Distance Learning Centre AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY ZARIA, NIGERIA (COURSE MATERIAL FOR Course Code & Title: COMM 803/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Programme: MASTERS IN PUBLIC HEALTH (MPH) Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials ia Me '© 2020 Ahmadu Bello University (ABU Zaria, Nigeria All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced in any form or by any meaas, electronic, mechaneal, photocopying, recording or otherse ‘without the prior permission of the Director, Distance Learning Cente, “Abinadu Bello Univesity, Zara, Nigeria. Published and Printed by Ahmad Bello University Press Limited Zaria, Kaduna State, Ngeta, Tel: 08065949711 Eval: abupesslites20082@ yahoo co.uk; shupress201 a gmail.com: Website: wie abupress.org Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials iige Course writers/ Balter Prof, MI Sule ‘Course Materials Development Overseer Dr Usman Abubakar Zaria Subject Matter Expert Dr. Joseph S, Sunday Subject Matter Reviewer Roluamats Shamsiyya Hiya Language Reviewer Enegoloinu Ojokojo Instructional Designers/Graphles Dr. Joseph S. Sunday Course Coordinator Rabianaty Shamsiyyab Ly ODL Expert Prof, Adam Z, Hassan Distance Learning Centre 4 BU, Course Materials Development teamQUOTE chance favours the prepared mind.” Louis Pasteur (December 1854) Distance Learning Centre 4 BU, Course Materials wwTitle P Ackno age ceaeeaeie ywledgement Page > | Copyright Page Course WritersDevelopment Team = TableofContent = = COURSE STUDYGUIDE- I fi Ww vi vi vil is. xl ail Course Information = ‘Course Introduction and Description ~ Course Prerequisites = ‘Course Learning Resources ~ Course Objectives - [Activities fo Meet Course Objectives ‘Time (To complete Sellabus/Course) Grading Criteria and Seale - ‘OER Resources ‘ABU DLC Academe Calendar ‘Course Structure and Outline STUDY MODULES = Contents Module 1: Foundational Aspects of Research Methodology ~ ‘Study Session 1: Introduction o Rescate, Study Session 2: Philosophical Underpinning ‘Study Session 3 Paradigms in Research Study’ Session 4: Qualitative Research Approach ‘Module 2: Qualitative and Quantitative Researel, - Study Session 1: Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis ~~ Study Session 2: Undergoing Qualitative Reseach and Ethics > Study Session 3: Quantitative Research Study Session 4: Sampling Principles and Questionnaires Module 3: Mixed Methods and Writing Aspects of Research = Study’Session I: Mixed Methods. - Shudy Session 2: Waiting and Ordering Dissertation - : Study Session 3: Writ GLOSSARY = =! Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials Research Proposals Study Session 4: Applying for Research GrantsPreamble Whatever contribution one intends to make in the field of Public Health, need to be grounded by evidence. The quality of evidence one uses is linked to the quality of research from which that evidence is obtained from. Consequently, the field of Public Health and whatever contribution you will desire to make is built on the quality of research we produce within our area, We cannot set out to begin any form of research if We are not fully aware of what research entails in its entity. Hence, we have this course to consider significant aspects of research, methodology. The course content will begin by laying foundations necessary for research methodologies by discussing the issue of theoretical underpinnings. This is also refetred 10 as theoretical perspectives or more generally as philosophical ‘underpinnings/foundations/perspectives depending on which material you consult. For the purpose of this course material, the terms philosophical underpinnings will be used to describe ontology, epistemology. axiology and methodology. In each construct, the most common school of thoughts will be presented and their assumptions. We will then walk our way down the list beginning from ontology to methodology. In methodology, we will look into the various methodological approach available in research. Methods will then be the construct to analyse, The misconceptions between methodology and methods will be delineated, Conventional methods used in research will also be discussed, The two common approaches or tools used in answering research questions — qualitative and quantitative approaches. Each approach will be analysed individually towards providing a comprehensive insight into their uniqueness and differences, We then look at these approaches when “mixed” to answer ‘unique research questions in the form of a mixed-methods research approach, Other issues related to research methods will also be covered. These include topics like ethics, writing a research proposal, writing grants, publishing materials in journals and conferences, writing up your dissertations, referencing and plagiarism. As you may have noticed, we have a lot of things to cover in this course, So, brace yourself, and let’s get cracking, Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials viCourse Study Guide i COURSE INFORMATION ‘Course Code: COMM 803 Course Title: Research Methodology Credit Units: 3 Semester: 1” ‘Year of Study: 2020/2021 i, COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION Introduction Research methodology is foundational to every academic pursuit, especially in the field of Public Health where practices, policies and interventions are expected to be backed by a high quality of evidence. This can only be obtained from quality researches carried out within this field. For any researcher to carry out research and produce reliable and credible results, one has to be grounded in the fundamentals of research methodology. The overarching aim of this study, therefore, is for you to get a good background knowledge to research methodology within the fleld of Public Health. You will be introduced 10 various topics within this area to enable you to be able to carry out successful research work. It is imperative to understand that there is a lot to be covered within research methodology and the depth to be covered varies from one area of specialisation to another. Nonetheless, the contents of this course include a diverse range of topics which you will find very useful in carrying out suocessfil research work. There are various activities and links to further resources that will facilitate the leaming process. At the end of this course, itis expected that you will have gained the fundamental knowledge needed regarding research methodology within the field of Public health Description This course introduces the principles of basic and applied research to students and prepares them for their fieldwork. It also equips health managers with the relevant information they need to make decisions on health-related problems they are facing. The course teaches the techniques, practice and new directions for research project management; and gives practical experience with approaches to achieving successful project performance. Students will use Distance Learning Contre 4.B.U, Course Materials viipractical and group work to lear the application of practice project ‘management fo health research, The course will also introduce the student 0 the art of grant proposal writing, and the characteristics of a good or poor grant Proposal and the top reasons why grant proposals may or may not get funded. COURSE PREREQUISITES You should note that although this course has no subject pre-requisite, you are expected to have: Satisfactory level of English proficiency Basic Computer Operations proficiency Online interaction proficiency ‘Web 2.0 and Social media interactive skills Devices eapable of watching and listening to online resources ‘COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES Course Textbooks Davies, M. B. (2007) Doing a Successfil Research Projeet: Using ‘Qualitative or Quantitative Methods. Palgrave Macmillan, Denscombe, M. (2010) Ground Rules for Social Research: Guidelines “for Good Practice. MeGraw-Vill Education (UK). Howiit, D, and Cramer, D. (2007) Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology. Pearson Education Saks, M. and Allsop, J. (2012) Researching Health: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods. SAGE. Sullivan, C., Gibson, S. and Riley, S.C. E. (2012) Doing Your Qualitative Psychology Project. SAGE, Walliman, N. (2010). Research Methods: The Basies. Ist ed, Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9780203836071. Available at 1aps:/edisciplinas.usp.briply 7 eivontent/BLOCO%202_ResearchYs20Methods%20The%20 Basies.pdt (Accessed: 07-09-2019) Course Journals Qualitative Health Research, © SAGE——_Joumals: hitps:/iournals.sagepub.convhome/ahr Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Quantitative Health: hitps:/ech.bmi.com/collection/quantitative-research, Joumal of Mixed Methods Research SAGE. Journals: hips:/ourmals.sagepub.convhome/mmr Other Resources Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials viwww.youtube.com vy. COURSE OBJECTIVES At the end of this course, you should be able to: 1. Understand the concept of research and the research process. 2. Understand philosophical assumptions and research paradigms underpinning research 3. Key approaches in carrying out research such qualitative, {quantitative and mixed method research 4, Describe the process of writing and carrying out dissertation 5. Understand the process of grant application and proposal 6. Explain referencing and plagiarism in research vi ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES This course material contains numerous activities to aid the learning process. There are activities outlined at the end of every study session and others within the context of each study session, The activities are designed in a straightforward and realistic framework to enable you to meet the objectives of the course, Some activities will require consulting further resources beyond those used within this course and in other cases, will require you to set out and ask questions from other colleagues within the academic fieid as well as your department. This is a deliberate attempt to enable you to acquire additional skills that will be relevant when you set out to carry out your fieldwork. There is an ‘open-door approach’ in this research, which means you can consult me though email whenever you need further clarification regarding any activity. However, these activities are presented in a very simplistic further to ensure this is not needed often and also to encourage independent leaming skills required for the completion of this programme. Itis highly recommended that you carry out each activity outlined (whether it appears too simple or complex) as some activities form the foundation for you to develop other relevant scademic skills, In the section on the course outlite, you will find the topic to each session and the detail of the activities to be carried out for that session. Basically, the activities are generally designed to involve: ‘© studying the courseware, ‘© watching some videos through the links provided and answering the questions that follow ‘© reading some additional materials provided through online links ‘© reading some of the recommended resources under the ‘references/further reading’ section after each study session ‘© answering the questions used to recap the content of each study session ‘© tutorials (optional) Distance Learning Centre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials ix‘© Semester examinations vii, TIME TO COMPLETE COURSE CONTENTS: Its difficult to clearly state how many hours are required for you to input into this course, This is because there is a great variation from one student 10 another, depending on how quick one learns and how much one can invest in the process, It is expected that at this level of study, you should be familiar with ‘what best works for you — how long it takes you to assimilate? What time of the day is best for you? How you learn best? And so on, However, on an average, considering this is a three-unit course, it is recommended that you spend minimum of three hours a week (this does not mean three hours of more than half on chatting with friends or surfing social media). vil, GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE A. Formative Assessment Grades will be based on the following: Individual Assignments/Test (CA 1,2 ete) 20 Group Assignments (GCA 1,2 ete) 10 Discussions/Quizzes'Out of Class Engagements ete 10. B. Summative Assessment (Semester Examination) CBT based’ 30 Essay’ bose 30 100% C. Grading Seale 70-100 60-69 50-59 45-49 oad A B c D D. Feedback Courseware based: 1. Self-assessment questions and answers within the course 2. Questions to discuss among colleagues Tutor based: 1. Discussion Forum tutor input 2. Graded Continuous assessments Smdent based: Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials xco Me 1. Online programme assessment (administration, leaming resource. deployment, and assessment), is. LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES (OSS Watch provides tips for selecting an open-source, or for procuring free or open software. SchoolForge and SousceForge are the right places to find, ereate, and publish open software. SourceForge, for one, has millions of downloads each day. Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other organisation like these, help disseminate knowledge. Creative Commons has several open projects. from Khan Academy to Cuuriki where teachers and parents can find educational materials for children or lear about Creative Commons licenses. Also, they recently launched the School of Open that offers courses on the meaning, application, and impact of "openness. ‘Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines exist. Some examples include: OEDh: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of colleges and rankings of college degree programmes Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an academic and general audience OER Commons: aver 40,000 free educational resources from elementary schoo! through to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and high sehool resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards Open Content: a blog. definition, and game of open source as well as a friendly search engine for free educational resources from MIT, Stanford, and other universities with subject and description listings Academie Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on bebalf of UK higher education and is involved in many open resources and open projects including. digitising British newspapers from 1620-1900! Other sources for open education resources Universities The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for Teacher Education (ORBIT) Opent.earn from Open University in the UK Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials xia Me Global Unesco's searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and research. tives ‘African Virtual University (litp:/oceavu.org/) has aumerous modules on subjects in English, French, and Portuguese baups:/icode google com/p/course-builder’ is Google's open-source software that is designed to let anyone create online education courses Global Voices (hitp://slobalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community of bloggers who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world, ineluding on open source and open educational resources Individuals (which include ORs) Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and videos here, includes directories on open source and open educational resources 2 Tech Tools: OERs, from att to special edueation 0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools (0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source software Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age, ‘grade, or subject (why re-invent the wheel?) Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials xiiDistance Learning Centre 4 BU, Course Materials iaN X. DLC ACADEMIC CALENDAR/PLANNER PERIOD : Semester 2 L Semester 3 JON | JUL) AUG | sepT | OCT | Nov | DEC Semester ‘Semester Activity FEB | MAR Registration Resumption Late Registn. Facilitation Revision! Consolidation Semester T Examination ‘Semester Examinations 1"/2"" Week January ~ All Sessions commence Mid-February = 1 Week break between Semesters and 4 Weeks vocation atthe end of the session. Semester 3 is OPTIONAL (Fast-tracking, making up carry-overs & deferments) Distance Learning Centre A.B, Conrse Materials xivi Course Structure Week 1 STUDY MODULE 1 Week 2 Week 3 Ms COURSE STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE 1. Red te courseware forth corresponding stady 2 View the ‘ntps ww utube com wateh=VS0ERIVRE Siac ot the cass activity stated at he end of the study sesion | Seo Read Adtonal materia ‘naps questonyr com blog whatis- ‘seus video vin the convuatch= tins ae Ne perpectvescomentsection-l ____| TD Read te courseware forthe corspoading sty 2 View the video vin the ink nage new youre com wats bkegGUTL gu nips yous som vatch=AsZOSBps50 2 Cary out the class acuvty as stad athe end of the study session 1. Read the courseware forthe comesponding dy Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Materialscoun mata ‘Siu SESHON 1 Reed the courseware Tor he core ponding Week 4 4 | session Tie: [2 View the ideo via the inks Qualitative | hps:/w- youre comvatehPe=ubdN EL WISS Researeh | 5. Carty ote class actity outlined atthe ead of Approach and | thesesion Pata Colleton ‘Suufy Session | 1 Read the connie for te eoresponding Week § “Tide | study seston Qualitative | 2. View the video via te inks Data Analysts | ftps: ew youtube com watehy=DRLAPFIS ox itp: ws: outa comwatshtv=YH1GHD ‘0 a cary th ce iy eine at he co T. Read the courseware for te conesponding Week 6 Title: | study session Undergotag | 2. View the video vin the ink ‘Quamtanve | mys www yourbe com/uatehv—dGeh, fi Research and | 0 etnes | 3. Cary ou tho class activity oulined ato ond ff the study” session using this lnk big sow pensbologtadsy soma! Hog bo redo f301 70s eta ddesunas T. Read the cousetare for the coresponding Day 7 study session Br View" the video via te line ERM 5. Cary ot the clas activity outlined a the end Distance Learning Centre 4.B.U, Course Materialsof he sy eo 41 Road the eine material provided via he Tinks ip odares. ac ruploede Agr. 0111825 pdt Sunde Sesion | T, Read the couneware for te conesponding Day 8 Tie: Sampling | sto session Principles and) | 2. Cary oi the clas ssi ouined a the ed ‘Questionnaires | oft study mater 5. Read the online coaten towgh the ink up rw fo org 2g 3340S us ‘Sud Rend te coureware for te comesponding sud Session Week Sesion |_| 2 View the ideo vn the ink ftps ew out com ats Tide: Mixed | 3. Cary out the clas activity at te end ofthe sty sssea Methods ‘SUSY | I. Rend te coureware forte comeaponding sud Session Week | srupy | Sssiou2 | 2 View he video via th ink ips: war sous com wachV 1.0 Learning Outcomes In addition to being able to position yourself philosophically, which is the prime expectation for this session: you will also be expected at the end of the session tw be able to: 1, Explain the meaning of paradigm in research 2. Describe the critical constructs of philosophical underpinning: © Ontology © Epistemology © Methodology © Axiology 2.0 Main Content: Philosophical Underpinnit 2.1 Meet Mr Paradigm We begin with the word ‘paradigm’ as we start to delve into the philosophical underpinning of research. Paradigms provide a philosophical and methodological insight into any research that is carried out within the field of Public Health or Health Sciences in general. The term paradigm is famously associated with the work of Thomas Kun (1972). The concept describes the ‘way of thinking about or conducting research informed by certain assumptions Paradigms have been developed over several years of study and may evelve or shift in the future, As a framework, paradigms serve as a blueprint for what is to be studied and what methodological approach, as well as methods, will be used towards gaining knowledge. It also informs how the findings of the research ‘conducted will be interpreted in light of existing literature. A paradigm consists of the ontology. epistemology, methodology and methods underpinning a research (Scotland, 2012). The Horse Before the Cart Figure I: Wstration of Puting the Horse Before The Cart Distance Learning Centre 4 BU, Course Materials 13It is imperative that as a researcher, one understands what ontology. epistemology, methodology and methods mean and be able (© position oneself along the philosophical continuum. To be able to do so provides the researcher with a piece of work that is credible and of high quality. In addition, the research is placed in a better position to critique other researchers, justify the chosen research design used in answering the set-out research questions or hypothesis and the rationale for the methodological and ethical (or axiological) decisions taken throughout the research process. Denscombe, 2010, (p.117) highlights the need for philosophical underpinning in any research work: + Underpin the perspective that is adopted on the research topic + Shape the nature of the investigation, its methods and the questions that are asked + Specify what type of things qualify as worthwhile evidence + Determine what kind of conclusions that can, and eannot, be drawn based ‘on the investigation. The time to identify one's philosophical underpinning is crucial to any research work. I find the “horse before the car” illustration useful towards understanding this, Positioning oneself philosophically should be the horse pulling the wagon, One should set out to answer a research question from an informed position rather than seek t0 position oneself based oa what questions the researcher is going to answer. In my experience, I have come across researchers that have an idea of what knowledge they desire to gain through a constructed research question or hypothesis, However, upon having a conversation, they seem to be lost on the philosophical underpinning debate or cannot articulate what side of the continuum they can position themselves, The aim of the subsequent section ‘will be to attempt to delineate in simple terms as possible without delving too deep into the complexity in describing ontology and epistemology as well as present the dominant contrasting paradigms to enable you as a researcher position yoursel. 2.2 AmI Wrong? Often, I listen to some of my post-graduate students try to debate which paradigm they believe is more relevant to the Health Sciences than the other. Take a look at an example of a very famous optical illusion Distance Learning Contre 4.B.U, Course Materials 4Figure 2: The Old Lads Young Lady Optical sion Fun Activity: Can you see both the Old Lady and the Young Lady? You may have to stare atthe picture for a while before you would be able to see both images, For others, it might happen a lot quicker. Yet, for others, no matter hhow long they stare, one of them seems always to elude them. T once had someone in the lass who for the duration of the class did not seem to be able to figure out the young lady ~ all attempts by his colleagues were futile. It was a bit hilarious to wimess how frustrated he was for not being able to see the Old Lady. I like using this illustration because I think it passes the message across really well about the rather unnecessary ‘paradigm war’. Its imelevant to argue ‘what paradigm holds a better position to the other. Each paradigm is a unique \way of thinking about and doing research that rests on particular assumptions, as explained by Kuhn (1972). So, which position is better? None! Which position is wrong? None! It does not matter if you can see both the old and ‘young lady or if you can only see either of the two ~ whichever position your ‘optical nerves decide to interpret, for what you know, you are as right as any other’. To have this at the back of our minds is to be able to have respect for whatever research approach is adopted and the unique knowledge gained Uuough systematically applying that position to research, Granted, one paradigm is more popular and seem to gain more acceptance especially within a Nigerian contextual setting as well as the broader world of scientific research, (ve will delineate this further going forward); however, popularity does not equate to superiority. The argument presented here is that each is unique in its own right and when systematically applied can offer valuable knowledge towards advancing a chosen area of research, 2.3 Key Constructs of Philosophical Underpinning Following the explanation of paradigm and establishing that none is more important than the other, we now take a more in-depth look: into each construct 2 Noahs oot pli Go aba seltivim ft udersating the divert of oping avapro in auseerng a pci ee problem Distance Lenrning Centre 4. U, Course Materials Is— Me Recall, the concepts associated with philosophical underpinning include ‘ontology, epistemology, methodology and axiology. Ontology ‘Ontology originates from the Greek words onto — being: that which is and logia ~ logical discourse. It is a word that describes the branch of metaphysies that ‘concems itself with the nature of being. Ontology deals with the study of being and of meaning. It is our way of knowing what is real, nature or reality. It answers the question: what is out there to be known? It is what one believes to be ‘true’ in terms of the central interest to the discipline. It answers the ‘question: ‘what is it that we believe exist? (Butts and Rich, 2013)" ‘Ontologically, there are two primary schools of thoughts. On the one hand, we have those that put forward the argument that ‘reality’ is independent of the mind /thoughts/beliefs and that objects exist independent of the knower. This is the argument put forward by those who hold a position referred to as “realism” and by implication are called “realist”. The otler school of thought from an ontological perspective is relativism. Relativists assert that our view of reality is subjective and differs from one individual to another (Guba and Lincoln, 2005). Relativism posits that our existence is informed by our senses and how we engage With our consciousness in interpreting the reality around us. From a relativist position, the realty is individualistic and can vary from one individual to another. To this end, individuals may construct realty differently. Figure 3: Ontological Postonngs Epistemology The other philosophical position following ontology is epistemology. Epistemology concerns itself with the nature and forms of knowledge. ‘Assumptions that are epistemologically driven seek to ascertain how knowledge is created, gained and disseminated, The position deals with questions stich as: how do we know? How do we create knowledge? How do we share created knowledge? According to Butts and Rich (2013) is the study of knowing, of Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials 16determining what knowledge is and how that knowledge is relevant and related to existing literature. Epistemology also deals with the relationship between the researcher and the “researched” or the researcher and participants in terms of how sought knowledge is co-created. Similar to an ontological standing, there are to significant positions epistemologically ~ objectivism and subjectivism (or interpretivism: see Figure 3). Objectivism assumes knowledge is out there, and the aim of a researcher is to find it out. This is achieved independent of having a relationship with the participants or actors. An objectivist approaches research as one who is impartial and therefore seeks to acquire absolute knowledge about objective reality. The subjectivist, on the other hand, does not approach research withthe assumption of impartiality instead the researcher recognises his position and assumes knowledge is not absolute and can only be created from interactions between humans and their world, Subjectivism advocates for the com construction of knowledge based on back and forth interactions between the researcher and participants Figure 4 Epistenologieal Postionings Axiology Axiology is another aspect of philosophical underpinnings, but unlike ontology and epistemology that we have already introduced, this concept is somewhat less commonly discussed with many kinds of literature. Axiology deals with the value a researcher approaches all the phases present in the entire research Distance Learning Centre 4.B.U, Course Materials ”process. It discusses the importance the researcher places on the relationship between being the researcher and the participants (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005). Axiology describes the ethical perspectives of the research process. It seeks to answer the question of value. The vale a researcher adopts for a research process is built on the researcher's ontological and epistemological stand points. This point will become more apparent when we begin to discuss in detail the dominant paradigms and how they position themselves philosophically. ‘Nonetheless, for this section, it is imperative to bear in mind that a researcher can either consider themselves “value-neutral’ which means that they hold a position of being unbiased through the research process. On the opposite side are researchers that argue that one cannot detach themselves from the research process and by implication argue against being unbiased. They consider themselves to be ‘value-laden’ and maintain that value through the research ‘process is not a concept that can be eliminated It is essential to bear in mind that the ontological assumptions of a researcher align with the epistemological and well as. the axiological assumptions philosophically for a research or a researcher to be considered credible. This is in addition to the other advantages, a philosophical underpinning clearly stated and identified adds to research work (see Denscombe, 2010). ‘Now that we have provided an overview of the philosophical underpinnings used in Research Methods ~ ontology. epistemology and axiology; we are now going to consider the significant paradigms in research and how each paradigm aligns philosophically. 3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion We have covered a lot of grounds in this session, looking into the philosophical underpinning of research. We began by defining what a paradigm is based on the work of Thomas Kuhn. We then looked at the concepts that make up a paradigm, These are ontology, epistemology, methodology and axiology (in other words, all the -logies), It is crucial that as a researcher, one can position themselves philosophically This was the primary aim of this session, and therefore, each of the concepts, was discussed in detail, including the opposing views of each concept and their line of thoughts. We also unpicked a common misconception within the more Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials 1s— Me extensive academic body about which approach is viewed more superior or preferred than the other under the heading ‘arn I wrong?” 4.0 Self-Assessment Questions 1, How would you position yourself philosophical through the lens of ontology. epistemology and axiology? What are some of the reasons for your answer? 2. What does each of these terms mean: paradigm, ontology, epistemology, methodology, and axiology 3. Why is it imperative that a researcher firstly familiarise themselves with each, philosophical construct before undergoing a research process? 6.0 References/Further Reading Butts, J. B. and Rich, K. L. (2013) Philosophies and Theories for Advanced Nursing Practice. Jones & Bactlet Publishers Denscombe, M. (2010) Ground Rules for Social Research: Guidetines for Good Practice. MeGraw-Hill Education (UK), Denzin, N. K, and Lincoln, Y. 8. (2008) The SAGE Handbook of Quatirative Research. SAGE. Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. 8. (2011) The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. SAGE. Guba, E, G. and Lincoln, Y. S, (2005) *Paradigmatic Controversies, ‘contradictions, and emerging confluences. In Denzin N.K and Lincoln YS (eds,)’, in Handbook of Qualitative Research. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 191-215. Howitt, D. and Cramer, D. (2007) Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology. Pearson Education. Lincoln, Y. S. and Guba, E.G. (1985) Namratistic Inquiry. SAGE, Saks, M. and Allsop, J. (2012) Researching Health: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods. SAGE. Scotland, J. (2012) “Exploring the Philosophical Underpinnings of Research: Relating Ontology and Epistemology to the Methodology and Methods of Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials 19oo Me the Scientific, Interpretive, and Critical Research Paradigms", English Language Teaching, 5(9), pp. 9-16. Sullivan, C.. Gibson, S. and Riley. S.C. E. (2012) Doing Your Qualitative Psychology Project. SAGE. Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials »Study Session 3 Research Paradigms Section and Subsection Headings: Introduction 1.0 Leaming Outcomes 2.0 Main Content: Philosophical Underpinning 2.1 The Binary Paradigms 2.2 Methodology and Methods 2:3 Research Onion 30 Study Session Summary and Conclusion 4.0 Self-Assessment Questions 5.0 Adkltional Activities 6.0 Refereuces/Further Reading Introduction This study session is a follow-up to what we have looked at in study session 2. It will be ideal to have a read through the last material for a quick reliesher if ‘you cannot remember precisely the things we covered, As a build-up to the previous session, this session will now look at the opposing binary paradigms (and those in-between) following the concepts of ontology, epistemology and axiology and how each person within these schools consider these constructs Two easily interchangeable terms — methodology and methods will be discussed, and their difference highlighted. Lastly, the session will conclude ‘with a quick overview of the research onion, which can be used as a framework to help guide the process of research. 1.0 Learning Outcomes At the end of the session, itis expected that you will be able to 1. Position yourself within a paradigm 2. Differentiate between methodology and methods 3. Explain the use of the research onion as a framework to guide the research process 2.0 Main Content: Philosophical Underpinning 2.1 The Binary Paradigms Within the field of Health Sciences are the binary poles of positivism and intempretivism with others lying between them. These ends of the continwum espouse two significant approaches to conducting research. They have varying Distance Learning Contre 4.B.U, Course Materials aassumptions in terms of ontology, epistemology, axiology, methodology and methods. Positivism Positivism is the weightier side of the pole, ie. it is more common among Health Science researches and probably the broader field of research in general compared to that of interpretivism, especially in developing countties like Nigeria. The philosophical assumption of positivism ontologically adopts realism, epistemologically it adopts objectivism and approaches axiology tuough a value-free or value-neutral lens. Methodologically (methodology will be delineated subsequently), positivism employs methodological approaches that are embedded within the scientific framework and are linked to quantitative methods. To put this as naturally as possible, is to say: Ontology (if you recall) deals with how one sees nature or reality — what is the truth? To this end, a positivist adopts realism. This means a positivist researcher assumes reality is independent of the researcher's mind: it exists outside the mind of the researcher. This then leads a positivist researcher to epistemologically assume that one needs to set out and find knowledge out or ereate knowledge. A. positivist considers the relationship between the researcher and the participant (or subject as a commonly used positivist erm) should be “distant” and aimed primarily at gaining that objective knowledge. Again, this then axiologically conditions the positivist researcher to adopt a value-free or unbiased tendency towards creating this knowledge. Positivism ean be traced back to the Enlightenment and the growth of the Natural Sciences. The goal then was a paradigm shift from theological assumptions to that sort knowledge by being able to conceptualise the natural laws that the natural world operates from. Pioneers of this form of knowledge enquiry include sociologists such as Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim. These scholars set out to gain knowledge through scientific enquiry. They had the aim of developing concepts and also theories through their approach to gaining knowledge. The positivist paradigm is most common among biomedical sciences and social sciences. The aim is usually to accept or refute a hypothesis. This is generally referred to a3 a deduetive approach to gaining knowledge. There is also a clear research design with which the researcher detached from the subjects aim to achieve. This distant between researchers and subjects are also tied to the way positivists see people involved in their research. Recall they adopt a value-free stance axiologically. To this end, they see participants, especially those involved in clinical research as subjects partaking in research. Patients are seen Distance Lenrning Contre 4.B.U, Conrse Materials 2