Group 4
binongo, cyril
genobana, clair
Pague, Hannah
Villaraisa, hansel
Villaver, jorich
g
Balasabas, kessel
Servano, mary rose
Sasutil, sharmine
lonzaga, shian
Measures of
Ten de n c y a nd
s io n /v a ri ability
disper
APTER 7
CH
Table of contents
7.1 THE MEASURE OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY
7.2 NORMAL AND SKEWED
DISTRIBUTION
7.3
OUTCOME-BASED TEACHING-
LEARNING AND SCORE DISTRIBUTION
7.4 MEASURES OF DISPERSION
AND VARIABILITY
7.5 COMPARING
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND
DISPERSION / VARIABILITY
A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to
describe a set of data (like scores) by identifying the central
position within that set of data or scores. Central tendency
refers to the center of a distribution of observations.
THERE ARE THREE MEASURES CENTRAL TENDENCY:
> MEAN
> MEDIAN
> MODE
COMMON MEASURES OF DISPERSION OR VARIABILITY ARE RANGE,
INTERQUARTILE RANGE, VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION .
7. 1 The Me a s u r e s o f
Central T e n d e n c y
nd m ed ia n a re va lid m e a sure of
The mean, mode a
y but un de r dif fe re nt co nd itio ns , one
central tendenc
mea sure beco m es a p p ro p ria te th a n o the rs.
ig h a nd e xtr em e ly lo w , the
res a re ex tre m e ly h
Example: If the sco n cy sin ce m ean is
m ea sur e o f ce n tr a l ten d e
median is a be tter
h a nd ex tre me ly s co re s .
affected by extremely hig
i t h m e t i c )
Th e M e a n (ar
e o r a ri t h m e t i c
e a n ( o r a v e ra g
Th e m a n d m o s t w e l l
m o s t p o p u l a r
m e a n) i s t h e n d e n c y
r e o f c e n t r a l t e
kn o w n m e a s u
ol c l a s s o f th e
ra d u a te sc h o
tu d en t s i n a G , 80 ,
m p le , 10 s , 7 5 , 7 7 , 7 8
For exa 0 0 -i te m t e st : 7 0 , 7 2
sc o r es i n a 1 e n ts is th e s u m
following f th e g ro u p o f 1 0 s tu d
m e a n s co r e o r e is 8 0 5 / 10
84 ,9 0,9 2. Th e m e a n , th e r e fo
d e d b y 1 0 . T h e a r e 6
r e s d iv i . T h e r e
of their sco ra g e sc o re o f th e g ro u p
.5 is t h e a v e ( 8 4 , 8 7 , a nd
equals 80,80 c o r e (m e a n ) o f t h e g ro u p
lo w a v e ra g e s
scores be 92).
When not to Use Mean
-the mean has one main disadvantage. It is particularly to the influence of outliers.
For example, consider the score of 10 Grade 12 student in 100 item Statistics test below
The mean score for these ten Grade 12 students is 62.1. However inspecting the raw data suggests
that this mean score may not be best way to accurately reflect the score of the typical Grade 12
students as most students have scores in the 5 to 95 range. The mean is skewed by the extremely
low and extremely high scores. Therefore in this situation, we would like to have a better measures
of central tendency. As we find out later, taking the median would be a better measure or central
tendency in this situatio
median
-The median is the middle score for a set of scores arranged from lowest to highest. The
mean is less affected by extremely low and extremely high scores.
How do we find the median? Suppose we have the following data:
65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45 92
To determine the median, first we have to rearrange the scores into order of
magnitude (from smallest to largest).
14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89 92
Our median is the score at the middle of the distribution. In this case, 56. It is the
middle score. There are 5 scores before it and 5 scores after it.
mode
-the mode is the most frequent score in our data set. On a. histogram or bar chart
it represents the highest bar. If is a score of the number of times an option is
chosen in a multiple choice test You can therefore, sometimes consider the mode
as being the most popular option.
Study the score distribution given below:
87 89 65 56 56 55 55 14 35 45
There are two most frequent scores 55 and 56. So we have a score distribution
with two modes, hence a bimodal distribution
7.2 Normal and
Skewed Distributions
A SCORE DISTRIBUTION A SAMPLE HAS A "NORMAL DISTRIBUTION" WHEN MOST
OF THE VALUES ARE AGGREGATED AROUND THE MEAN, AND THE NUMBER VALUES
DECREASE AS YOU MOVE BELOW OR ABOVE THE MEAN: THE BAR GRAPH OF
FREQUENCIES OF A "NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED" SAMPLE WILL LOOK LIKE A BELL
CURVE.
Figure 13. Normal Distribution
If mean is equal to the median and
median is equal to the-mode, the
score distribution shows a perfectly
normal distribution. This is illustrated
by the perfect bell shape a normal
curve shown in Figure 13.
If mean is less than the
median and the mode, the
score distribution is a
negatively skewed
distribution.
fIGURE 15
If mean is greater than the
median and the mode, the
score distriution is positively
skewed distribution
7.3 Outcome-based teaching-
learning and score distribution
If the teachers teach in accordance with the principles of outcome-based
teaching-learning and so align content and assessment with the intended
learning outcomes and re-teach till mastery what has/have not been understood
as revealed by the formative assessment process, then student scores in the
assessment phase of the lesson will tend to congregate on the higher end of the
score distribution. Score distribution will be positively skewed.
On the other hand, if what teachers teach and assess are not aligned with
the intended learning outcomes, the opposite will be true. Score
distribution will be negatively skewed which means that scores tend to
congregate on the lower end of the score distribution.
7.4 mEASURES OF DISPERSION OR
VARIABILITY
-Indicate how spread out a group of scores is or
how varied the scores are.
Common measures of dispersion or variability are
Range, Variance and Standard Deviation
RANGE
What is variability?
it refers to how “spread out” a group of scores is. The terms
variability, spread, and dispersion are synonyms, and refer to
how spread out a distribution is.
Here are two sets of score distribution:
A - 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ,6 - Mean is 5,6
B - 1, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9 - Mean is 5,6
range
-The range is the most simple measure of variability. The range is simply the highest
score minus the lowest score.
HERE ARE EXAMPLES:
WHAT IS THE RANGE OF THE FOLLOWING GROUP OF SCORES: 10, 2, 5, 6, 7, 3, 4?
THE HIGHEST NUMBER IS 10 AND THE LOWEST NUMBER IS 2, SO 10 - 2 - 8.
THE HIGHEST NUMBER IS 99 AND THE LOWEST NUMBER IS 23, SO 99 - 23 EQUALS 76;
THE RANGE IS 76.
HERE IS ANOTHER SET OF SCORES: 40, 40, 42, 50, 53, 56, 67, 70, 89.
WHAT IS THE RANGE?
89 MINUS 40 EQUALS 49.
THE RANGE IS 49.
THE SET OF SCORES WITH A RANGE OF 76 IS MORE VARIED OR MORE SPREAD THAN THE SET OF
SCORES WITH A RANGE OF 49.
variance
-Variability can also be defined in
terms of how close the scores in the
distribution are to the middle of the
distribution.
The data from Quiz 1 are shown in Table 1. The mean
score is 7.0. Therefore, the column "Deviation from
Mean" contains the score minus 7. The column
"Squared Deviation" is simply the previous column
squared.
One thing that is important to notice is that the mean deviation from the
mean is 0. This will always be the case. The mean of the squared
deviations is 1.5. Therefore, the variance is 1.5. The formula for the
variance is:
Standard Deviation
To declare the standard deviation of those numbers:
1. Work out the Mean (the simple average of the numbers).
2. Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the
result
3. Then work out the Mean of those squared differences.
4. Take the square root of that and we are done!
The Formula Explained
First, let us have some example values to work on:
Example: Sam has 20 rose bushes.
The number of flowers on each bush is 9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7, 8, 11, 9, 3, 7, 4, 12, 5, 4, 10, 9,
6, 9, 4
Let's solve for the Standard Deviation.
1 Step 1. Work out the Mean
In the formula above u (the Greek letter "mu") is the Mean of all
our values...
Example: 9,2,5,4,12,7,8,11,9,3,7,4,12,5,4,10,9,6,9,4
The mean is:.
9+2+5+4+12+7+8+11+9+3+7+4+12+5+4+10+9+6+9+4
20 = 140 20=7
So μ = 7
Step 2. Then for each number: subtract the Mean and Square the result.
2 This is the part of the formula that says:
( Xi-μ)²
So what is x,? They are the individual x values 9,2,5,4,12,7, etc... In other
words X1=9, X,X3 = 5 etc.
So, it says "for each value, subtract the Mean and square the result," like this
Example (continued):
(9-7)²=(2)²=4
(2-7) = (-5)² =25
(5-7)²=(-2)²=4
(4-7)=(-3)² =9
(12-7)²=(5)²=25
(7-7)²=(0)²=0
(8-7)²=(1)²=1
Etc.......
And we get these results:
4,25,4,9,25,0,1,16,4,16,0,9,25,4,9,9,4,1,4,9
Step 3. Then work out the Mean of those squared differences.
3 To work out the Mean, add up all the values then divide by how many.
First add all the values from the previous step.
But how do we say"add them all up" in mathematics? We use"Sigma" Σ.
The handy Sigma Notation says to sum up as many terms as we want:
We want to add up all the values from 1 to N , where N=20 in our case because
there are 20 values.
Example (continued):
Which means: Sum all values from (x1-7)² to (xN-)²
We already calculated (x1-7)² =4 etc. in the previous step, so just sum them up:
= 4+25+4+9+25+0+1+16+4+16+0+9+25+4+9+9+4+1+4+9=178
But that isn't the Mean yet, we need to divide by how many, which is done by
multiplying by 1/N ( the same as dividing by N):
Example (continued):
Mean of squared differences=(1/20)x 178 = 8.9
(Note: this value is called the "Variance")
Step 4: Take the square root of that:
4 Example (concluded):
SAMPLE STANDARD DEVIATION
But sometime our data are only a sample of the whole population
Example: Sam has 20 rose ushes, but only counted the folowers on 6 of them!
The “population” is all 20 rose bushes, and the “sample” is the 6 bushes that Sam
counted among 20.
Let us say say Sam’s flower counts are: 9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7
We can still estimate the Standard Deviation.
But when we use the sample as an estimate of the whole population, the
Standard Deviation formula changes to this:
The formula for Sample Standard Deviation:
The important change is “N-1” instead of “N” (which is caled “Bessel’s
correction”).
The symbols also change to reflect that we are working on a sample instead
of the whole population:
The mean is now x (for sample mean) instead of μ (the population mean).
And the answer is s (the Sample Standard Deviation) instead of σ.
But that does not affect the calculations. Only N-1 instead of N changes the
calculation.
Here are the steps in calculating the Sample Standard Deviation.
Step 1. Work out the mean
Example 2: Using sampled values 9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7
The mean is (9+2+5+4+12+7)/6=39/6=6.5
So: x=6.5
Step 2. Then for each number; subtract the Mean and square the result
Example 2 (continued):
(9-6.5)^2=(2.5)^2=6.25
(2-6.5)²=(-4.5)²=20.25
(5-6.5)²=(-1.5)²=2.25
(4-6.5)²=(-2.5)²=6.25
(12-6.5)²=(5.5)²=30.25
(7-6.5)²=(0.5)²=0.25
Step 3. Then work out the mean of those squared differences. To work out the
mean, add up all values then divide by how many.
But hang on... we are calculating the Sample Standard Deviation, so instead of dividing
by how many (N), we will divide by N-1.
Example 2 (continued):
Sum=6.25+20.25+2.25+6.25+30.25+0.25=65.5
Divide by N-1: (1/5) x 65.5 = 13.1
(This value is called the "Sample Variance")
Step 4. Take the square root of that:
Example 2 (concluded):
7.5 Comparing
When we used the whole population we got: Mean = 7, Standard Deviation 2.983...
When we used the sample we got: Sample Mean = 6.5, Sample Standard Deviation =
3.619...
Our Sample Mean was wrong by 7%, and our Sample Standard Deviation was wrong
by 21%
Why Take a Sample?
Mostly because it is easier and cheaper.
Imagine you want to know what the whole university thinks. you can't ask
thousands of people, so instead you ask maybe only 300 people.
Samuel Johnson once said "You don't have to eat the whole ox to know that the
meat is tough."
