Reservoir Engineering

Fundamentals

Course Code: RE03

2.3 Properties of gas reservoirs:
A gas is defined as homogenous fluid of low viscosity and density that
has no definite volume but expands to completely fill the vessel in which
it is placed.
Generally, the natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon and
nonhydrocarbon gases. The hydrocarbon gases that are normally found
in a natural gas are methanes, ethanes, propanes, butanes, pentanes and
small amounts of hexanes and heavier.

The nonhydrocarbon gases (impurities) include carbon dioxide,

hydrogen sulfide, and nitrogen. Knowledge of PVT relations (Pressure-
Volume-Temperature) and other physical and chemical properties of
gases are essential for solving problems in natural gas reservoir
engineering. These properties are:

• Apparent molecular weight, 𝑀𝑎

• Density, 𝜌𝑔
• Specific Volume, 𝑉
• Specific gravity, 𝛾𝑔
• Compressibility factor, 𝑍
• Isothermal gas compressibility coefficient, 𝐶𝑔
• Gas formation volume factor, 𝛽𝑔
• Viscosity,𝜇𝑔

The above properties can be obtained direct from laboratory

measurements or by prediction from generalized mathematical
expression. This section will review and describe the volumetric
behavior of gases in terms of pressure and temperature and mathematical

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correlations that are widely used in determining the physical properties
of natural gas.

2.3.1 Apparent molecular weight:

One of the main gas properties that are frequently of interest to
engineers is the apparent molecular weight. If 𝑦𝑖 represents the mole
fraction of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ component in a gas mixture, the apparent molecular
weight is defined mathematically by the following equation.
𝑀𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 ………………………………………………..2.24
Where:
𝑀𝑎 : Apparent molecular weight of gas mixture
𝑀𝑖 : Molecular weight of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ component in the mixture
𝑦𝑖 : Mole fraction of component 𝑖 in the mixture

2.3.2 Density:
The density of an ideal gas mixture is calculated from the below
equation:
𝜌𝑔 = 𝑃 × 𝑀𝑎 ⁄𝑅 × 𝑇………………………………………..2.25

Where:
𝜌𝑔 : Density of gas, 𝐼𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3

𝑀𝑎 : Molecular weight, 𝐼𝑏/𝐼𝑏 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

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2.3.3 Specific volume:
The specific volume is defined as the volume occupied by a unit mass of
gas.
𝑉 = (𝑣⁄𝑚)𝑅 × 𝑇⁄𝑃 × 𝑀𝑎 = 1⁄𝜌𝑔 ………………………..2.26

Where:
𝑉 : Specific volume 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝐼𝑏
𝜌𝑔 : Density of gas, 𝐼𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3

2.3.4 Specific gravity:

The specific gravity is the ratio of the gas density to the air density. Both
densities are measured at the same pressure and temperature.
Commonly, the standard pressure 𝑃𝑠𝑐 and temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑐 a used to
calceolate gas specific gravity:
𝜌𝑔
𝛾𝑔 = ………………………………………………….....2.27
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟

Assuming that the behavior of both the gas mixture and the air is
described by the ideal gas equation, the specific gravity can then be
expressed as:
𝑃𝑠𝑐 ×𝑀𝑎
𝑅×𝑇𝑠𝑐
𝛾𝑔 = 𝑃𝑠𝑐 ×𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 …………………………………………….....2.28
𝑅×𝑇𝑠𝑐

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 𝑀𝑎 𝑀𝑎
𝛾𝑔 = = ……………………………………............2.29
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 28.96

Where:
𝜌𝑔 : Gas specific gravity

𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 : Density of the air

𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 : Apparent molecular weight of the air = 28.96
𝑀𝑎 : Apparent molecular weight of the gas
𝑃𝑠𝑐 : Standard pressure, 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑇𝑠𝑐 : Standard temperature, 𝑅 𝑜

2.3.5 Gas compressibility factor:

Numerous equations-of-state have been developed in the attempt to
correlate the pressure-volume-temperature variables for real gases with
experimental data. In order to express a more exact relationship between
the variables p, V, and T, a correction factor called the gas
compressibility factor, gas deviation factor, or simply the z-factor, must
be introduced into an equation to account for the departure of gases from
ideality. The equation has the following form:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑧𝑛𝑅𝑇………………………………………………….2.30

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Where the gas compressibility factor z is a dimensionless quantity and is
defined as the ratio of the actual volume of n-moles of gas at T and p to
the ideal volume of the same number of moles at the same T and p:
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉
𝑧= = (𝑛𝑅𝑇)⁄ ………………………………………..2.31
𝑉𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃

Studies of the gas compressibility factors for natural gases of various

compositions have shown that compressibility factors can be generalized
with sufficient accuracies for most engineering purposes when they are
expressed in terms of the following two dimensionless properties:

• Pseudo-reduced pressure
• Pseudo-reduced temperature
These dimensionless terms are defined by the following expressions:

𝑃
𝑃𝑝𝑟 = …………………………………………………….2.32
𝑃𝑝𝑐

𝑇
𝑇𝑝𝑟 = …………………………………………………….2.33
𝑇𝑝𝑐

Where:
𝑃 : System pressure, 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑃𝑝𝑟 : Pseudo-reduced pressure, dimensionless

𝑇 : System temperature, 𝑅 𝑜
𝑇𝑝𝑟 : Pseudo-reduced temperature, dimensionless

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𝑃𝑝𝑐 , 𝑇𝑝𝑐 : pseudo-critical pressure and temperature, respectively, and
defined by the following relationships:

𝑃𝑝𝑐 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 𝑃𝑐𝑖 …………………………………………….2.34

𝑇𝑝𝑐 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 𝑇𝑐𝑖 …………………………………………….2.35

It should be pointed out that these pseudo-critical properties, i.e., 𝑃𝑝𝑐

and 𝑇𝑝𝑐 , do not represent the actual critical properties of the gas mixture.
These pseudo properties are used as correlating parameters in generating
gas properties. Based on the concept of pseudo-reduced properties,
Standing and Katz (1942) presented a generalized gas compressibility
factor chart as shown in figure 2.6. The chart represents compressibility
factors of sweet natural gas as a function of 𝑃𝑝𝑟 and 𝑇𝑝𝑟 . This chart is
generally reliable for natural gas with minor amount of
nonhydrocarbons. It is one of the most widely accepted correlations in
the oil and gas industry.

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 Figure 2.6 Standing and Katy compressibility factor chart

The correlation is presented in figure 2.6. Standing (1977) expressed this

graphical correlation in the following mathematical forms:

Case 1: Natural Gas Systems

𝑇𝑝𝑐 = 168 + 325𝛾𝑔 − 12.5𝛾𝑔2 ……………………………...2.36

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𝑃𝑝𝑐 = 677 + 15𝛾𝑔 − 37.5𝛾𝑔2 ……………………………......2.37

Case 2: Gas-Condensate Systems

𝑇𝑝𝑐 = 187 + 330𝛾𝑔 − 71.5𝛾𝑔2 ……………………....………2.38

𝑃𝑝𝑐 = 706 − 51.7𝛾𝑔 − 11.1𝛾𝑔2 …………………………....…2.39

Where:
𝑇𝑝𝑐 : Pseudo-critical temperature, 𝑅 𝑜

𝑃𝑝𝑐 : Pseudo-critical pressure, 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎

𝛾𝑔 : Specific gravity of the gas mixture

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 Figure 2.7 Pseudo critical properties of natural gas

2.3.6 Compressibility of natural gas:

The isothermal gas compressibility, which is given the symbol 𝑐𝑔 , is a
useful concept is used extensively in determining the compressible
properties of the reservoir, and it is the variability of fluid
compressibility with pressure and temperature is essential in performing
many reservoir engineering calculations. For a liquid phase, the
compressibility is small and usually assumed to be constant. For a gas
phase, the compressibility is neither small nor constant. By definition,
the isothermal gas compressibility is the change in volume per unit
volume for a unit change in pressure or, in equation form:

1 𝜕𝑉𝑔
𝑐𝑔 = −
𝑉𝑔
( 𝜕𝑃 ) ……………………………………………..2.40
𝑇

Where:
𝑐𝑔 : Isothermal gas compressibility, 1/𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝑉𝑔 , 𝑃: Volume and pressure of the gas

𝑇 : Is the absolute temperature

From the real gas equation-of-state:

𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑧
𝑉= ……………………………………………………..2.41
𝑃

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Differentiating the above equation with respect to pressure at constant
temperature T gives:
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
(𝜕𝑃) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 [𝑃 (𝜕𝑃) − 𝑃2 ]………………………………….2.42
𝑇

Will lead to:

1 1 𝜕𝑧
𝑐𝑔 = − ( ) ………………………………………….….2.43
𝑃 𝑧 𝜕𝑃 𝑇

If the relationship between the 𝑧 factor and the pressure at a given

temperature is known, we can calculate the compressibility of gas. Since
we already know the relationship between 𝑧 and 𝑃, we can numerically
calculate the derivative and hence, the value of the compressibility.

For ideal gas 𝑧 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝜕𝑧⁄𝜕𝑃) 𝑇 =, therefore, we can define the

compressibility as:
1
𝑐𝑔 = ……………………………………………………..….2.44
𝑃

The isothermal pseudo-reduced compressibility and is defined by:

𝑐𝑝𝑟 = 𝑐𝑔 𝑃𝑝𝑐 …………………………………………………..2.45

Where:
𝑐𝑝𝑟 = isothermal pseudo-reduced compressibility

𝑐𝑔 = isothermal gas compressibility, psi-1

𝑃𝑝𝑐 = pseudo-reduced pressure, psi

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Values of (𝜕𝑧⁄𝜕𝑃𝑝𝑟 )𝑇𝑝𝑟 can be calculated from the slope of the 𝑇𝑝𝑟
isotherm on the Standing and Katz z-factor chart.

Figure 2.8 Trube's pseudo reduced compressibility for natural gas

2.3.7 Gas formation volume factor:

The formation volume factor for gas is defined as the ratio of volume of
1 mol of gas at a given pressure and temperature to the volume of 1 mole
of gas at standard conditions (𝑃𝑠 and 𝑇𝑠 ). Using the real gas law and

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assuming that the Z factor at standard conditions is 1, the equation for
formation volume factor (𝛽𝑔 ) can be written as:
𝑉𝑅 𝑛𝑍𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑠 𝑃𝑠 𝑍𝑇
𝛽𝑔 = = × = ……………………………..2.46
𝑉𝑆 𝑃 𝑛𝑍𝑠 𝑅𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑃

When:
𝑃𝑠 at 1 atmosphere is (14.6959 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑟 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎) and 𝑇𝑠 is 60𝐹 𝑜
(519.67𝑅 𝑜 𝑜𝑟 288.71𝐾 𝑜 ), this equation can be written in three well-
known standard forms:
𝑍𝑇
𝛽𝑔 = 0.0283 ………………………………...…………….2.47
𝑃

Where 𝛽𝑔 is in 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑆𝐶𝐹, P is in 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎, and T is in 𝑅 𝑜 . Alternately

𝑍𝑇
𝛽𝑔 = 0.3507 ………………………………………………2.48
𝑃

Where 𝛽𝑔 is in 𝑚3 /𝑆𝑚3 , P is in 𝐾𝑃𝑎, and T is in 𝐾 𝑜 .

In some cases, it is more convenient to define the value of 𝛽𝑔 in

𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑆𝐶𝐹. The equation can be written as:

𝑍𝑇
𝛽𝑔 = 0.005 ………………………………………………..2.49
𝑃

Where T is in 𝑅 𝑜 , and P is in 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎.

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2.3.8 Gas viscosity:
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal fluid friction
(resistance) to flow. If the friction between layers of the fluid is small,
i.e., low viscosity, an applied shearing force will result in a large
velocity gradient. As the viscosity increases, each fluid layer exerts a
larger frictional drag on the adjacent layers and velocity gradient
decreases.
The viscosity of a fluid is generally defined as the ratio of the sheer
force per unit area to the local velocity gradient. Viscosities are
expressed in terms of poises, centipoise, or micropoises.

The gas viscosity is not commonly measured in the laboratory because it

can be estimated precisely from empirical correlations.

Methods of calculating the viscosity of natural gases:

Two popular methods that are commonly used in the petroleum industry
are the:
• Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows Correlation Method
• Lee-Gonzalez-Eakin Method

• The Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows correlation method:

Carr, Kobayashi, and Burrows (1954) developed graphical correlations
for estimating the viscosity of natural gas as a function of temperature,

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pressure, and gas gravity. The computational procedure of applying the
proposed correlations is summarized in the following steps:
Step 1. Calculate the pseudo-critical pressure, pseudo-critical
temperature, and apparent molecular weight from the specific gravity or
the composition of the natural gas. Corrections to these pseudocritical
properties for the presence of the nonhydrocarbon gases
(𝐶𝑂2 , 𝑁2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 𝑆) should be made if they are present in concentrations
greater than 5 mole percent.

Step 2. Obtain the viscosity of the natural gas at one atmosphere and the
temperature of interest from figure 2.9. This viscosity, as denoted by m1,
must be corrected for the presence of nonhydrocarbon components by
using the inserts of figure 2.9. The nonhydrocarbon fractions tend to
increase the viscosity of the gas phase. The effect of nonhydrocarbon
components on the viscosity of natural gas can be expressed
mathematically by following relations:
ural gas can be expressed mathematically by the following relationships:
𝜇1 = (𝜇1 )𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 + (∆𝜇)𝑁2 + (∆𝜇)𝐶𝑂2 + (∆𝜇)𝐻2 𝑆……....2.50

Where:
𝜇1 : “corrected” gas viscosity at one atmospheric pressure and reservoir
temperature, cp
(∆𝜇 )𝑁2 : Viscosity corrections due to the presence of 𝑁2
(∆𝜇 )𝐶𝑂2 : Viscosity corrections due to the presence of 𝐶𝑂2
(∆𝜇 )𝐻2 𝑆 : Viscosity corrections due to the presence of 𝐻2 𝑆
(𝜇1 )𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 : Uncorrected gas viscosity, 𝑐𝑝

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Step 3. Calculate the pseudo-reduced pressure and temperature.
Step 4. From the pseudo-reduced temperature and pressure, obtain
viscosity ratio (𝜇𝑔 /𝜇1 ) from figure 2.10. The term 𝜇𝑔 represents
viscosity of the gas at the required conditions.
Step 5. The gas viscosity𝜇𝑔 , at the pressure and temperature of interest is
calculated by multiplying the viscosity at one atmosphere system
temperature by the viscosity ratio.

Figure 2.9 Atmospheric gas viscosity correlations

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Figure 2.10 viscosity ratio correlations

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