Chapter l7

ALKALIC-TYPE EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS _ A REVIEW

Jeremy P. Richards
Department of GeologXt,(Jniversity of Leicester,
University Road, Leicester, LEI TRH, UK

INTRoDUcTIoN HISToRYoF MoDEL DnvnIoplr,TnNr

"alkalic-type"
The term is a lessthan wholly Bonham& Giles (1983)first drew attentionro
satisfactorylabel for a variety of epithermal an associationbetween Au-Te-rich epithermal
gold-rich depositsthat are associated with igneous deposits and alkalic rocks. This paper was
rocks of alkalic affinity. The problem is followed by the simultaneous publication of
immediately apparent:how do we define"alkalic" abstractsby Bonham(1984) and Mutschleret al.
in this context?Even igneouspetrologistscannot (1984), who elaboratedon the theme and listed
agreeon a single definition for this term, and several important characteristicsof the deposits
competingclassification schemes use various (Table I ). These characteristicsincluded the
measuresof silica content, alkali content, or presence of quartz-carbonate-fl uorite-orthoclase
discriminantsbased on trace elements,to dis- ("adularia") alteration,high Au/Ag ratios with Au
tinguishalkalic rocks from other igneoussuites. commonly present in Au-Ag tellurides, and
Whatis [Link] that the limits relatively low sulfur and base-metalabundances.
of the rangeof alkalic rocks as surveyedby the Mutschler et al. (1984) and Werle et al. (1984)
petrologist will haveonly limited relevanceto the further suggestedthat such epithermal systems
rangeof rock types associatedwith alkalic-type may grade downwards into porphyry-type Cu -
gold deposits. In the context of epithermial precious-metaldeposits associatedwith alkali
deposits,therefore, the term 'alkalic' is used gabbrosand syenites,an idea ventured earlier by
simply in recognitionof a broad associationof Bonham & Giles (1983). The contrast between
gold depositswith igneous rocks of relatively these types of deposit and the more clearly
high alkali-elementcontent and also, typically, defined acid-sulfate and adularia-sericiteepi-
relativelyhigh volatile content. thermal systems was recognized by Heald-
In the following discussions, the existenceof Wetlaufer et al. (1983), and later by Hayba et al.
a direct geneticrelationshipbetweenalkalic-type (1985) and Heald et al. (1987), but no detailed
epithermalgold depositsand the associated alkalic comparisonof mineralizationstyles was offered.
magmatism is taken as a working premise. Both Mutschleret al. (1985) and Bonham (1986)
Perhapsaloneamongthe epithermaldeposittypes, subsequently expandedon their theses,and it was
the alkalic group can supportthis argumentwith then that Bonham first coined the term
leastquestion. "alkalic-type"
to describe this mineral-deposit
This contribution firstly summarizes the [Link] model was further refined to
characteristics of some well-known examplesof acknowledge the common presence of the
alkalic-type epithermal mineralization (Cripple vanadium-micaroscoelitein vein and alteration
Creek,Colorado;Coloradomineral belt; Montana assemblages,and potential association with
alkalic province;Porgera,Mt. Kare, and Ladolam, alkalic rocks as diverse as syenites,trachytes,
PapuaNew Guinea; Emperor,Frji). The relative phonolites,and shoshonites.A schematiccross-
importanceof someof thesecharacteristics is then section(Bonham 1986; Fig. l) emphasizedthe
discussed,with a view to isolating unifying importanceof stockworkveins and hydrothermal
factorsin the processofore genesis. brecciasin the depositstructure,with a locus of

361
J.P. Richards

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 Epi t hermul Gold Deposi t,s
Bedded exolosion breccia

Breccia pipe
(Hg-Sb-As)

Stockwork breccia
[Link]: silicification and
stockwork veins with Au-Ao-
tellurides,quartz, lluorite,
pyrite, haomatite

I
Orezone:Au-Agtellurides,
pyrite,r ars€nopyrite,
minor
/ bas metalsulphides,haemdite
1km /
Propylilicalleralion ---7+/
witti disserinated
pyrile /
Hydrolhermal breccia veins
with quarlz tluorite, adularia,
carbonate, roscoelile

Narrowalteralionzone:adularia,
carbonate,sericile,pyrite,
smeclite,roscoelte
10m

+
| -5 kn depth: alkalicpophyry
+++
+ (syenite lo phonolite) with pos
+++++
++++++
t++++++
+++++++++++++++++++++++

Figure l. Schematicmodelof an alkalic-typeAu-Ag deposit(afterBonham 1986).

ore deposition intermediate between deeper Au systemswere based largely on the Cripple
alkalic porphyry-type activity, and shallow Creek(Colorado)and Emperor(Frji) deposits,and
volcanism. Many of these characteristicswere mines in the central Montana alkalic province.
summarizedby Cox & Bagby (1986) in their Sincethen, a numberof other depositshave been
descriptive model for Au-Ag-Te veins, with recognizedas belonging to this suite, including
further expansion of the range of associated the Porgera,Mt. Kare, and Ladolam depositsin
igneous rocks to include diorites and certain Papua New Guinea. It is, however, difficult to
lamprophyres. Finally, a recentreview of selected know where to draw the boundary between
depositcharacteristics by Jaireth(1991) included alkalic-typeand other epithermal mineralization
summariesof stableisotopicand fluid-inclusion [Link] the purposesof this review, therefore,
data pertainingto fluid sourcesand depositional the characteristicsof a selectionof well-studied
mechanisms (Table1). depositsthat fall well within the bounds of the
As with all such models, the setting up of alkalic categoryare summarizedbelow.
criteria invites the recognitionof exceptions,and
'permitted'
with each new discovery further Cripple Creek, Colorado
criteriahave [Link] the wide diversity The Cripple Creek gold deposit was the
of potentialsource-rockcompositionsfor deposits subject of early studies by Cross & Penrose
is
in this class,this expansionof the classification (1895), Lindgren & Ransome (1906), and
hardlysurprising. Loughlin & Koschmann(1935),who focussedon
detailed description and [Link] few
BxnMpLsS OF ALKALIC-TYPEEPITHERMAL papers publishedsince then have addressedthe
GOIn DEPOSITS more modern subjectsof geochemistryand fluid
evolution (Gott et al. 1969; Boyle 1979
The early models of alkalic-typeepithermal Thompsonet al. 1985 Thompson 1992).

369
J.P. Richards

Figure 2. Sketchmap showingthe

location of the Colorado mineral
I::::::'::|
belt and Cripple Creek (after
| : : . . 1 : 9 9 9 1 _ 9 EC
qOUNTY
S a u n d e r 1s 9 9 1 ) .
",t't'l#,3Xt19.t-.
cENrBAr

ffi
\l?SWooffi. AE \

The Cripple Creek deposit is hosted by an common in the northerndiatreme;and stratiform

alkalic volcanic center related to extensional depositshosted by tuffs and sediment horizons
tectonismassociated with the Rio Granderift, and mainly within the easterndiatreme.
has K-Ar agesrangingfrom 34 to 28 Ma (cited in Vein-type deposits(e.g., Elkton, Vindicator,
Thompson e/ a/. 1985; Fig. 2). The volcanic Ajax) occurin sheetedsetsofnarrow veinlets,and
center is representedby a brecciatedmass of are characterized by unusualverticalcontinuityof
Precambriancountry rocks and Tertiary volcanic up to 1 km. The veins display five stages of
fragments, interdigitatedwith phonolitic pyro- mineralization(Thompsonet al. 1985). Stage 1
clastics. and lacustrine and fluvial sediments. quartz-fluorite-adularia-pyritedeposition was
Depositionof this breccia occurredin subsiding associatedwith hot, saline, CO2-bearingfluids
basins related to the development of three (fluid-inclusion homogenizationtemperaturesi"1,
"C; salinitiesfrom 33 to 40 eq.
[Link] breccia and diatremes from 206oto 510
were subsequently cut by a series of [Link] NaCl). Stage 2 base-metal sulfide-
penecontemporaneous alkalic intrusions(Fig. 3) quartz-pyrite, and stage 3 quartz-fluorite-
ranging from early stocks of phonotephrite, pyrite-hematite-rutile deposition was accom-
phonolite, and trachy'te,to later alkali basalt and panied by more dilute fluids (0-8.3 eq. vtt-Yo
lamprophyredykes (monchiquite and vogesite). NaCl), with steadily decreasing temperatures
Thompsonet at. (1985) proposedthat the rangein fallingto -140 'C (T) by stage4. Duringthis last
magmatic compositions resulted from mixing stage,Au was depositedas calaveritealong with
betweenphonoliticand alkali basalticmagmas.A quartz,pyrite, rutile, and [Link] el
"Cresson blowout", al. (1985) suggestedthat boiling occurredduring
small diatreme body, the
appearsto be coevalwith late dyke emplacement all four stageswith a coupledfall in temperature
as it contains a high proportion of basaltic and salinity, and that pressuresduring stage 4
fragments,as well as being crosscutby dykes. It were [Link] vein filling was charac-
has been suggestedthat the blowout may be terized by low-temperature quartz-fluorite-
phreatomagmatic in origin, resulting from dolomite [Link] wallrock alteration
interaction between groundwatersand the mafic associatedwith these veins consistsof adularia,
magmas(ThomPsonet al. 1985). roscoelite,sericite,pyrite,and Fe-Ti oxides.
Four main types of mineraldeposithave been In the Cresson blowout, hydrothermal
recognizedby Thompson (1992): vein deposits, minerals were precipitated interstitially to the
which occur throughout the complex; diatreme- heterolithic breccia fragments of the diatreme.
hosted deposits, such as those hosted by the These breccia cements are characterizedby an
Cressonblowout; hydrothermalbrecciadeposits, early adularia-quartz-pyrite-hematite-marcasit

310
 Epithermul Gold Deposits

Cresson
Blowout
3000

Elevation
(m)

2000

Granodiorite(Precambrian) Phonolile Maficdyke

CrippleCreekBreccia Syenite Vein
Lacustrine& fluvialfacies Alkalibasalt Fault(known/inlerred)
I rtita-nh^n^lila Brecciatedbasalt 'I
km

Figure3. Geologicalcross-section
throughthe CrippleCreekvolcaniccomplex(afterThompsonet at. 1985)

assemblage, intermediate celestine-dolomite- blagesresultedfrom lateralflow of hydrothermal

quaftz-fluoriteand base-metalsulfides,and late fluids along these relatively permeable strata
qvartzlchalcedony/opalwith native gold and wherethey were intersectedby vein systems.
[Link] temperatures and salinities
rangedfrom 131" to ll5 "C and <3 eq. wt.o/o Colorado Mineral Belt
NaCf, with periodic boiling (Thompson 1992). Gold-telluride mineralization was first
Propylitic alteration of the breccia wallrocks discoveredin the Boulderand La Platacountiesof
seemsto pre-datemineralization. Colorado during the I 870s and I 880s, and the
Hydrothermal breccia deposits seem to be intenselymineralizedstretchof ground between
restrictedto areascappedby intrusiveplagioclase these two districts has become known as the
phonolite,which may haveactedas a perrneability Coforado mineral belt (Fig. 2). This -425-
barrier causing build-up of fluid [Link] km-long NE-SW-trendingbelt marks a zone of
brecciasformed at shallow levels and involved intense Late Cretaceous-Tertiary (Laramide)
oxidized fluids. The heterolithic clasts are igneousactivity that cuts across the main N-S
cementedby quartz,Fe and Mn oxides,celestine, grain of the Colorado mountains,and has been
barite,anhydrite,and carbonates, with base-metal interpreted as a reactivated shear zone in the
sulfides,native gold, and minor [Link] Precambrianbasement (Tweto & Sims 1963
leastsomeof the oxidation is secondary,and may Warner 1978). Magmatism was long-lived,
haveresultedin break down of telluridesto leave widespread,and variedthroughoutthis region,but
native gold. Thompson (1992) interpretedthe gold-telluride mineralizationseems to be most
brecciasas near-surface equivalentsof the deeper closely associatedwith the later phasesof this
vein systems, and reported fluid-inclusion activity (e.g., 44-59 Ma in the Boulder district,
temperatures and salinitiesof <l 90 'C (T) and <8 54-59 Ma in Central City, and 65-10 Ma in La
[Link].o/o NaCl, plus significantCO2. Plata; Rice et al. 1982;Gable 1985; Saunders&
Stratiformdepositshostedby sedimentaryand May 1986,and references therein;Spry 1987).
tuffaceoussequenceswithin the Cripple Creek Theselate intrusivephasesare dominantlyof
diatremehave not been studiedas extensivelyas alkalic affinity, and consistof syeniteand alkali
the previoustypes,perhapsbecauseof their lower syenite, diorite, monzonite, trachyte, bostonite
gold productivity. Thompson (1992) suggested, (alkali feldspar syenite),and biotite latite (e.g.,
[Link] Au valuesassociated with extensive Simmons& Hedge1978).In additionto the gold-
silicic, potassic, and argillic alteration assem- telluride deposits, fluorite breccia pipes,

371
 lF

J.P. Richctrds

minerals sylvanite,petzite, hessite,and ttative

stockworkMo-Au deposits,and pyritic gold veins
gold,plusten othertellLrrides
are also closely associatedwith tliese intrusions and varioussulfides
(Kelly & Goddard 1969; Rice et al. 1985; and [Link] mitrerals are predomi-
S a u n d e rls9 9 l ) . nantly quatlrz,locally lvith adularia, roscoelite,
fluorite, barite, ankerite, and calcite. Wallrock
An extensiveliteratureexistson the Colorado
alteration is characterized by sericitization,
mineral belt, but for brevity only tlie Boulder
silicification,pyritization,and distal argillization.
County deposits,which seemto be representative
In broad terms, rnineral deposition began with
of the belt as a whole, are discussedin detail here'
The reader is referredto papersby Werle et al'quarlz,and was followed by base-rnetalsulfides
(1984) and Saunders& May (1986) for useful with adularia. roscoelite, fluorite' and barite.
Sulfosaltswere depositedat the end of the sulf-ide
descriptionsof depositsin the La Plata district,
stage,and precededthe main telluride ore stage'
and to Rice e/ a/. (1985),Dickin et al. (1986), and
Spry (1987) for deposits in the Central City The occurrenceof native Te among the telluride
district. minerals, followed by a stage of rrative gold
deposition,is [Link] vein-fillingsconsist
Gold depositsof the BoulderCounty district
have been described by Lovering & Goddard of carbonatesand chalcedony,plus late (possibly
(1950), Kelly & Goddard (1969), and more supergene) gypsumand opal. Overall' the veins
recently by Saunders(1991)' Among the best representanomalousenrichrnerrtsin Au, Ag, Te,
known of these deposits are the Gold Hill' Hg, As, Sb, Mo, Cu, Pb, Zn, F, V' and Ni
Jamestown,and Magnolia gold-telluridemines ( S a u n d e rls9 9 l ) .
which operated extensively prior to 1900, but Fluid-inclusionstudies (Kelly & Goddard
1969; Nash & Cunningham 19'731- Geller &.
whicli still provokeoccasionalexplorationinterest
Atkinson 1991; Saunders199| , and references
(Fig. a). With the exceptionof Magnolia'at which
therein) have shown that early vein fluids may
no intrusive rocks are exposed' each of these oC and
depositsis closelyassociated have had temperaturesas high as 375
with Tertiaryalkalic
stocks:examplesare the 54-44 salinitiesbetween20 and 28 eq. wt.% NaCl; in
Ma alkali syenite
o/o
Sunset Stock near Gold Hill, and the 45 Ma addition,CO2-richfluid inclusions(ll-23 mole
syenitePorphyryMountain stock nearJamestowtl CO2) have been reportedin early fluorite veins.
Temperaturesand salinitiesfell progressivelyto
( G a b l e 1 9 8 5 ; S a u n d e r s1 9 9 1 ) . T h e l o c u s o f
intrusionand subsequentrnineralizationseemsto<250 "C and 3 to 6 [Link] by tlte startof
the main telluridestage,and continuedto fall,
be controlled in the first order by a prominent "C during depositionof
series of NW-trending normal and strike-slip perhapsto below 100
faults ("breccia reefs" of Lovering & Goddardnative gold. Carbon dioxide concentrationsalso
fell progressivelyover this period. Pressuresare
1950),but in detailthe gold depositsare localized
estimatedto have beenbetween200 and 360 bars
by a set of youngerNE-trendingbrecciatedcross-
faults. Lovering & Goddard(1950) proposedthat(650 to 1300 m in depth). Although Nash &
Cunningham(1973)reporledthe presenceof early
the brecciareefsactedas primary conduitsfor the
vapor-and CO2-richfluid inclusionssuggestiveof
ore fluids, but that their shearedand quartz-sealed
phase separation,Saunders(1991) reportedno
nature prevented significant ore deposition' In
fluid-inclusionevidencefbr boiling during gold
contrast,where thesefluids flowed into the more
open NE faults, ore minerals were depositedasand telluride deposition. Nevertheless, the
brecciatednature of the veins arrd the high CO2
brecciacementsand open-spacefillings' Optirnal
contentof the early fluids are stronglysuggestive
settingsfor ore depositionwere intersectionsof
that phase separation, perhaps prornoted by
the veins with other structuresor brittle wallrocks
(e.g., granite).where maximum brecciationand depressurizationas fluids flowed out of the
cavity formationwas achieved. brecciareefsand into the openNE,faults (Kelly &
was an important precipitation
Parageneticstudies by Kelly &' Goddard Goddard 1969),
mechanism. Saunders (1991) proposedthat the
(1969) revealed a complex sequenceof sixty-
telluride deposits are the distal products of
seven vein minerals, including the main ore

1 1 4
J I L
 Epithermal Gold Deposits

Figure 4. Geolgicalsketch
o'u* t"'i'"{t"'t"ry) porohvrv map of the BoulderCounty
f2fl \ Mountain
stock
gold district(afterSaunders

[fi-l]
\ffi :r rar
ffi:l::.j',:fl{ifli:"-'
(roniary
c,"noo'onr6 oru c,€tac€ousr j;;F";;''', z -
:re\
leel).

f*-lp,otu,o.o,"granrte,schrsr,9n61ss [;1;;;1;;;;;;{
x Go,ddeposjr rz (^ ..
t,1rir1r:r:r.^

,"at ;

L
magmatic-hydrothermal systemsassociatedwith centers may have been controlled by the
coeval monzonitic and syenitic intrusions, the intersectionof major WNW- and NNE-trending
fluorite breccia pipes and stockwork Mo-Au lineaments (e.g., Smith 1965:-Zhang & Spry
depositsrepresentingmore proximal faciesof this 1994). Several of the centers show intrusive
activity(Fig. 5). Werle et ol. (1984)proposedthat activity spanning3 to 4 Ma or longer, as in the
the parentalmagmafor theseintrusionswas alkali casesof the Judith, Moccasin,and Little Rocky
basalticin composition,with differentiationin a [Link] each district, Au mineralizationis
crustal magma chamber giving rise to volatile- relatedto the final stagesof igneousactivity, and
enrichedmonzonite-syenite melts from which the there is a correlationbetweenthe magnitudeand
mineralizing fluids were derived. longevityof intrusiveactivity, and the abundance
and diversityof the associatedmineralization.
Central Montana Alkalic Province Three main types of Au depositoccur in the
Gold mineralization in the central Montana province (Giles 1982): (1) intrusion-hosted
alkalic province has been reviewed by Giles disseminated auriferous pyrite (e.9., Zortman-
(1982; Fig. 6). The province is one of several Landusky,Little Rocky Mountains,Neihart,Little
manifestations of CretaceousTertiary back-arcor Belt Mountains);(2) stockworksand brecciated
flat-slab magmatism located along the Rocky veins of auriferous quartz-pyrite at intrusive
Mountain foreland, which peaked in activity at contacts (e.g., Gies and Spotted Horse mines,
-50 Ma (Dudas 1991;O'Brienet al. 1991;Baker Judith Mountains); and (3) limestone- and
1992). Magmatism is characterizedby scattered, dolomite-hosted disseminated replacement
small intrusive centers consistingof dioritic or deposits adjacent to porphyry contacts (".9.,
monzonitic stocks, laccoliths or phacoliths of Kendall mine, North Mocassin Mountains;Gilt
mafic syenite and granite, lamprophyric sills and Edge mine, Judith Mountains). No single
dykes, and kimberlitic diatremesand ultramafic mineralizationstyle is uniqueto any given district,
dyke swarms. Localization of these igneous and more than one style may be presentin any

) tJ
 !t

J.P. Richards

Figure 5. Schematicmodel for gold

/_, deposition in the Jamestown sub-
/ Ftuonte
-" b;;i; district of the Colorado mineral belt
prql (afterSaundersl99l).

\ Groundwaters

\/
/iiri;irtlvitlitlii'i,i,i
N?
individualdeposit. (seealsoWhite & Lawless1989).
The Zortman and Landusky deposits have In a recentstudy of the Gies Au-Ag-telluride
beendescribedby Giles (1982),Hastings(1988), deposit in the Judith Mountains,Zhang & Sp.y
Wilson & Kyser (1988), Ryzak (1990)' and (1994) came to similar conclusions about the
Russell ( I 991). Mineralization occurs in origin of this deposit. Mineralization occurs in
stockworks, brecciated shear zones' and quartz veins near the sedimentarycontacts with
disseminationsin alteredand fracturedintrusions syenite and quartzmonzonitestocks,and tinguaite
of syenite porphyry. These intrusionsform part of (aegirine-phonolite)dykes,which havebeendated
the Little Rocky Mountains complex, which variably between 54 and 69 Ma. There is a
consists of porphyritic syenites and trachyte particularly close associationbetween the veins
dykes, plus rhyolites, qvartz latites, and and tinguaite dykes, which show mutually
rhyodacites. The complex has been dated at crosscutting relationships. A preferred age
between6l and 64Ma(quoted in Hastings1988)' estimateof -59 Ma for mineralizationis proposed
Early silicification,argillization,and pyritization by Zhang & Spty (1994), based on the age of
of the host rocks was followed by depositionof roscoelite at the nearby Spotted Horse deposit.
quartzwith base-metaland silver sulfides' native Fluid-inclusionand stable isotopic data indicate
gold, and Au-Ag tellurides (petzite, hessite, progressive mixing between magmatic and
sylvanite,krennerite,and calaverite)in veins and evolved meteoric waters, resulting in a fall in
oC during early quartz-
breccias. The ore stage was followed by temperaturefrom -300
"C
widespreadpotassic alteration (K-feldspar) and pyrite-roscoelite-carbonatedeposition, to -225
quartz veining, with introduction of fluorite during the main stage of Au-Ag- telluride and
(Ryzak 1990).Although Wilson & Kyser (1988) base-metal sulfide mineralization. Subsequent
have arguedon the basisof Sr isotopicsignatures nativegold depositionwith sulfidesand sulfosalts
that Au was derived from the Precambrian probably occurred at even lower temperatures
basement, most other workers hold to the (170-180'C). Fluid salinitiesrangedbetween5.7
traditionalview that the ore-formingsystemswere and 8.0 [Link].
geneticallyrelatedto the spatiallyand temporally
associated magmatic activity. Russell (1991) Porgera and Mt. Kare Deposits, Papua New
proposedthat Au was depositedduring mixing Guinea
Low-gradeoccurrences of disseminatedgold
tetween oxidized meteoric groundwaters and
highly reduced metalliferousfluids of probable have been known in the Porgeraarea since 1945,
"C but the depositonly becameof economicinterest
magmatic origin, at temperaturesbelow 250

314
 Epit her mal Gold Deposits

- - - -:-'.- - - - - - - -
e,.-,^-=*'l-
-
X1'.= j' a ^tr4.s-t \ United States Figure 6. Sketch map of
yl::- . E u I I"e \ I
Hittsp*'.t".[" the central Montana
\r-.y* alkalic province (after
\
G i l e sl 9 8 2 ) .

illsl., {1, -J;i: t\HF**

O Little Belt Mts. Sl9*v
_g Mts.

Intrusiveignous complexes
Intrusive€xtrusiveigneouscdnplexes

after the discovery of high-grade vein-hosted deposit,rnay be controlled in detail by deep

mineralizationin 1982-1983 (Fleminget at. 19g6; cross-orogen (NE-SW) structures. potassium_
Handley 1981; Handley & Henry 1990). The argondatingof alterationmineralsassociated with
depositis spatiallyand temporallyassociated
with Au mineralizationat porgera indicates an age
a LateMiocenehypabyssalmafic alkalic intrusive range from 5.1 to 6.1 Ma. This range may have
complex, emplaced in poorly consolidated been broadened by loss or inheritance of
Jurassic-Cretaceousshelf sediments of the radiogenicAr, however, and it is thought that
northeasternAustralasian palaeo-plate margin hydrothermalactivity probably o..urr"J within
(Fig. 7). These supracrustalrocks were involved 0.5 Ma of the time of magmaticemplacement
in collision orogenesisprior to and following (Richards& McDougall 1990).
emplacement of the Porgeramagmasat 6.0 + 0.3 The Porgeraintrusive complex comprisesa
Ma, which resulted in thin-skinnedfolding and suiteof small spheroidalstocks(typically <500 m
thrusting, with no penetrative deformation or in diameter)and raredykes,which were emplaced
metamorphism at currently exposed levels. into the soft carbonaceous
and calcareoussiltstone
Porgeralies -25 km from a major Oligocene-age sequencesabove a larger mid-crustal magma
suturezone (the Stolle-LagaipFault; Fig. 7), but chamber (Fig. 8). The existenceof this source
its location, and that of the nearby Mt. Kare pluton is inferred from geophysical and

3t5
.[Link]

Figure 7. Geologicalmap of the

Porgera - Mt. Kare region, with
inset showing the location within
PapuaNew Guinea marked by a
,)F.
star (after Brunker & Caithness
ffi 1 9 9 0 ;R i c h a r d se t a l . 1 9 9 0 ) .S L F -
30'sl-...'i
r-
cifi
\'.../
Stolle-Lagaipfault.

(Quaternary)
Alluvium/colluvium '10kilornetres
AlkalicAabbrosetc (L. Miocen€)
Nipa Groupmudstones& limeslones(Mocene-Oligocen€) N
M6ndiGrouplimeslonesetc (Eocene)
Chim Formationmudstones,sillstones(Palascens-Crslaceous)
leru Formationmudstones,sandstones(Cretaceous)
Om Formation (Jurassic)
siltslones

geochemicalobservations,which indicatea large intrusions range from alkali gabbro or alkali

5-km-wide aeromagnetic anomaly over the basalt,through hawaiiteto mugearite,most rock
complex, and progressive fractionation of a types are nepheline-normative, and all are silica-
common parentalmagma to supply the shallow- undersaturated. This classificationis basedon the
level apophyses(Henry 1988; Richards 1990a; TAS scheme,and reflectsthe sodic,alkalic nature
Richards et al. 1990). Compositionally,tlie of the [Link] rocks are gabbroicto porphyritic
in texture, with phenocrysts of olivine or
hornblende,chromite,clinopyroxene,and plagio-
,, t-imirot . _ir- clase, and interstitial biotite/phlogopite and
t' a€romgnstic/ \
/'
anomaly \ [Link] entire complex is affected
I
I
to various degreesby propylitic alteration,which
lineamnls may be in partdeuteric.
N Gold mineralizationoccursin two main stages

0
at Porgera,the first resembling porphyry-fype
activity, and the secondbearingall the hallmarks
of a [Link]
I consists of relatively low-grade, refractory
tB:T""t"*. mineralization,disseminatedas auriferouspyrite
/_ \.
\ in phyllic alterationzones in both igneous and
\ r / I
Mineralized z(rle ./ sedimentaryrocks. Rare hypersalinefluid inclu-

I ,' 1km
sionslravebeenfound in secondaryquaftzeyesin
the altered intrusive rocks, and representthe
earliestore-forming fluids in the [Link]
fluids are interpretedto have evolved from an
Figure 8. Sketchmap of the Porgeraintrusivecomplex
original magmatic-hydrothermalfluid, trapped
and gold deposit, showing the limit of the large
aeromagneticanomaly associatedwith the complex under
halite-saturatedconditions between 200o
(afterHenry 1988;Richards1990a). and 210 oC, and with -32 eq. [Link] NaCl

316
I
I Epithermal Gold Deposits

I Figure 9. Schematicmodel fbr

gold depositionat porgera. (a)

I Stage I magmatic-hydrothermal
mineralization; (b) stage II
epithermalmineralization.

I
I
I
I
I

l
t

(Richards& Kerrich 1993).Associared with this the RoamaneFault,which cutsthe southernend of

alterationat a late stageis a suite of base-metal the intrusivecomplex(Figs.8, 9b). Mineralization
sulfideveinsrvith rninorearlyquartzand lateMn- is open at depth. with vertical continuity
Fe-Ca-Mgcarbonates. Free golcloccursas small exceeding700 m (B. Fulton,personalcorrmun.
g r a i n s( l - 1 0 p r n ) i n t c r s t i t i atlo e a r l y p y r i t e ,o r 1994).The brecciatedand layered nature of the
intergrorvnwith later sphaleriteand galena in veins sr:ggests explosive pressure release
t h e s c v c i n s . O t h e r o r e m i n e r a l s i n c l u d e accompanying vein fonnation,
and phase
arsenopyrite, tetrahedrite. chalcopvrite. pyrar- separationis thought to be the controlling ore
gyrite, and [Link] Cu-bearingminerals depositional [Link] vein paragenesis is
being sparsc in comparisonwith galena and characterizedby precipitation of early fine-
sphalerite . Fluid inclusionsobserved in early grained (perhapsoriginally amorphous)
silica,
quartz and later sphaleriteindicate a fall in followed by slightly coarserbut anlredralquartz.
trappingternperatureliorl -345o to -300 oC. but intergrown with roscoelite,pyrite, native gold,
uniformsalinityaveraging9.5 [Link].% NaCl with Au-Ag tellurides,and tetrahedrite;minor chalco_
u p t o 3 . 1 r n o l eo C O z( R i c h a r d & s K e r r i c h1 9 9 3 : pyriteis [Link] Hg- and pb tellurides
Richards,Bray. Clrarrner & [Link] have [Link]-inclusion data indicate
data).Ore depositionin the veinsmay havebeen uniformtrappingtemperatures averaging-165 "C
rnainlya flnction of cooling,therefore, as the hot at pressuresof -250 to -450 [Link] salinities
ascending fluids contacted relatively cool rangingbetween3.4 and 9.6 eq. wt.% NaCl in a
w a l l r o c k(sF i g . 9 a ) . birnodalpopulation(Richards1992t Richards&
The second stage of rnineralizationis Kerrich 1993).There is liftle evidencefbr l'lLrid
characterized by vuggy veins and hydrothermal mixing, or petrographic evidencefor boiling,but
breccias, Iocally containing bonarrzaconcen- recentgas chromatographic analysesof inclusion
trations of gold. The veins are structr-rrally fluids suggestthat phaseseparationdid occur
irr
associated with a late Nlr-trendingnormal fault. the early vein fluids. Depressurization resultins

I 377
J.P. Richards

from coeval fault movement is thought to have Journal, December 3, 1993). The deposit is
triggeredexsolutionof a CO2-CHa-H2S-rich vapor locatedon Lihir Island,one of the Tabar to Feni
phase from the ore fluid, with subsequent chain of islandsoff the northeastern coastof New
oxidation and destabilization of dissolved gold- Ireland, Papua New Guinea (see inset in Fig. 7).
bisulfidecomplexes. ThesePlioceneto Pleistocenevolcanic islandsare
Richardset al. (1991) usedSr and Pb isotopes distinctive in their silica-undersaturated, sodic,
to show that the sourceof thesecomponentswas alkalic nature, which contrasts with the more
identical in both stages of mineralization,and generally silica-oversaturated, potassiccomposi-
proposed that stage II ores were derived by tions of arc rockselsewherein PapuaNew Guinea
remobilizationof earlierdisseminated metalsfrom and the Solomon Islands (Johnsonel a/. 1916;
deeper levels in the system. The isotopic data Wallace et al. 1983). Recent studies of the
indicate a mixed magmatic-sedimentary source petrogenesisof the Lihir Island volcanics by
for both Pb and Sr, reflecting the scale of Kennedy et al. (1990a,b) and Mclnnes &
operationof the hydrothermalsystem beyond the Cameron (1994) indicatethat, althoughthe suite
confinesof the intrusionsthemselves. Although has trace-elementand isotopic signaturestypical
Au itself cannot be isotopically traced, it is of island-arc lavas, the volcanics were not
thought likely that the bulk of the precious-metal produced in response to coeval subduction.
contentof the ore depositwas of magmaticorigin. Rather, they seem to have been derived from
introduced into the ore-forming system by mantlethat was enrichedin alkali and alkali-earth
magmatic-hydrothermal fl uids. elementsduring earliersubductionepisodesalong
For severalyears it was thoughtthat Porgera the Miocene New Britain and Bougainville
was unique in terms of igneous rocks and trenches. A change to extensional tectonics,
mineralization in PapuaNew Guinea,but in 1986 following cessationof subductionactivity in the
the Mt. Kare depositwas discovered18 km to the Late Miocene, resulted in small degrees of
southwest (Fig. 7). This occurrenceis closely meltingof this enrichedmantle,and the eruption
similar to the Porgeraintrusiveand lrydrothennal of undersaturated, alkalic lavas.
system,albeiton a smallerscale,and consistsof a Lihir Island is built from a complex of
cluster of mafic alkalic intrusions locally Plioceneto Pleistocene stratovolcanoes, composed
overprinted by auriferous phyllic alteration and mainly of alkali basalts, trachybasalts, and
hydrothermal breccia zones containing the trachyandesites (Wallaceet al. 1983;Kennedyel
assemblage quartz-roscoelite-tetrahedrite-native al. 1990b1- Moyle et al. 1990).It is the youngestof
gold (Brunker & Caithness1990; Bartram et al. these structures,the Luise volcano (0.35 to 0.9
s L e d l i e1 9 9 3 ) t; e l l u r i d em i n e r a l s Ma; Davies& Ballantyne1987),that is hostto the
1 9 9 1 ;R i c h a r d &
have not beendiscoveredto dateon the property. Ladolam Au deposit (Fig l0) The original
Potassium-argon agesof the intrusiverocks(6.0 + volcanicedificecollapsedto form a 5.5 x 3.5 km
0.1 Ma) and alteration(5.5+ 0.1 Ma) are identical calderafilled by lavas,pyroclastics,and breccias
to thoseat Porgera,and geochemicaland isotopic of latite, andesite, trachyte, and trachybasalt
studies suggest that the two magmas were [Link] then intruded
cogeneticat [Link] similarity by a monzonitic stock and a varied suite of
of rnagmatismand mineralizationstyles at these smallerandesitictc latitic porphyrybodies(Moyle
localities demonstratesthe repeatabilityof the et al. 1990).
ore-fbrmingprocess,with obvious implications Gold mineralizationoccursin four rnain areas
for m ineralexploration. within the caldera. and is associatedwith two
distinct phasesof alteration(Moyle et al. 1990).
Ladolam Deposit, Lihir Island, Papua New An early stage of potassic and propylitic
Guinea alteration, possibly as old as 0.1 Ma, is
Ladolamis one of the largestunexploitedgold encountered at depth,and is associated with weak
depositsin the world, with mineablereservesof porphyry-styleCu, Mo, and Au mineralization.
188 Mt grading).6 glt (1.6 glt cutoff; Mining This stageof activity probably occurredprior to

318
 Epithermal Gold Deposit.s

zoning of the epithermalalterationis thought to

15? 35',E
reflect a borlirrg water table, with advanced
argillic alterationassemblages,includingenargite,
alunite,and sulfur,occurringabovethis level, and
argillic and phyllic assemblages occurringbelow.
Preliminary fluid-inclusion data reported by
Moyle et al. (1990) indicate the presenceof
hypersalineliquids and CO2-H2S-CHa-rich vapors
in early anhydriteveins,and lower salinity (-3.g
eq. wt.o/oNaCl) fluids at betweenl20o and 340 .C
\T) in veins from the [Link]
datamay be interpretedto indicatethe presenceof
early boiling magmaticfluids, and later meteoric-
or seawater-dominated epithermalfluids. Stable-
isotope data indicate that meteoric waters
dominate the near-surfacegeothermal system
today (Moyle et ai. 1990; Nedachi & Taguchi
1ee2).
Two main ore types are present,represented
by sulfide and oxide facies. Sulfide ore in the
phyllic and argillic zonesis highly refractory,with

w
Raised coral reef Wuitol Weqqe sub-micrometer gold particlesmainly containedin
Plio-Plebtoceie
Luise volcano LondlovitBlock pyrite, and associatedwith marcasite,base-metal
(anered/unaltered) P [Link]?
Hunihovolcano sulfides, and sulfbsalts;molybdenite is locally
Pleislocene Fault,buriedfault trace
Kinamivolcano
presentin potassicalteration zones. Free gold,
Plio-Plebtocene
O Calderaor cratefwall
with grain size up to 20 pm, occurswith sulfosalts
(tetrahedrite,tennantite,luzonite, enargite)and
Figure 10. Geologicalmap of Lihir Island(after rare tellurides(includingsylvanite)in advanced
Wallaceet al. 1983;Moyle et el 1990). argillic [Link] ore, which is developed
above sea level. containsfree gold grains up to
calderafbrmationat -0.35 Ma. and seemsto have 100pm across(Davies& Ballantyne1987;Moyle
involvedmagmatic-hydrothermal [Link] et al. 1990).
of the northeasternflank of the volcanoresultedin
sudden unroofing of the high-temperature Emperor Deposit, Votukoula, Fiji
hydrothermalcore,with extensivebrecciationand The Emperorgold-telluridedepositis located
anhydrite veining (deposited from inflowing on the western edge of the shoshoniticTavua
seawater),and the superimpositionof'a meteoric- caldera,on the islandof Viti Levu, Fiji (Fig. l2).
water-dominatedepithermal system (Fig I 1) Like the Tabar-Feniisland chain which hoststhe
This systemis still active, and geothermalfluids Ladolam deposit,the Fijian islandshave had an
with temperaturesup to 231 oC have been unconventional recent geological history
encounteredat 750 m in one geothermalwell following their isolation fiom subduction
(Moyle et al. 1990). processesin the Late Miocene, and subsequent
Epithermal activity has resulted in the rifting and fragmentationof the arc. Magmatic
generationof phyllic, argillic, and advanced compositionschangedfrom island-arctholeiites
argillic alteration, whiclr overprint the earlier and calc-alkaline to shoshoniticat -5.5
andesites
porphyry-stylealterationzonesin a complexway. Ma (Gill 1970;Kroenke& Rodda 1984:Gill &
The highest Au grades1[re found where this W h e l a n1 9 8 9 ) .
systemoverprintsthe earll'potassrczone,whereas Recent studies of volcanisrn at Tavua
propylitic zones are generallr,,barren. Vertical (Setterfieldel a/. 1991. l9q2) documentedthe

379
.[Link]

SW Stage't, NE Nasivi shearzone,was responsible for controlling

12oom
/
/---\. ... P o t a s s i c subsidencewithin the caldera, emplacementof
10@m ' alteration
/
/-, ' \ monzoniteintrusions,and possiblyalso provideda
SOOm
/
/
\ fluid conduit for later epithermal activity at
6OOm / t
\-- .
\
/.-
Emperor(Andersonet al. 1987; Setterfieldet al.
l99l; Eaton& Setterfield1993).
Gold was first discoveredat Vatukor-rlain
1932, and the structuralcontrol of orebodiesby
intersectionsbetweenNW-trendingfaults arrdthe
NE calderafault systetnwas recogltizedat an early
S t a g e2 :
Calderalormation [Link] intersectionsgave rise to shattered
and llank collapse zones in which f'lat-dippingtensional structures
PhrsaticaruDtiore (flatmakes) acted as important ltosts to
mirreralization(Denholm 1961'.Andersott c/ a/.
1987; Anderson& Eaton 1990). Within these
structures,multi-stagevein fillings develclped
with crustiform, vuggy textures and weak
marginal alteration Isilicification, pyritization,
sericitization, carbonatization, feldspathization
sw Q + a a a2 . NE (adularia)].Quartzis the main ganguernineralin
12@m c3lifl&il", the veins, accompaniedby [Link].
lom m '--..-'.'---\'!- activity
[Link] [Link] minerals,ctlmtnonly
intergrown with roscoelite, include Au-Ag
tellurides,auriferouspyrite, and minor ltative
'r'r'r]/tf gold, plus base-metalsulfides, sulfosalts,and
nativesilverandtellurium(Andersonet ul. l9B7).
".1
Sea lovol
(pro$nlday) GscthormaJ Ore depositionalmechanismsat [:tltperor
1 km adivity md
- br6cdation have been the subject of a nurnber of recetrt

Figurell. Schematicmodelfor development of the

Ladolamgold depositwithinthe Luisecaldera(after
Moyleeral. 1990).

early presenceof mafic volcanics (absarokites)

forming the relict volcanic edifice, followed by
the eruption of more evolved shoshonitesand
banakitesto fill the [Link] original volcano
lras been dated at -4.'7 M4 with calderacollapse
at 4.6-4.5 Ma. Post-collapseintrusion of
monzoniticbodies into the volcanic pile occurred
at -4.5 Ma, and is associated with rveakporphyry
Cu-Ar.r rnineralizationin the Nasivi 3 deposit
(Eaton & Setterfleld 1993). Epithermal Au-Te Mimene Plr6ene Malor voicanrccBntre
shosbonitic volcanrcs
mineralizationwas developedsometime after the Mi@ene calc-alkaline
ta Gold deposit
volcanics and sediments
rnain stageof volcanic activity, at -3.1 Ma. The Oligo-Mi6ene iholeiitic
vol€nics and stftks
50 km

location of the caldera is defined by the

intersectionof two regional-scalestructures,the Figure 12. Geologicalsketchmap of Fiji, showingthe
NE-trendingViti Levu lineament,and a set of locationof the Tavuacaldera(afterAnderson& Eaton
NW-trending shear [Link] of the latter, the l 9e0).
T
Epithermal GolclDeposits
W Pre-caldera E
Emperormine

Figure 13. Schematicmodel for

developmentof the Emperor gold
deposit within the Tavua caldera
(after Ahmad et al. 1987b).

studies,includingAhrnadet al. (1987a,b),Ahmad Sun,IuaRyoF DEPoSITCgIRacTTRISTIcS

& Walshe(1990),Anderson& Eaton(1990),and
Kwak (1990).With tlreexceptionof Krvak(1990), Key characteristics displayedby the deposits
who prefersa fluid-mixingmechanism,all other discussedaboveare presentedin Tables2 and 3,
investigatorsconcludethat boiling in responseto along with data from other lesserknown deposits
depressurizationwas the main control on ore and regionssuch as Golden Sunlight,Montana
[Link] is general consensusfrom (Porter & Ripley 1985; Spry et al. 1994), the
stable-isotopestudies that regional propylitic Black Hills, Dakota (Paterson et al. 1989:
alterationwhich precededepithermalrninerali- Paterson1990),Tongyoung,Korea (Sheltonel a/.
zationwas causedby heatedseawater,whereasthe 1990),and Acupan,Philippines(Cooke& Bloom
ore fluids consistedof a mixture of magmatic 1990; Mitchell & Leach l99l). It will be seen
water with meteoric andior [Link] fluid that, despite a great variation in superficial
temperatures varied from 300 to 250 "C during appearance,all of these deposits share some
early stagesof barrenquartzdeposition,and down strongfundamentalcharacteristics. Many of these
to 160 oC during laterore [Link] features, such as the relationship to alkalic
quite uniform, however,averaging5.5 eq. wt.% magmatism(Table 2) and the presenceof Au-
NaCI, and pressuresare cstimatedto have been tellurideand V-bearingminerals,formedthe basis
below 40 bars (Ahmad et al. 1987b).Horvever, for the early classificationschemessummarizedin
the observation of rare CO2-bearing fluid Table 1. Subsequentinvestigationshave rrot only
inclusionsby Kwak (1990) may indicate that strengthened these relationships, but have
actual fluid pressureswere considerablvhigher revealedfurther traits, such as evidencefor the
thanthis. role of early magmatic-hydrothermal fluids, the
Severalauthorshave allLrdedto a relationship involvernentof externally-derivedgroundwaters
betweenthe early porphyry-stylemineralization during the later epithermal phase, clear
within the calderaand the laterepithermalactivity relationshipswith alkalic porphyry-typeactivity,
at its rim. The isotopic evidencefor a magmatic and large-scalestructuralcontrol on emplacement
componentin the epithermalore fluids arguesfor and [Link] variationswhich still
sucha connection,and further supportis given by remain among the depositsare due to the wide
the recent discovery of Au tellurides and range not only of potential host rocks and
vanadif'eroussulfides in anhydrite veins asso- structures,but also of the associatedmagmatic
ciated with the porphyry deposit (Eaton & source rocks. Some of these parameters are
Setterfield 1993). A summary model for discussed in detailbelow,with a view to exploring
metallogenesis at Emperoris shown in Figure 13 their effects on the characteristics of the alkalic
(from Ahmadet al. 1987b). epithermalgroupas a whole.

381
J.P. Richards

Table 2. Characteristicsof magmatismassociatedwith alkalic-typeepithermal gold deposits

Depositor Associatedigneousrocks sio" NarO + Kro (NarO- 2.0) Proposedparental Proposed

district (TAS classification) (wt. %) (wt %) Kro magma tectonic settinp

Cripple Phonolite,trachyte,
qr/d : 55 { 4 .
q ' 6 ' n : l l { avg : -0. I Two magmas Back-arc
Creek, tephriphonolite,and max : 6 2 . 8 max 15.3 - max:2.7 which mixed - rifting
Colorado phonotephritc volcanics; m i n- 4 4 . 1 m i n : 6 . 3 min: -2.3 phonoliteand Regional-scale
alkali basaltand n:21 n-21 n-21 alkali basalt structural
lamprophyredykes control on
location
Colorado Alkali feldsparsyenite a v g: 6 l . 3 avg: -4.6 Alkali basalt Back-arc?
Mineral (includingbostonite.), max - 74.8 m a x: 1 5 . 3 max:0.7 Location
Bclt monzonite,and biotite- min:49.7 min: 6.9 min: -15.9 controlledby
quartz latite intrusions n: 69 n- o9 n: 69 reactivated
Precambrian
basement
structures
Montana Monzonite,syenlte, a v g: 6 l . 9 a v g- l 0 . 5 avg: -2.9 Alkali basalt Back-arc,
phonolite max : 69.1 max: 15.6 max:0.7 perhapsrelated
alkalic diorite,
provlnc0 (includingtinguaite),and m i n : 5 6 . 7 m i n- 8 . 1 min = -9.5 to flat-slab
alkali graniteintrusions; tcctonlcs.
trachyteand lamProPhYrc Location
dvkcs controlled by
basement
structures
Porgera Sodicalkali avg: 46 7 arp = 5 5 a v g- 0 . 8 Sodicalkali basall Continent-arc
and Mt. basalt/gabbro,harvaiite, max:53.4 max : 8.3 max:2.4 collisionzone.
m i n: 4 1 . 5 m i n: 3 . 1 min : - 1 . 5 l,ocation
Kare. PNC mugeariteintrusions;late
plagioclaseporphyry n: 45 n: 45 n- 45 controlledby
dykes basement
structures'l
Alkali basalt, a\g:49 6 d v E - - t . L Alkali basalt Posl-subduction
[,adolam
(Luise trachybasalt, m a x: 5 l . 6 max - 6.3 ri fting
caldcra), trachyandesite,latite,and m i n: 4 6 . 6 min- 4.9 m i n: - 1 . 9
PNG trachytevolcanics; n: 13 n- 13 n: 13
intrudedby monzonitic
stock
[Link] Absarokite,shoshonite. q r 5 a v g- 4 . 9 a\g- -2.4 Shoshoniticalkali Post-subduction
('l'avua and banakitcvolcanics; m a x: 5 5 . 6 m a x- 9 . 1 m a x: - 1 . 4 basalt rifting of arc.
caldcra), intrudcdby monzonitic m i n : 4 6 . 8 min - 2.6 min : -3.2 l,ocation
n:8 n-8 n:8 controlledby
Fiii stocks
bascment
structures

[)atasummarizcd & Ransome

liom Lindgren (1906),Johnson Simmons
et ul. 1t976), & Hedge(1978),wallaceet al (1983)'werleet a1
(1984),Riccer a/ (1985),
nnmad & (1990),
Walshe Moyle eral. (1990), (1990a,b),
Richards et al. (1990),Dudds(1991).o'Bricn
Richards
(1993),
(1991).Eaton& Setterfield
(1991),Saunders &
Richards (1993),
[Link] Zhang & Spry(1994)'
et al (t99t).Russell

DISCUSSION quartz [Link] contents span a range

from 41.5 to 74.8 wt.o%,encompassing highly
Characteristics and Role of Associated undersaturated to quartz-normative compositions'
Magmatism and trace-element signatures suggest tectono-
Perhapsthe most noticeablefeature of the magmatic affinities from island-arc10 intraplate.
examplesof alkalic epithermalAu depositsgiven Without exception, however, the suites are
(Na2O +
aboveis the extraordinarycompositionaldiversity characterizedby high levels of alkalis
(Fig. 14;
of the associatedigneousrocks (Table 2). These K2O) at any given level of silica content
vary from alkali basaltsand relatedlamprophyres, see also Muller & Groves 1993),and relatively
presence
through intermediatecompositions,to evolved high levelsof water (as indicatedby the

382
 Epithermal Gold Deposits

Table 3. Summary of characteristicsof alkalic-typeepithermal gold deposits

Feature Early magmatic-hydrothermalsystem Epithermal system

Geodynamicsetting Back-arc,post-subduction,or arc-arccollision zone; rifting may be importanl

Associatedigneousrocks Alkali basalt,phonolite,monzonite,tinguaite,syenite,trachyte,latite; shoshonites,

lamprophyres;variableNa./Kratio, but high alkali/silicaratio; porphyritic

Styleof magmatism Volcanic/intrusive

complexes,brecciapipes,calderas

Form of hvdrothermal Disseminations,[Link]. Fault-relatedveins, shears,hydraulic breccias.

system veins shatterzones;veins are layered,vuggy
W allrockalteration phyilic,propylitic"(rareskarn):
Potassic, [Link],silicic.
magnetiteolten present pyritic; commonly of limited extent around
mineralizedstructures
Ore minerai:' Disseminatedauriferouspyr ii, iase Auo, electrum,Au-Ag [Link]/Hgtellurides,
mctal sulfidescommonlyincluiirrg rareTe" and Ag'; [Link],
molybdenite;refractoryAu stibnite,rutile, local hematite
Gangueminerals Quartz,calcite,K-feldspar,sericite, Quartz,[Link],barite, lluorite,
iluorite adularia,carbonates, celestine,
kaolinite
Ttmperatur:, pressure,anC 200"to > 600'c; 400to 750bars,2 to 150' to 320oC(commonly<200'C); <500 bars;0
compositiln'rl'hy'drothermal 74 [Link].o%NaCl; (13 mole9/oCO, to 10 [Link]. 9/oNaCl; <2 mole 7o COr, plus
fluids (few data) minor CHo,Nr, or I{rS (l'ew data)
6''O, 6D o{'hydrothermal 6'tonro- 4 7 to ll.4"l o";6DH"o- -50 Data fall betweenmeteoricwater line or isotopi-
fluids o/nu cally exchangedmeteoricwaters,and typical
to -32
magmaticwaters;individualdepositswcll-
grouped
"/oo
5'"S of suifldes 6 t o S: - 7 . y t o * 5 . 5 6"5: -15 to +8"/oo(typically< 0"/,",)
6''C ofcarbonates
. l l ^ - - - o l
O L :-/'.O-J.)'oc(fOr$erl7 6''c = .8 to o"/oo
Sourcesofore tluids Magmatic Dominantly exchangedmeteoricwaters(seawater
at Emperor?)with minor magmaticcomponcnt
Sourceofcarbon and sulfur Dominantlymagmatic Magmatic and/or country rock
Suggestedsourceofore Magmatic Magmatic/remobilizedmagmatic
componcnts
Depositionalmcchanism Phaseseparation, wallrock i;tcraction, Phaseseparation,
fluid mixing, cooling
[Link] mixine

f ) a t a s u m m a r i z e df i o m L i n d g r e n & R a n s o m e( 1 9 0 6 ) . L o u g h l i n & K o s c h m a n n( 1 9 3 5 ) , K e l l y & G o d d a r d ( 1 9 6 9 ) . C a s a d e v a l & l Ohmoto

( 1 9 7 ? ) , S a v , k i , ' r se t u l ( 1 9 1 9 ) , r j i l e s ( 1 9 3 2 ) , W e r l e e r 1 1 ( 1 9 8 4 ) , i l ' { u i s c h l e er t a l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , P o r t e r & R i p l e y ( 1 9 8 5 ) , R i c c e r a / ( 1 9 8 5 ) ,
T h c m p s o ne t u l ( 1 9 8 5 ) .C o x & B a g t ' y ( 1 9 8 6 ) .S a u n d e r & s M a y ( l 9 8 a l " , \ h m a de r a l ( 1 9 8 7 a , b )A , n d e r s o ne t a l ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,S p r y ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,A l i f r e r
a / ( 1 9 8 8 ) ,B o n h a m( 1 9 8 6 ) ,H a s t i n g s( 1 9 8 8 ) ,W i l s c n & K y s e r ( 1 9 8 8 ) ,1 & b i t e& L a w l e s s( 1 9 8 9 ) ,A h m a d & W a l s h e( 1 9 9 0 ) ,A n d e r s o n& F a t o n
( 1 9 9 0 ) , C o o k e & t s l o o m ( 1 9 9 0 ) , K w a k ( 1 9 9 0 ) , M o y l e e t a (l 1 9 9 0 ) R , y z a k ( 1 9 9 0 ) , S h e l t o n e t a (l 1 9 9 0 ) , G e l l e r & A t k i n s o n ( 1 9 9 1 ) , R u s s e l l
( 1 9 9 1 ) ,S a u n d e r s( 1 9 9 1 ) ,R i c h a r d s( 1 9 9 2 ) ,E a t o n& S e t t e r t i e l d( 1 9 9 3 r R i c h a r d s& K e r r i c h( 1 9 9 3 ) .Z h a n g& S p r y ( 1 9 9 4 )

of hydrousphenocrystphases).Furthermore,in all concentratecopper?

of the examplescited above,there are indications Many investigators have lookedfor an answer
that alkali basaltswere the parentalmagmasto the to this questionin the primarymetalcontentof the
igneoussuites(Table3). magmas,despitethe long-recognizedambiguity
There is, therefore, a clear connection that high levelsof an elementin an igneousrock
between these types of mineral deposit and may simply reflect contamination during the
hydrous,alkalic [Link] question ore-forming process, rather than a primary
which then begs to be asked is: why might this enrichment. Similarly, low levels do not
be? What is it about alkalic magmasthat gives necessarilymeanthat the rock was not the source
them the potential to generate Au-rich lithology,but may insteadreflectdepletionduring
hydrothermalore deposits,whereascalc-alkaline leaching or partitioning of metals into an ore-
magmatic-hydrothermal systems very efficiently forming fluid. The conclusionsof Tilling et al"

383
.[Link]

I Colorado Mineral Belt

a C e n t r a lM o n t a n a

o Luise Caldera, Lihir ls., PNG

Naro
+ Tavua Caldera, Fiji
+ KrO
. P o r g e r a - M t .K a r e , P N G
(wt. %o)
x Cripple Creek, Colorado

basaltic
anoesIe

55 60

SiO2 (wt. %)

Figure 14. Total alkali-silica diagram (Le Bas et al. 1986) showing compositionsof variuos intrusive and
extrusivelithologiesassociated with alkalic-typeepithermalAu [Link] dashedline is the division between
alkalicand tholeiiticsuitesdefinedby lrvine &Baragar (1971).Sourcesof dataas in Table2.

(1973) still seemvalid, therefore- they found that to orthomagmaticCu-Ni-PGE-Au deposits (see
there is no such thing as an inherently Au-rich recentreviewsby Naldrett 1989a,b).
magma,beyonda broadenrichment(by a factorof An alternative fate for precious metals
-2) of mafic over felsic compositions(see also dissolvedin a fractionatingmagma is that sulfur
Connors et al. 1993). Furthermore,this contrast saturationdoesnot occur, and the metals become
may be more a function of depletionin evolved progressively enriched in the residual melt.
magmasratherthan enrichmentin primitive ones. Studies of silicate magmas have shown that
What, then, is the fate of this small sulfide solubility is a complex function of
concentrationof Au in a differentiating magmatic magmatic composition (increases with FeO
system? Bornhorst & Rose (1986) showed that content), temperature (decreasesas temperature
crystal-liquidpartitioncoefficientsfor Au were <1 falls), oxidation state (generally decreaseswith
for most major phenocryst phases in a calc- increasing p2), and sulfur fugacity (increases
alkaline volcanic suite, yet Au was depletedin with increasinglS2; e.g., Haughton et al. 1914;'
more evolved magmas. They attributed this Shima & Naldrett 1975; Wallace & Carmichael
behavior to the partitioning of Au into an 1992). Sulfur and chalcophile-elementconcen-
immiscible sulfide melt, which progressively trations will thus be highest in primary mantle-
fractionated from the differentiating silicate derived magmas,but will fall rapidly if sulfur
magma(seealso Campbellet al. 1983;Hamlyn el saturationand sulfide-liquid segregationoccur.
al. 1985; Keays 1987; Barnes et al. 1988). An Such fractionatedmagmas will not be strong
extensiveliteraturenow existson the behaviorof candidates for subsequent generation of
sulfur in magmas,spurredby the recognitionthat chalcophile-elementdeposits. From the afore-
immisciblesulfidemelts act as collectorsfor base- mentioned studies,however, it is apparentthat
and precious metals (platinurn-groupelements sulfur saturationcan be delayed under certain
[PGE], Au, Ag). Segregationof thesemelts from conditions,thus retainingchalcophileelementsin
the parentalsilicatemagma is thoughtto give rise the melt until later in the fractionationhistory.
r
$
R
EpithermctlGold Deposits
g
P

F
p
Perhapsthe rnosteffectivevariablein tliis respect metal-richmagmasfrom the Lachlan Fold Belt,
is [Link] conditionsof relatively Australia,have beendescribedby Wyborn (1992).
high fJ2, sulfide speciesbecomeunstablewith Nevertheless, it is notedthat theseenrichmentsare

$
r
respectto sulfatesin the magma, and segregatiorr only one to five times greaterthan averagemantle
of an immiscible sulfide-melt phase will no
longerbe [Link],parlitioningof sulfur
valuesfor Pt and Au, and fall within the rangeof
typical igneousrocks recognizedby Ttlling et al.
i
I into a volatile phase (as SO2) may becomethe (1e13).
I dominant process (".g., Burnham & Ohmoto
i
i 1980;Carroll & Rutherford1985;Mathez 1989). The Role of Tectonic and Structural Setting
Chalcophileelementswould ihereforebehaveas If a direct relationshipbetweenepithermalAu
incompatiblecomponentsin the magma, and deposits and hydrous alkalic magmatism is
would becorne steadily enriched during accepted,then the choice of tectonic setting for
fractionation,or at least would not be depleted such systems becomes fairly well-constrained.
(Richardset ol. 1991). Furthermore,if sulfur Such magmas,for example,are not generatedin
saturationwas delayed until after the onset of standardisland- or continental-arcsettings,nor
volatile saturation, we have the potential to typically in stable intraplate settings. Alkalic
generatechalcophile-element-enriched magmatic- rocks as a broad group, however,are commonly
hydrothermalfluids (Candela1992; Richards& associatedwith crustal-scalerifting, and are
Kerrich 1993;. Spooner 1993). The recent characterized by relatively low volumes of
observationof sulfide globulesin a felsitedyke magma. In other words, such systemstypically
associatedwith a differentiatedquartz monzonite appear in isolation or as clusters of magmatic
intrusivecomplex in Malasia suggeststhat sulfur centers,but not as regionallyextensivebatholithic
saturationcan indeed be delayed well into the [Link] field can be narrowedfurther by
felsic range of igneousrock compositions(lmai eliminating rocks of the highly silica-
1994).The reasonfor the associationbetweenAu undersaturated alkalic suite, such as carbonatites,
deposits and rnantle-derivedigneous rocks of kimberlites, and lamproites, which are not
alkalic affinity may thereforelie in the relatively associated with the [Link]
high oxidation state (e.9., Sack et al. 1980) and parental magmas to these latter rock types are
volatile content of such magmas,which act to commonlyCO2-richratherthan hydrous,which in
retain chalcophileelementsin the melt until or part resultsin their trend of fractionationtowards
after the onsetof volatile saturation. ever more undersaturated compositions,compared
Wyborn & Sun (1994) have recently taken with the silica-saturation trend of hydrousalkalic
this model one step further. They proposedthe magmas.
rnantle lithosphereas a sourcefor potentialore- In all of the cases discussedabove, some
forming magmas,as this region of the Earth has associationwith subduction-zone activity can be
already undergone rnelting to form sulfur- demonstrated, although a displacementeither in
saturated basaltic magmas (see also Solomon space or time from the active magmatic arc is
1990).The small amountsof sulfideremainingin [Link],the high water content of these
the basalt-depletedresidue would be highly magmas compared with other alkaline rocks
chalcophile-element [Link]-related arguesstronglyfor at leastan indirectrelationship
metasomatismwould lower the solidus of this to [Link] alkalic,ratherthan calc-alkalic
rnaterial, such that chalcophile-element-rich characterof the suite,however,is more consistent
alkalic magmas could be generated during with back-arcor post-subduction magmatism,and
subsequenttectonically-induced melting events. this is the patternwhich emergesin Tables2 and
These magmas would be sulfur-poorand would 3. In thesesettings,the driving force responsible
not reach saturationin sulfur until a late stageof for voluminousarc magmatismis not presentor
fractionation,thus potentially retaining precious has ceased,and melting which does occur in the
metals in the rnelt until the onset of volatile mantle is usually small in extent and volume,
[Link] such precious- occurring in responseto distal effects or post-

385
J.P. Richards

subduction tectonic [Link] exact The Porphyry - Epithermnl Connection

mechanismsand triggers for mantle melting in In all of the examplesof alkalic gold deposits
such settingsare diverse and poorly understood, discussed above,suggestions of a link betweenthe
and the heterogeneityexpectedin the back-arcand epithermal rnineralizationand earlier porphyry-
deactivated sub-arc mantle can be expected to style magmatic-hydrothermal activity have been
give rise to a compositionallydiverse range of [Link] basisfor thesesuggestionshas varied
magmasunderlow degreesof melting. from a generalspatial and temporal association
It is concluded, therefore, that a typical between the two types of mineralization (e.g.
tectonic setting for alkalic epithermaldepositsis Bonham & Giles 1983; Mutschler et eil. 1984,
not to be found. Instead,we shouldbe looking for 1985rWerle et al. 1984'.Bonham 1986;Handley
rnore peripheralsettings(in terms of both space & Bradshaw19861Paterson19901Ryzak 1990;
and time) within the broaderarc [Link] R.ussell1991: Saunders1991: Setterfieldel a1
in particular in back-arc or post-subduction 1992).to direct evidencefirr the involvementof
domains. maqmaticfluids /e g. Nash & Cunningham1973:
ln a number of the depositsdiscrrssed above' Porfer& Ripley 1985:Riceet al [Link]
deep-seatedstructuresof regional extent have et al. 1985, Ahmad et al" 1987a,b;Anderson&
been implicated in the localizationof magmatic Eaton i990; Cooke& Bloom 19901Moyle et al.
complexes,and also in subsequentfaulting and 19901Richards1992: Eaton & Setterfield1993;
[Link] of thesestructures seem Zhang &. Spt-v 1994). In very few of these
to pre-date arc activity and commonly run at an examples,[Link] the porphyry-typeminerali-
angle to the orogen, suggesting tensional zation of economic interest,and even at Porgera,
reactivationof older lithosphericfeatures(e.g.'the where relatively low-grade disseminatedore is
Montanaalkalic province,Coloradomineral belt' being mined on a large scale this has only been
Porgera-Mt. Kare, and the Tavua caldera,Fiji)' economicallypossiblebecauseof the additional
This dependenceon deep structure might be presenceof high-grade epithermal ore. What,
expectedfor magmasthat are derived ultimately then, is meant by a relationship befween
from the mantle. and which will thereforefollow porphyry-typeand alkalic epithermalactivity?
high-permeability pathways through the litho- In the case of the deposits discussedhere,
sphereto the shallow crust. Initial generationof there is clear evidencefor the releaseof volatiles
thesemagmaswill not be dependenton shallow from the magmasmost closelyassociated with the
structure. but if structural pathwal's through the epithermal mineralization. and in many cases
crust are not present, the melts lvill remain theseearly magmatic-h,'idrotherrnal systemswere
trappedat lower crustalor mantle lel'elsand will auriferous. They rarely gcnerated ore-grade
be of no economicinterest. mineralization,but their existenceis e'idence for
On the deposit [Link] with most volcanic- a processof magmatic-to-hydrothermal transferof
Moreover. that process, involving high-
related epithermal s)'stems,economic minerali- metals.
salinity,high-temperature liquids plus vapors, and
zationis restrictedto a highly localizedpa* of the
overall intrusive complex. Invariably the main resultingin disseminatedmineralization,multiple
control on the focus of hydrothermalactivity is alteration zones, and leaving porphyritic host
[Link] calderaor post-intrusivefaults and rocks as evidence crf devolatilization,is sub-
brecciasfeaturelargein theseccnsiderations (e.g'. stantially similar to the mechanism of ore
Cu/Mo
the Tavua calderaFault at Emperor,the Roamane formation in classic porph,v-ry-t1ne
deposits. A major dift-erence, however, is the
fault at Porgera, and the Cresson Blowout at
Cripple Creek). This relationshipagain reflectsa generalpaucity of copper (low Cu:Au ratio) and
permeability control, and efficient hydrothermal otherbasemetalsin the alkalic epithermal-related
ore-formingsystemsare presumablythose which systems.
focus their activit-vin one place ratherthan across Fluid-inclusion and :;table-isotope data
severaldifferentstructures. therefore support a magmatic origin for early

386
 Epithermal Gold Depos its

Figure 15. Plot of oxygen versus

hydrogenlsotoplccompositionsof
fluids involved in alkalic-type
epithermal Au deposition. The
data are interpreted to reflect
-20
variable degrees of mixing
between magmatic fluids and
_40 isotopicaily exchanged meteoric
6Dt^ro" ground.;raters(or perhapsseawater
-60
I
i
in the caseof Emperor).Data are
t taken fiom Porter & Riplev
( i 9 8 5 ) . R . i c ee r a l ( i 9 8 5 1 .A . h m a d
r
I
.3r_'
et al (1987a,h),Wilson & Kyser
( 1 9 8 S) . S h e i t o n . t ; 1 i i 1 9 9 r i ) .
-100 Richards& Kerrich (199J), Spry
et al. (1994), and Zhang & Spry
-l20 ii994). The ccmpositionalrange
-i5 -r0 -5 0 of magmatic wa:ers is fiom
otuorro,n S * e p p " i r (, l1 9 8 6 1

fluids and volatiles in alkalic-typehydrothermal Ihese data imply a more-or-iess continuous

systems,but it is rare to find evidencefor such transition from early magmatic-hydrothermal
fluids within the main epithermal stage of f'luid activity to iater. lc wer temperatureepi-
[Link] iatter activity is invariably thermalactivity dominatedby externallyderived
dominatedby cooler, iower salinity fluids (Table groundwaters.
3). Stable-isotope evidencefbr the sourceof other
A numberof studieshaveaddressed the origin volatile componentssuch as sulfur and carbon in
of theseepithermalfluids using O and H isotopic the epithermalstage is less [Link]
datafrom fluid inclusionsand vein [Link] all minerals, for example, yield values of 63oS
cases, the interpreted fluid compositions fall ranging fiom - l5 to +8'loo, and carbonatesyield
between the range fbr magmatic waters and the -fhese
El3Cvaluesfrom -8 to 0o/nn(Table 3;. data
meteoric water line (Fig. 15). Commonly, overlap acceptedvalues fbr magmatic compo-
however,the data cio not fall on a direct mixing sitions, but the broadeninqof the ranges from
line between magmatic waters and the inferred those observed in the earlier magmatic-
meteorrc waters at the time of ore deposition; hydrothermalstage suggestseither mixing with
rather,the data rndicatethat the epitherrnalfluids otherisotopicreservoirssuchas the country rocks.
were dominatedby isotopicallyevolved ground- or the operation of redox processes during
[Link] other words, the fluids had exchanged epithermal mineralization (affecting sulfur
with the country rocks prior to involvementin the isotopesin particular; e g Richards & Kerrich
ore-fbrming system (".g. Richards & Kerrich 1e93).
1993: Zhang & Spry 1994). The data are not In conclusion,a magmaticsignatureis carried
usually coherent enough to permit further through from the early stages of hydrothermal
interpretation,leaving open the question of in- activity to the later epithermal stage,but it seems
mixing of minor amountsof magmaticfluid into to be variably diluted by erternally derived
the epithermal [Link] & Spry (1994), [Link] notably, the ore fluid itself is
however, presented evidence for just such a dominatedby groundwaters, with only occasional
processat the Gies deposit, Montana, with the indicationsof magmaticfluid in-mixing. It seems
implicationthat mixing betweenthesefluids may likely. therefore, that the chemistry of these
have beenan importantcontrol on ore deposition. sroundwatersand the rocks with which thev have

387
.[Link],s

interactedwill have a profbund et-fecton the be depositedwith these sullides. but rnuch of it
natureolthe resultantepithermalsystem. may remain in solution by conversiotr from
a numberof
As a final point for consideration, chloride to bisulfide complexing (Hayashi &
'fhe
authors have alluded to the characteristic Ohmoto l99l ). potential thus exists fbr
enrichments of Te and V (andin somecases,F) in separatingthe deposition of Cu and Au in
these deposits. and have suggestedthat they magmatic-hydrothermal systems,with Au being
ref-lectthe specific involvementof nlaflc alkalic deposited at a later and perhapsat shallower
stage,
lnagmas, which commonly cotttain elevated levels, through processesdiff-erentfronr those
concentrations of thesecomponcnts([Link] aff'ecting the solubility of base metals. A
1964; Carmichael et al. 1974; Mutschler et al' [Link],fbr maintainingAn
1985,1990;Afil] et al. 1988;Bailey & Hampton in solution beyond the depositional front of
1990r Eaton & Setterfield 1993: Stanton 1994)' porphyry ore, and hence potentially into the
Arguments such as these are based on purely epithermalenvironment. This model predictsthat
circumstantialevidencc,however"and can onl-v- be Au-rich systems shoLrld grade downwards itlto a
of a link with alkalic zone of Cu-richmineralization, as was originally
consideredas supportive
magmatisnr, rather than providing definitive proposedby Bonham& Giles (1983),Mutschler
proof. et al. (1984),and Werle et ul. (1984); see also
Titley ( 1978) and Jones (1992). Tlrat few
Mechunisms fbr Hydrothermal Gold Transport economic examples of such porphyry-type
and Deposition mineralizationhave been for-rndassociatedwith
alkalic epithennaldepositsis of little importance
Merymatic -hydrot hermal stage comparedto the fact that such a processdoes
Transfer of Au frorn alkalic magmas to a operate (e.g. Allard stock, Colorado; Ladolarn,
hydrothermalfluid phaseis suggested by the close PapuaNew Guinea;EmPeror,Fiji).
associationof alkalic-type epithermal deposits
with [Link], Epit hermalAu tr ansPor t
there is little information availableon the melt- The nature of the magmatic - epithermal
fluid partitioning of Au, despite an extensive transition has attracted a great deal of recent
literaturefor Cu and Mo (e.g. Henley & McNabb interest([Link]& Bloorn 1990;Hedenquist&
1 9 7 8 :C a n d e l a& H o l l a n d 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 6 ;C l i n e & t 9 2 ;R i c h a r d s1 9 9 2 ;R y e
A o k i 1 9 9 1 ; H e d e n q u i1s 9
Bodnar l99l; Candela 1992).Two recentstudies 1993;Hedenquist& Lowenstern1994).Trarrsfer
suggest, however, that Au behaves in an of materialsbetweenthe two phasesof activity
analogousmannerto Cu (Candela1989;Ballhaus can occur eitherdirectly,by rnixing of rnagmatic-
el at. 1994).Copper and Au should thereforebe hydrothermalvapors or liquids with exterrrally
preferentiallypartitioned into the volatile phase derived fluids, or indirectly by leachingof early
during magmaticdevolatilization,and both metals alterationand mineralizationproducts. Evidence
would be dissolved in that phase as chloride for magmaticvapor-phaseinvolvementis clearly
found in the acid-sulfate-type epithermaldeposits,
complexes (Seward 1984; Hayashi & Ohmoto
1991). Because of the requirementof non- at which near-surfacecondensationof acidic
saturationof sulfide in the melt that conditionsbe volatiles results in intense silicification and
relatively oxidizing, S would be dominantly advancedargillic alteration(Hayba et al. 1985;
presentin the early fluid phaseas SO2,and Cu Heald et al. 1987; Stoffregerr1987 Rye et al'
could therefore be carried at relatively high 1992; Hedenquistet al. 1994a,b).Hedenquistcr
[Link] will eventuallyresult in al. (1994a)found,however,that the metal load of
disproportionationof the SO2 to sulfate and thesevaporsat shallow levels was insufficientto
sulfide species,however, and this and related account for the subsequentinventory in acid-
processeswill lead to depositionof Cu-bearing sulfate epithermaldeposits,despitethe potential
sulfide minerals (i.e., typical disseminated for such vapors to carry significant metal
[Link] may also concentrations at high temperatures (e'g'
 Epit hermctI GoIcl Dertosits

Lowensternet ql. l99l). Hedenquistet al. (1994a) typical mineralogyof such deposits(l'able
3)
concludedthat ore was depositedby subsequent indicatesthe dominanceof sulfide lninerals
over
ingressof rnetal-rich liquids, and that the early sulfatesand oxides (althoughthe latter rninerals
acidic fluids acted merely to preparethe ground. may be important during later stages
of ore
The subsequent metalliferousfluids rverethought deposition).A condition for the formation of
to representthe condensedsaline componentof epithermaldepositshigh in Au:Cu may therefore
the original magmaticfluid phase,after extensive be the involvementof relativelyreducing,perhaps
dilution by externally-derived groundwaters. deeplycirculatinggroundwaters, as opposeclto the
Similarmechanismsare proposedfor the origin of oxidized surface fluids involved in acid-sulfate
metalliferous fluids in [Link],the nature of the
country
epithermaldeposits([Link] al. il987). rocks may play an importantrole in this regard.
Richardset al. (1991)proposed,on tlre basis Porgeraand Mt. Kare. for [Link] ernplacecl
of isotopic studies, that rnetals in the porgera in carbonaceous and pyritic black rnudstonesancl
epithermal system were derived largely by [Link], the local groundwaterscircu-
Ieachingof earlierdisseminated ore at depth. The lating around the intrusive system would be
latter mineralization, perhapsrepresentedin parl expectedto have been reducing, and probably
by stageI ore exposedat current mining levels, [Link] would thereforerepresentideal
was deposited by the early rnagmatic- solvents for Au during its transfer from the
hydrothermalsystemabove an unexposedsource magmatic-hydrothermal system, either by lluid
pluton. In the light of the need for efficiency in mixing or [Link],if much of the
ore-formingsystems,however,it may not in fact dissolvedsulfide in these epithermalfluids was
be necessary to proposea two-stageprecipitation- indeed derived from the sedimentary country
redissolutionmechanismto explain the isotopic rocks, this might explain the negative sulfur-
composition of the later ores. Instead, direct isotopiccompositionsof sulfide mineralsin stage
transfer of ore componentsto the circulating II ore comparedwith the 'magmatic' valuesof the
groundwatersystem may have been achievedby earlier base-metalsulfide veins (l Richards &
mixing with late-stage magmatic fluids, as Kerrich 1993).
suggestedfor other epithermalsystemsdiscussed Gold solubility may also have been enhanced
above. This mechanism may be particularly in these late fluids by the action of other
effective for the transfer of Au into the epithermal complexingagents,such as telluride species(e.g.
environment,due to the potential for Au to be Saunders& May 1986; Seward 1993).Although
dissolved as bisulfide complexes in otherwise no experimentaldata exist for the solubility of
relativelydilute [Link] otherbase- such complexes, Saunders & May (1986)
metalconcentrations, on the other hand,would be suggestedthat ditelluride species(AuTe2-)could
low in these groundwater-dominated fluids. This be significantly soluble under some epithermal
effect would be compounded if the fluids conditions.
concernedwere mildly reducing,thus raising the
activity of sulfide in solution to the detrimentof Epit hermal Au deposit ion
base-rnetalsolubility, but to the advantageof It is remarkably difficult to determine
[Link] isotopic compositionof the unequivocallythe dominant mechanism of ore
minor amountsof Pb found in stageII ores may depositionin [Link] is due in
indeed have been inherited from the earlier large part to the generally observed inverse
relativelyPb-rich mineralization,but Au, perhaps relationshipbefweenore-stagemineralsand fluid
along with V and Te, could have been derived inclusions. Thus, despite boiling being a
dominantly from fresh influxes of residual commonlyproposedmethodfor precipitatinggold
magmaticfluids. ([Link]& Ohmoto 1985;Sewardl9g9:
Although few direct measurement of Bowers 1991),the observationof classicboiling
oxidation state in epithermal fluids involved in fluid-inclusionassemblagesin direct association
alkalic systemscurrently exist, a glance at the with ore is relatively rare. Indeed,Hedenquist&

389
.[Link]

Henley ( 1985a, p. 1394) noted that calcite liquid-vapor immiscibility,therebyincreasingthe

depositedfrom boiling fluids in a geothermalwell depth,or pressure,at which phaseseparationwill
containedonly liquid-rich fluid inclusions,with first occur (Drummond & Ohmoto 1985: Bodnar
no evidenceofthe vapor phase. et al. 1985).Alternatively, for any given depth or
The Porgera Au deposit is a case in point pressure,the temperatureat which a fluid will
(Richards1992;Richards& Kerrich 1993) Gold startto unmix will be reduced.
deposition in the epithermalveins occurs at an The paucify of ore-relatedfluid inclusionsin
early stage in the vein [Link] is alkalic-type epithermal deposits means that
associatedwith tine-grainedsilica. This material measurements of gas content in the primary ore
containsfew fluid inclusions,althoughlatervuggy fluids are similarly rare, Nevertheless,the few
quartz radiating from these ore layers is rich in datathat erist in the literaturesuggestthat low but
[Link] this sisnificant concentrationsof CO2 and perhaps
lack of direct evidencefor boiling, theseauthcrs cther gasesare the norm (up to 2 mole o CO2,
proposedthat the earliestmaterialstc be deposited plus minor CHa. N2, or H2S; Table 3). Gas-
in the veins were associatedwith a brief per;odof chromatographanalyses of fluid inclusicns in
catastrophicphase [Link] flashing. resul- post-ore-stage vuggy quartzfrom Porgeraindicate
ting from depressurizationduring hydrothermal that volatile saturationcould indeedhaveoccurred
fracturingand brecciatiln Suddens';persaturation in these fluids. despite their relatively low
of the fluid with respect to ore and gangue temperatures and greater depths of formation
componentsresultedin rapid depositionof fine- comparedwith othertypesof epithermaldeposits.
grained ore and gangue minerals, in which few These characteristicsseem to be typical of the
visible fluid inclusionswere [Link] when alkalic ep:thermalgroup as a whole (ternperatures
conditions stabilized follcwing resealingof the commonly<200'C and pressuresup to 500 bars;
fracture system were large inclusionstrapped in Table 3), and mark thesedepositsapart from the
more slowly grown vuggy quartz,but by this time class;c near-surfaceadularia-sericiteand acid-
ore depositionhad ceased. sulfate epithermal systems(e.g. 200-300 oC and
Similar ambiguitiesare found in the ma_iority 100bars;Haybaet al 1985;Healdet al. 1987).
of epithermal deposits,of any krnd. studied to Gas-enhanced phase separation therefore
date. However, the widespread occurrenceof seemsto be a viablemechanismfor ore deposition
hydraulic fracturing and brecciation attest to in alkalic-typeepithermalsystems,and has been
suddenfluid-pressureand volume changes,which invoked for the majority of depositscr:nsidered
can reasonablybe explained in the epithermal [Link] certainly,however,this is not the
environment only by phase-separation rnecha- exclusivecontrol on Au precipitation,and other
nisms (e.g. Hedenquist& Henley 1985b:Nelson processessuch as wallrock interactionand fluid
& Giles 1985;Sibson1987;Parry& Bruhn 1990). mixing may be important localiy (e.g. the
Moreover,evidencefrom many active and fossil stratiformreplacementdepositsat Cripple Creek
geothermalsystemsindicatesthat fluid conditions and in the Montana alkalic province, vein
closely adhere to the two-phase cun'e on deposition at Emperor, as proposed by Kwak
pressure-temperaturediagrams. impiying that 1990).N{oreover,fluid mixing at depth has been
vapor saturationis a widespreadconditionin such invoked as a fundamental step in the transfer of
settings. componentsfrom the magmaticto the epithermal
An additional factor that may' enhancethe environment.
potentialfor boiling is the presenceof dissolved
gasesin the epithermalfluid. No shortageof such A GENERALMOonI FORALKALIC-TYPE
componentsis to be expectedin the deep fluid EprrrrnRIraL GOLD DEPOSITS
[Link] we have [Link]
containa srgnificantcontributionfrom magmatic- Alkalic epithermalgold deposits have been
derived volatile [Link] effect of dissolved distinguishedfrom other epithermaldeposittypes
gaseson aqueousflurds is to expandthe field of principally on the basis of their distinct

390
 Epithermal Gold Deposits

Figure 16. Four-stagegeneralizedmodel depictingthe developmenlof alkalic-type

epithermal
gold depositsin association with alkalicintrusivecomplexes.(a) Generationof alkalicmagmatism
in back-arc,post-subduction, or arc collisionalsettings.(b) Emplacementof magmasatlhallow
levels in the crust, by intrusion along trans-lithosphericfractures, and particularly
their
intersections.(c) Possible development of porphyry-style Cu-Mo-Au mrneralization
from
magmatic-hydrothermal fluids exsolved from the intrusions. (d) Groundwater-dominated
hydrothermalconvectionsystem,with epithermalAu-Te mineralizationdeveloped
where these
fluids are channelledto the surfacealong late structuralconduits.

associationwith alkaline igneousrocks. In the modified (r.e, metasomatized) mantle in such

process of reviewing the current literature on settings may result in the generationof small
these deposits, a number of other common volumes of water-bearing,relatively oxidized
featureshave been revealed,including consistent alkalinemagmas.
evidencefor the natureand sourcesof fluids and 2. Emplacement of thesesmall-volumemelts
volatiles involved in ore deposition, and a at shallow crustal levels is facilitated where
consensusthat the ore metals were ultimately extensive trans-crustal or trans-lithospheric
derived from the associatedigneousintrusionsby faulting existswithin the [Link]
magmatic-hydrothermal [Link] an attempt such structuresare particularlyfavorableloci for
to fulfil the objectivesset out at the beginningof intrusion,and commonly involve the reactivation
this review,therefore,the main featuresthat seem of old [Link] structures
to control the development of alkalic-type may be orientedobliquely to the prevailingstress
epithermalsystemsare depictedin Figure 16 and direction, and may be the focus for tensional
summarizedbelow. stressreleasein the form of pull-apartsand rifts
l. The associatedhydrousalkalic magmasare The tensionalregime extant during formation of
generatedthrough processesindirectly relatedto many deposits,despitethe large-scale collisional
subduction, but not within active arcs. The or convergentsetting, is demonstratedby their
magmas seem to be products either of post- common associationwith caldera structuresand
subduction tectonic readjustments,or back-arc normalfaults.
activity. Low degreesof melting of subduction- 3. A key requisite for the hydrothermal

l9l
.[Link]

extractionof Au from the magma is that removal type protore,then selectiveleaching by sulfide-
of chalcopliileelementsfrorn the melt by sulfide- rich, chloride-poorwaters may yield an Au-rich
liquid segregationshouldnot occur beforevolatile [Link],if Au remainsin solution
saturation. Ihis condition may be achieved by during the magmatic-hydrothermalstage, these
suppressiottof sulfur saturation through the residual auriferous fluids will mix with the
relatively oxidizing stateof the magma (sulfur is circulating groundwater system. From an
then rnostly presellt in the melt as sulfate, not efficiencystandpoint,the latter mechanismseems
sulfide). and promotion of volatile saturation preferable,as it obviatesthe necessityfor a two-
through its relativelyhigh primary water content. stage precipitation-redissolution [Link] may
,[Link]. or [Link] magrnasmay also explainthe enrichmentsin V and Te seenin
have been derived fiom a sulfur-depletedmantle thesedeposits,theseelementsbeing concentrated
lithosphere source. Tltus, the magmas are in late-stage magmatic differentiates and
crnplacedat shallorvcrustal levels bearingtheir emanations.
full mantle-derivedcomplementof chalcophile 6. For the resulting groundwaters to
elements,which can then be partitiorredinto an precipitateeconomic concentrationsof precious
exsolvingmagmaticvolatilephase. lnetals, and in particular the bonanza concen-
'fhe trations commonly found in these deposit types,
4. process of magmatic-hydrothermal
metal partitioning is thought to be analogousto an extremely effective depositional meclranism
that operating in typical porphyry-typesystems, must [Link],the epithermal
with Au segregatinginto a chloride-richvolatile ores are found in structurally-related veins and
phase, along w'ith Cu and other base metals. hydrothermalbreccias, indicating rapid, perhaps
'fhese
Depositionof ore-grademineralization from this explosiveascentof fluids from depth. fluids
high-ternperaturehydrothermalsystem is not a are also commonly gaseous(higher averageCO2
prerequisitefor tlie subsequerrt developrnentof an content than in other epithermaldeposit types),
epithermal deposit. and indeed. these two ore and although the fluid-inclusion record rarely
types may be to someextentmutually exclusive. preservesunequivocalevidence,it is thoughtthat
TIrus, Au may either precipitateearly along with phase separationis an integral factor in vein
base metals to fbrm a disseminatedCu-Au fonnationand ore [Link] rapid ascentof
orebody, or Inay remain in solution until the fluids and subsequentviolettt unmixing may
deposition at lower temperaturesand shallower be promotedby coeval movementon the related
levelsto form arrepithermaldeposit.A control on fault structures,causing depressurizationof the
the separationof Au from base metals by this f-luidreservoirand effervescence at relativelydeep
processmay be the oxidation state and sulfide levels. The volume change resulting from vapor
content of the liydrothermal fluids' After exsolution would cause further brecciation and
disproporlionationof rnagrnaticSO2 as the early hydraulic fracturing,leadingto the generationof
fluids cool, the activity of dissolvedsulfidewill cavity spacefor [Link] is
incrcasedrarnaticallyand basemetalswill tend to envisagedthat brecciationand phase separation
[Link], on the other hand, may remain are markedonly by the depositionof fine-grained,
in solution by conversiort from chloride to perhapsamorphoussilica. During reequilibration
bisulflde(or possiblytelluride)complexing. of the fluid to the new degassedconditions,
5. Following the main magmatic- however, gold and Au-Ag tellurides would
hydrothermal stage of activity, the system precipitateas a consequence of the breakdownof
becomes progressively flooded by heated, bisulfide complexes through loss of H2S to the
cvolved, relatil'ely reducing groundwaters'Two vapor phase and coupled oxidation of the
possiblcroutcsare then envisagedfor the transfer remainingliquid.
of ore corxponents fiorn the nlagmatic- To conclude on a cautiotrary note, it is
hydrothermal stage to these epitherrnalfluids. suggestedthat care must be taken not to over-
'alkalic' and
First, if Au has already been precipitatedfrom emphasizethe boundary between
solution, perhapsalong rvith Cu in a porphyry- other types of [Link] this review

392
 li p it hermal Go ld De pos its

attention has been lbcussed on a set ol deposit,r^[Link]. J. Earth Scr.37, i89- 199.
characteristicsthat arc distinctiveof a ceftain
groupof [Link] rnany,of these A l i D L i ( s U N , \ t ' . 8 . , A N I O i : 1 0 , l v l . , D A V I S . 8 . .
JONESG , . F . P .S 'I.N.
I'eatures
can be found,either individuallyor as a , E'|]'ERITIELD, & fUA. P
( 1 9 8 7 ) : T h e E m p e r o r e p i t h e r n r a lg o l d d e p o s i r .
subset,in otherdepositsthat might be classifiedas
V a t L r k o u l aF. i i i . I n P a c i f i c R i m C o n g r c s s 8 7 .
adularia-sericiteor [Link] of the
Prccecdings:The Geology. Strrrcturr:.1\,[Link]-
rnechanisms or-rtlinedin the above paragraphs,
z a t r o nu n d E c c n o m i c so f t h e P a c i f l cR i n r A u s t r a l .
including those relating to lnagrnatie-
I n s t \ { i n i r r gl v l e t a l. l9 - 1 2 .
hydrotherrnal [Link] exclusiveto the alkalic
cpitlrermal group,and it rs thereforclikelv that we ANDI,RSON, W.;l & L.r|fON, O.C. tt990): GokJ
aredealingwith a conrpletespectrunrol products n r i n e r a l i z a t i oat rt t h e i r n i p e r o rm i n e , V a t u k o u l a ,
deril'cd tiorl subtle variationsin a global ore- Fiii. J. Geochen. Explor. 36,261-2()6.
-
{brnringprocess that of lrydrothcrnral lurrcen-
trationof metalsfrom silicaternagmas. B A I L E Y , D . K . & I i . , \ \ 1 P i O N ,C N 4 .( 1 9 9 0 ) :V o l a r i l c s
i n a l k a l i n tm a - r : r n a t i sLnirt.l i i t , 2
s 6, l-571
- 6.5
ACKNOWLEDGNIENTS
BAKER, D.W. (1992): Central Montana alkaline
p r o v i n c ec: r i t i c : arle v i e r vc l f I a r a m i d ep l a l et e c l o n i c
This contribr-rtion
is dedicatedto thosekilled models that extract alkaline magmas tl-onr
at Porgerain an explosionon the minesite in abnormallythick Prccambrianlithosphericplate.
August 1994. I thank John Thompson fbr lt/or thwes' t GeoI og,t 20l2l, 7 | -95 .
providingthc rnotivationto write this [Link]
JcfFFledenquist, Par-rl
Sprv,Shen-SLr Sun,and my B A I - L H A U S ,C . , R Y A N , C . G . , M E R N A G I I . f . P . &
wif'e Lec Ervert fbr additional information and G R E E N , D . l I . ( 1 9 9 4 ) :T h e p a r t i t i o n i n go f F c , N i ,
cncouragemelrt to completethe -job. Paul Spry, Cu, Pt, and Au tretweensultlde, metal, and fluid
'l-hompson phases:A pilot strrdl'.Ccoclim. (osmoc'[Link]
Brent Mclnrrcs, and Johrr are also
5 8 . 8 1r - 8 2 6 .
thankedlbr perceptivereviews,but responsibility
lbr ornissionsand oversirnolillcations rerralns B A R N E S . S . - . 1 .B. O Y t ) " R . . K O R N E L I T J S S I T NA.. ,
lvith nre. N I L , S S O NL, . - P . ,O F I E N , M . , P E D E R S E NR , .B.
& ROBINS,B. (1988): fhe use of'manrle
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