account of his reign in his Indica.

14.8 KEY WORDS

Achaemenids : Achaemenian dynasty who are also called
Achaemenids. (Persian- Hakhamanishiya) (559-
330 BC). Ancient Iranian dynasty whose kings
founded and ruled the Achaemenid empire.
Diadochi : According to the English Oxford Dictionary,
diadochi refers to the six generals of Alexander
the Great- Antigonus, Antipater, Cassander,
Lysimachus, Ptolemy, Seleucus among whom his
empire was eventually divided after his death in
323 BCE. It is derived from the Greek word
diadokhoi, meaning, ‘successor’.
Hellenistic : Comes from the word ‘Hellazein’ which means
‘to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks’. The
word pertains to ancient Greece.
Satrapy : Governors of the provinces of the ancient Persian
empire.
Yavanas : In early Indian literature refers to either a Greek
or another foreigner.

14.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Section 14.2
2) See Section 14.3
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) See Section 14.4
2) See Section 14.6

14.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bosworth A. B. (1996). The Historical Setting of Megasthenes’s Indica. Classical
Philology. Volume 91(2), (April 1996), 113-127.
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Bosworth B. (2002). The Legacy of Alexander. Politics, Warfare and Propaganda Alexander’s Invasion of the
Northwest
under the Successors. Oxford University Press.

McCrindle, J. W. (1877). Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian.

Being a translation of the fragment of the Indika of Megasthenes collected by Dr
Schwanback and of the first part of the Indika of Arrian. Thacker Spink and Co.

Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander and India. Greece and Rome. Volume 12, no 2,
Alexander the Great (October 1965), 155-165. Cambridge University Press.

Romm James (Ed.) (2005). Alexander the Great. Selections from Arrian,
Diodorus, Plutarch and Quintus Curtius. Indianapolis/ Cambridge: Hackett
Publishing Co. Inc.

Schwarz Franz Ferdinand (1975). Arrian’s Indike on India: Intention and Reality.
East and West. 25, no ½ (March-June 1975), 181-200

Tarn, W. W. (1948). Alexander the Great. Volume 1- Narrative. Cambridge

University Press.

Worthington, Ian (ed.) (2003). Alexander the Great. A Reader. Routledge.

261