Microwave Theory and

Techniques
J V ANAND
ECE Department
Siddhartha Institute of Science and Technology
(Autonomous),
Puttur, Tirupati (Dist.), AP.
• Introduction of Microwave: Introduction to
Microwaves - History of Microwaves, Microwave
Frequency bands, Applications of Microwaves.
Mathematical Model of Microwave Transmission -
Concept of Mode, Mode Characteristics – Phase and
Group Velocities, Wavelengths and Impedance
Relations.
• Power Transmission and Power Losses in Rectangular
Guide - Features of TEM, TE and TM Modes, Losses
associated with microwave transmission, Concept of
Impedance in Microwave transmission.
• Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves or
radio waves having frequency in terms of
Gigahertz.

• The Electromagnetic waves between 1GHz

and 300 GHz are known as microwaves.
Frequen Frequency range Wavelength Application
cy Band (GHz) (cm)

L 1-2 15-30 GSM, CDMA, Marine satellite

S 2-4 7.5 -15 Weather surface ship, RADAR,
Bluetooth, Zigbee, Wifi and
Microwave Oven.
C 4-8 3.75 -7.5 Satellite communications
X 8-12 2.5 -3.75 Educational Purpose
Ku 12-18 1.67-2.5 VSAT, Satellite TV
K 18-27 1.11-1.67 Armature Satellite, Infrared
Astronomy
Ka 27-40 0.75- 1.11 Low range High Resolution
RADAR
V 40-75 0.4 – 0.75 High capacity mmwave terrestrial
communication
W 75-110 0.27-0.4 mmWave RADAR
Frequency band Frequency Range
F 90-140 GHz
D 110-170 GHz
G 140-220 GHz
• The microwaves frequencies span the
following three major bands at the highest
end of RF spectrum.
Ultra high frequency (UHF) 0.3 to 3 GHz
Super high frequency (SHF) 3 to 30 GHz
Extra high frequency (EHF) 30 to 300 GHz
• Most application of microwave technology
make use of frequencies in the 1 to 40 GHz
range.
• A microwave system normally consists of a
transmitter subsystems, including a
microwave oscillator, wave guides and a
transmitting antenna, and a receiver
subsystem that includes a receiving antenna,
transmission line or wave guide, a microwave
amplifier, and a receiver.
• Reflex Klystron, gunn diode, Traveling wave
tube, and magnetron are used as a microwave
sources.
• Isolators provide low attenuation for the
forward direction and high attenuation for
reverse direction to avoid reflected power.
• Attenuator provides attenuation for the
power depends upon the microwave
application.
• In order to design a microwave system and
conduct a proper test on it, an adequate
knowledge of the components involved are
essential.
Therefore, a first course on microwave should
include three major areas of study, namely
i) Microwave transmission lines and waveguides
ii) Microwave circuits elements, and
iii) Microwave source, amplifier and detector
 Applications of Microwave

• The domestic microwave oven operates at

2,450 MHz and uses a magnetron tube with a
power output of 500 to 1000 W.
• For industrial heating applications, such as
drying grain, manufacturing wood and paper
products, and material curing, the frequencies
of 915 and 2,450 MHz have been assigned.
 History of Microwave
• During World War II and shortly afterward),
microwave engineering was almost
synonymous with radar (flAdio Detection And
Ranging) engineering because of the great
stimulus given to the development of
microwave systems by the need for high-
resolution radar capable of detecting and
locating enemy planes and ships
 History of Microwave
• Nello Carrara in 1932 gave the Microwave frequency
which is 1GHz or 109 Hz.

• Olliver Heavside (1885 -1887)

in Foundation of Electromagnetic waves.
• Maxwell (1831-1879)
• Predicted the existence of Electomagnetic waves
experimentally and theoretically.
• Henrich Hertz (1888)
Proved the existence of EM waves by Maxwell.
Generated Microwave at 66cm wavelength at 454.5MHz.
Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937)
Transmitted information on an experimental
basis “L band signals at 1.18 GHz”.

Fleming (1904)
Discovered vaccum tubes which a source of
Microwave generation.
Klystron Tubes (1937)
Magnetron Tube (1921)
• Terrestrial microwave links have been used for many years.
• The TD-2 system was put into service in 1948 as part of the
Bell Network. It operated in the 3.7- to 4.2-GHZ band and
had 480 voice circuits, each occupying a 3.1-kHz
bandwidth.
• In 1974, the TN-1 system operating in the 10.7- to 11.7-GHz
band was put into operation.
• This system had a capacity of 1,800 voice circuits or one
video channel with a 4.5-MHz bandwidth. Since that time
the use of terrestrial microwave links has grown rapidly.
 Concept of Mode
Microwave Transmission system
needs
Model of EM Signals

All Electromagnetic signals obeys Maxwell’s

laws.
• There are a minimal number of
independent solutions such that EM
waves can be expressed as linear
combination of them.
These minimal number of independent
solutions are called modes.
• Modes are mutually independent solutions
of Maxwell’s equation such that every
possible electromagnetic field configuration
can be expressed as a linear combination of
these modes.
• Any far away distributed source of EM field is
considered as a point source.
• Any nearby distributed source is a collection
of point sources.
 Point source
• Radiates in all directions.
• Point source does not have preference in any
direction.

• No real source is a point source.

 Mathematical Model of Microwave
Transmission

• For waves propagating in z direction

TEMz, TEz, TMz
• For waves propagating in y direction
TEMy , TEy, TMy
• For waves propagating in x direction
TEMx , TEx, TMx
 Generic field distribution
• Any 3D vector field
will have two components namely
transverse and longitudinal components.

Longitudinal component is along the Z plane

Transverse component is along the X-Y plane.
• If we can write all the transverse components
of Electric field as well as Magnetic fields in
terms of two longitudinal components Ez and
Hz, then it is possible.
• Transverse Electric field (TEz)
• Ez =0
• Hz not equal to zero
Transverse Magnetic field (TMz)
Ez not equal to zero
Hz =0
Transverse Electric and Magnetic field (TEMz)
Ez =0
Hz=0
• Wave guide:

• A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross

section for transmitting EM waves by
successive reflection from the inner walls of
the tube.
• Rectangular waveguide
It is a hollow metallic tube with a
rectangular cross section.
The conducting walls of the waveguide
confine the EM fields and thereby guide the
EM waves.
• Waveguide propagation modes depends on
the operating wavelength and polarization
and shape.
TE Modes
• Have no electric field components in the
direction of propagation.
TM Modes
• Have no magnetic field components in the
direction of propagation.
• TEM Modes
• Have no electric and magnetic field
components in the direction of propagation.
 Cut off Frequency

• It is the frequency of a signal above which

propagation of wave occurs.
2 2
c  m   n 
fc =   +  
2  a   b 

Cut off frequency is given by fc

Speed of light is given by c

Waveguide measurements are “a” and ”b”.

The m and n denotes the half cycle variations.

• The frequency of propagation constant
becomes zero.
 Cut off Wavelength

• Cut off wavelength is denoted by (λc)

c
λc =
fc

λc is cut off wavelength

c is speed of light
fc is cut off frequency

c
λc =
2 2
c m n
  + 
2  a  b
 2
λc =
2 2
m n
  + 
 a  b
 Phase velocity
• It is the rate at which the wave changes its
phase in terms of in a direction parallel to the
conducting surface.
• It can be understood as the change in velocity
of the wave component of a sine wave when
modulated.
 c
Vp =
2
 λ 
1 −  
 λc 
Phase velocity is Vp
Velocity of light is c
Free space wavelength is λ
Cut off wavelength is λc
 Group Velocity
• It is the velocity at which the wave propagates
through the waveguide.
2
 λ 
Vg = c 1 −  
 λc 

Group velocity is Vg
Velocity of light is c
Free space wavelength is λ
Cut off wavelength is λc
 Guided Wavelength
• Distance travelled by a wave when it
undergoes a phase variation of 2π radians.

2π
λg =
β
Derivation of Cut off Frequency

h = δ + ω µε
2 2 2

Substitute h2

2 2
 mπ   nπ 
h =
2
 + 
 a   b 
 2 2
 mπ   n π 
 +
   = δ 2
+ ω 2
µε
 a   b 

At cut off frequency f=fc, and ω = ωc

2 2
 mπ   nπ 
δ =
2
+
   − ω c µε
2

 a   b 
 2 2
 mπ   nπ 
ω c µε = 
2
 + 
 a   b 

2 2
1  mπ   nπ 
ωc2 =   +  
µε  a   b 

1   mπ 
2
 nπ  
2 2
ωc =   +  
µε   a   b  
 1

1  mπ   nπ  
2 2 2
2πf c =   +  
µε  a   b  

1  mπ   nπ  
 2 2 2
1
fc =   +  
2π µε  a   b  

1 1 m n 
2 2 2
fc = π   +   
2π µε  a   b  
 1

1 1  m   n  
2 2 2
fc =   +   
2 µε  a   b  

1
c=
µε
1

c  m   n  
2 2 2
f c =   +   
2  a   b  
Derivation of Phase Velocity
λ g
v p =
T
T denotes unit time
Since : f=1/T

vp = λg f

2πf
vp =
β
 ω
vp =
β

h = δ + ω µε
2 2 2

Substitute h2

2 2
 mπ   nπ 
h =2
 + 
 a   b 
 2 2
 mπ   nπ 
 +  = δ + ω µε
2 2

 a   b 

2 2
 mπ   nπ 
δ =
2
 +  − ω µε
2

 a   b 
 δ = α + jβ

α =0 Attenuation constant

δ = jβ

2 2
 mπ   nπ 
( jβ ) 2
=  +  − ω µε
2

 a   b  Equation 1
• At cut off frequency f=fc, and ω = ω c
2 2
δ = 0
 mπ   nπ 
0= +
   − ω c µε
2

 a   b 

2 2
 mπ   n π 
ω c µε = 
2
 + 
 a   b  (Equation 2)

Substituting Equation 2 in Equation 1

 2 2
 mπ   nπ 
−β =
2
+
   − ω 2
µε
 a   b 

− β = ω c µε − ω µε
2 2 2

β = ω µε − ω c µε
2 2 2
β = ω µε − ω c µε
2 2

ω
vp =
ω µε − ω c µε
2 2

1 ω
vp =
µε ω 2
−ωc
2
 cω
vp =
ω 2 − ωc 2

cω
v p =
ωc 2

ω 1−
ω 2
 c
vp =
ωc 2
1− 2
ω

c
vp =
2πf c
1−
2πf

c
vp =
fc
1−
f
• Substituting
c
λ=
f

c
f =
λ

c
fc =
λc

c
vp =
λ
1−
λc
Derivation of Group Velocity
dw
Vg =
dβ

β = ω µε − ω µε
2 2
c

dβ 1
= 2ωµε
dw 2 ω 2 µε − ω c2 µε
dβ ωµε
=
dw ω µε − ω c µε
2 2

dβ ωµε
=
dw µε ω 2 − ω c2

dβ ω µε
=
dw ω 2 − ω c2
 dβ ω µε
=
dw ω 
2

ω 1−  c 
ω 

dβ µε
=
dw ωc 
2

1−  
 ω 
• Rewritting the equation to find dw/dB
2
ωc 
1−  
dw  ω 
=
dβ µε

2
dw ωc 
= c 1−  
dβ  ω 
 2
dw  2πf c 
= c 1 −  
dβ  2πf 

2
dw  fc 
= c 1 −  
dβ  f 

2
 fc 
v g = c 1 −  
 f 
 2
λ 
v g = c 1 −  0 
 λc 
 Relation between Normal wavelength, Guided
free space wavelength and Cut off wavelength
• Normal wavelength λ0
• Guided free space wavelength λg
• Cut off Wavelength λc
ω
VP =
β

Substitute, β= 2π/λg

2πf
VP =
2π
λg
 VP = λ g f

Substitute Vp formula

c
= λ g f
2
 λ 
1 −  0

 λ c 

c
= λ g
2
 λ 
f 1 −  0

 λ c 
 λ0
= λg
2
λ 
1 −  0 
 λc 

Relation between λ0, λc and λg

 Wave Impedance of TE and TM mode

• It is defined as the ratio of strength of Electric

field in one transverse direction to the
strength of magnetic field along other
transverse direction.
 Ex
Zz =
Hy
(Or)

Ey
Zz =
Hx
 TM Mode
2
µ  λ0 
Z TM = 1 −  
ε  λC 
For air

µ
= 120π = 377ohm = η
ε

Z TM < η

λ0 < λ c
 TE Mode

η
Z TE =
2
 λ 
1 −  0

 λ C 

Z TE > η

λ0 < λ c
 Derivation of TM Mode
• Hz=0, Hy
• Ex

 γ ∂E z jωH ∂H z 
 − 2 − 2 
Ex  h ∂x h ∂y 
Z TM = =
Hy  γ ∂H z jωH ∂E z 
 − 2 − 2 
 h ∂y h ∂x 

Substitute Hz=0
  γ ∂E z 
− 2 
h ∂x 
= x = 
E
Z TM
H y  jωε ∂E z 
− 2 
 h ∂x 

γ
Z TM =
jωε

γ = α + jβ
 α =0
γ = jβ
jβ
Z TM =
jωε

β
Z TM =
ωε
Equation A
Expression in terms of Frequency

β = µε ω − ω c 2 2

Substituting in equation A

µε ω − ω c 2 2

Z TM =
ωε
 µε ω 2 − ω 2c
Z TM =
ε2 ω2

µ ω 2 − ω 2c
Z TM =
ε ω2

ω 2c
Z TM = η 1− 2
ω
• Wave Impedance is always less than intrinsic
impedance.
Derivation of TE Mode

Ex
Z z = Z TE =
Hy
  γ ∂E z jωµ ∂H z 
 − 2 − 2 
∂x ∂y 
= x = 
E h h
Z TE
Hy  γ ∂H z jωH ∂E z 
 − 2 − 2 
 h ∂y h ∂x 

Substituting Ez=0

 jωµ ∂H z 
 − 2 
∂y 
= x =
E h
Z TE
Hy  γ ∂H z 
 − 2 
 h ∂y 
 Ex − jωµ
Z TE = =
Hy (− γ )

E x ωµ
Z TE = =
Hy β
Expression in terms of frequency

ωµ
Z TE =
µε ω 2 − ω 2 c

µ 1
Z TE =
ε  ωc 2 
1 − 
 ω 2 
 
 η
Z TE =
 ωc 2 
1 − 
 ω 2 
 

Wave Impedance is greater than intrinsic Impedance.

 Dominant Mode
• The mode having the highest cut of
wavelength is known as Dominant mode.

OR

• The mode having the lowest frequency is

known as Dominant mode.
Dominant mode of rectangular
waveguide

2ab
λc =
m 2b 2 + n 2 a 2

TE00 does not exist

TE01, TE10, TE11 exist

• TE01
2ab
λc 01 =
m 2b 2 + n 2 a 2

m=0 and n=0

2ab
λc 01 = = 2b
a2
• TE10
2ab
λc10 =
m 2b 2 + n 2 a 2
m=1 and n=0

2ab
λc10 = = 2a
b2
• TE11
2ab
λc11 =
m 2b 2 + n 2 a 2
m=1 and n=1

2ab
λc11 =
a2 +b2
• Cut off wavelength for TE modes

λc01=2b

λc10=2a
λc10 is having the highest cut off wavelength.
TE10 is having the highest cut off wavelength in
dominant mode.
 TM Modes
• TM00, TM01, TM10 does not exist.

• TM11

2ab
λc11 =
a2 +b2
 Degenerate modes
• Some of the higher order modes having same
cut off frequency (fc) are called degenerate
modes.

2 2
c  m   n 
fc =   +  
2  a   b 
• TE 11
2 2
c  1   1 
f c 11 =   +  
2  a   b 

• TM 11
2 2
c  1   1 
f c 11 =   +  
2  a   b 
 Measurement of Impedance

• Impedance of a microwave can be measured

using anyone of the following measurements

• Magic Tee
• Slotted line
• Reflectometer
 Measurement of Impedance Slotted line

using slotted line position of Vmax and Vmin and also VSWR are accurately determined
• When load is not properly matched to the
waveguide reflections occur the incident and
reflected waves will combine to produce a
standing wave which contains Vmax and Vmin.

• Input signal power can be adjusted with the

help of this variable attenuator.
• Using slotted line the position of Vmax and Vmin
and also VSWR are accurately measured.
• The unknown measurements can be obtained
by data recorded using a Smith chart.

• The magnitude and phase of reflection

coefficient can be measured in this method.
 Measurement of Impedance using
Reflectometer
• The reflectometer indicates the magnitude of
Impedance but not the phase angle whereas
slotted section measure gives both.
• Two directional coupler are used to sample
incident power Pi and Reflected power Pr from
the load.
• The magnitude of reflection coefficient ρ can
be directly obtained from th reflectometer
from which impedance can be calculated
ZL − Zg
ρ=
ZL + Zg
• Zg Known Impedance
• ZL unknown Impedance

• Due to directional coupler properties there

will be no interference between forward and
reverse waves.
• The input power is kept low by means of
variable attenuator.
 Losses in Microwave transmission
• Microwave transmissions occur through
• Coaxial cables, Metallic waveguide, Optical
fibers and Microstrip lines.
• Transmission structures are made up of either
dielectric or conductor, or a mixture of both.
• An Ideal conductor has infinite conductivity,
so lossless.
• An Ideal dielectric has zero conductivity, so
lossless.
• A practical conductor has finite conductivity,
so lossy.
• A practical dielectric has finite conductivity, so
lossy.
• At microwave frequency losses of the
transmission structure should be small to be
usable.
• EM waves in a lossy medium has non zero
attenuation constant.
• Loss of a conductor is characterized by
attenuation constant due to conductor loss ɑc.
• Loss of a dielectric is characterized by
attenuation constant due to conductor loss ɑd.

• Total Loss of transmission structure is sum of

conductor loss and dielectric loss.
α = αd + αc
• For Lossy structure the propagation constant

δ = α + jβ

δ Propagation constant

α Attenuation constant

β Phase constant
 Microwave Transmission lines

Single Conductor Multi

Conductor Open
Transmission Lines Boundary
Transmission
Lines structure

Rectangular Waveguide
Circular Waveguide Coaxial Lines
Strip lines Dielectric
Elliptical Waveguide
Microstrip lines Open
Single Ridge Waveguide
Slot Lines Waveguide
Double Ridge Waveguide
Coplanar lines
• When source Impedance is not equal to Load
Impedance then losses occurs.
• Attenuation Loss
• Reflection Loss
• Return Loss
• Transmission loss
• Insertion Loss
 Attenuation Loss

• Absorption of signal in transmission line

 E − Er 
AL = 10 log10  i 
 Et 

Ei is the Energy of Input

Er Reflected energy from source to the input
ET Transmitted Energy to the load
 Reflection Loss

 Ei 
RL(dB ) = 10 log10  
 Ei − E r 
 Transmission Loss

 Ei 
TL(dB ) = 10 log10  
 Et 
 Return Loss

 Ei 
RL(dB ) = 10 log10  
 Er 
 Insertion Loss
• Energy received by load without a
transmission line (E1).
• Energy received by load with a transmission
line(E2).

 E1 
IL(dB ) = 10 log10  
 E2 
Power Transmission and Power Losses
in Rectangular Guide
• Power transmitted in a waveguide and power
losses in the guide walls can be calculated by
Pyonting theorem.

Ptr = ∫ Pds

Ptr = ∫ (E × H )ds
• For a lossless dielectric the time average of
power flow through a rectangular waveguide
is given by
• 1
∫
2
Ptr = E da Equation A

2Z z
Where Zz

Ex
Zz =
Hy
 2 2
E = Ex + E y
2

H = Hx + Hy
2 2 2

Average power transmitted through a rectangular waveguide of dimension a and b .

• For TEmn & Tmmn is given by

• TEmn
• Substituting the value of ZTE and E
 η
Z TE =
2
 λ 
1 −  0

 λ C 

2
 λ0 
1 −  

∫ ∫ [E ]dxdy
 λC
b a
 2 2
Ptr = + Ey
2η
x
0 0
• Tmmn
λ 
Z TM = η 1 −  
 λc 

∫ ∫ [E ]dxdy
b a
1
Ptr = + Ey
2 2
x
2
 λ0  0 0
2η 1 −  
 λC 
Power Losses in Rectangular Guide
• Losses in a waveguide can be due to
attenuation below cut off frequency, losses
due to dissipation within the waveguide
walls and the dielectrics within the
waveguide.
• At frequency below the cutoff frequency
(f< fc) the propagation constant will have only
one term
2π
λg =
β
β becomes imaginary implying wave
attenuation
 2π
β=
λg
λ0
λg =
2
 λ0  In terms of wavelength
1 −  
 λc 

λ0
λg = In terms of frequency
2
f 
1 −  c 
 f 
 2
f 
2π 1 −  c 
 f 
β=
λ0

2
fc  f 
2π   − 1
f  fc 
β=
λ0

c
λ0 =
f
 2
 f 
2πf c   − 1
 fc 
β=
c
fc
= λc
c
2
 f 
2π   − 1
 fc 
β=
λc
 2
2π  fc 
α= 1 −  
λc  f 
dB per unit length

For f>fc the waveguide exhibits a very low loss

f<fc Attenuation is high

Cut off attenuation constant is given by

2
54.6  fc  dB/length
α= 1 −  
λc  f 
 Power Losses in a rectangular
waveguide
Power Losses in a rectangular waveguide
OR
Attenuation in a rectangular waveguide:
Reflective attenuation(no wave propagation)
(f< fc)
Dissipative Attenuation(wave starts
propagation)
(f>fc)
• Dissipative Attenuation is classified into two
types:

• Dielectric loss
• Conductor loss
• Reflective attenuation
2π
λg =
β

2π
β=
λg
 λ0
λg =
2
λ  In terms of wavelength
1 −  0 
 λc 

λ0
λg =
2 In terms of frequency
f 
1 −  c 
 f 

2
f 
2π 1 −  c 
 f 
β=
λ0
γ = α + jβ
Propagation constant is zero

α = jβ
2
 fc 
2π 1 −  
 f 
α = jβ = j
λ0
 Dissipative attenuation

σ dη
α d =
2
 fc 
2 1 −  
 f 
ɑd dielectric loss

σ d Conductance of the material.

η Intrinsic Impedance
• Conductor loss for TM mode

2
σd  λ0 
αc = η 1 −  
2  λc 
TE TM TEM

Electric Filed intensity Magnetic Filed intensity Neither Electric or Magnetic

does not exist in does not exist in Filed intensity does not exist in
Longitudinal direction Longitudinal direction Longitudinal direction

One conductor support one conductor support Requires Two conductor support
for propagation. for propagation. for propagation.
Example Waveguide Waveguide Example
Transmission lines

Wave Equation is for Wave Equation is for

rectangular waveguide rectangular waveguide
∆2 H z = −ω 2 µεH z ∆2 E z = −ω 2 µεE z

Wave Impedance is Wave Impedance is

always greater than always less than Intrinsic
Intrinsic Impedance Impedance
 TE TM

η µ λ 
2

Z TE = Z TM = 1 −  0 
2 ε  λC 
λ 
1 −  0 
 λC 

Dominant mode wave propagation Dominant mode wave propagation

occurs at occurs at TM11 mode.
TE01, TE10 and TE11 mode.
 Problem 1
• The dimensions of a guide are 2.5x1 cms.The
frequency is 8.6 GHz. Find the cutoff
frequencies for TE10 and TE01 mode
 Problem 2
• A rectangular waveguide has a=4cms;b=3cms
as its sectional dimensions. Find all the modes
which will propagate at 5000MHz
 Problem 3
• A circular waveguide operating in the dominat
mode at a frequency of 9 GHz with maximum
field strength of 300V/cm. The internal
diameter is 5cm. Calculate the maximum
power
 Unit II
J V ANAND
ECE Department
Siddhartha Institute of Science and Technology
(Autonomous),
Puttur, Tirupati (Dist.), AP.
• Microwave Parameters: Analysis of RF and
Microwave Transmission Lines - Coaxial line,
Rectangular waveguide, Circular waveguide,
Cavity resonator, Strip line, Micro strip line.
Microwave Network Analysis - Equivalent
voltages and currents for non-TEM lines,
Ferrite Components – Faraday Rotation, S-
Matrix Calculations for Gyrator, Isolator,
Circulator, Related Problems.
 Microwave Transmission Line
• Conventional Open wire lines are unsuitable
for microwave transmission because of high
radiation losses that occur when wavelength
becomes smaller than physical length of these
lines at higher frequencies.
 Microwave Transmission lines

Single Conductor Multi

Conductor Open
Transmission Lines Boundary
Transmission
Lines structure

Rectangular Waveguide
Circular Waveguide Coaxial Lines
Strip lines Dielectric
Elliptical Waveguide
Microstrip lines Open
Single Ridge Waveguide
Slot Lines Waveguide
Double Ridge Waveguide
Coplanar lines
 Microwave Transmission Lines -
Coaxial line
• Coaxial transmission line is used for high
frequency applications.
• An Ideal two conductor line consist of inner
circular perfect conductor and outer circular
perfect conductor .
• The space between the conductor is filled with
a uniform lossless homogenous dielectric
constant εr.
• Inner Conductor has a diameter “d”
• Outer conductor has a diameter “D”
• The two conductors are of different potentials.

• The outer conductor is grounded so V=0

• Inner conductor is provided with a potential
V= V0
• The magnetic field is in green and the
electrical field will be emerging out of the
conductor is in red.
• Dominant mode of a coaxial line is the TEM
mode although higher modes do exist.

• The Lower order mode is TE11

• The Higher order mode is TM01

• Cut off wavelength of these modes are

• TE11 approx π (D+d) and
• TM01 approx 2(D-d)
• Hence the average circumference at the inner
and outer conductors in the propagating cross
section of the coaxial line should be less than
the operating wavelength to avoid higher
order interference.
• Mode patterns the coaxial lines are non
radiating since the electric and magnetic
fields are confined between inner and outer
conductors.
• Co axial lines can operate upto 40 GHz due to
the development of precision connectors for
smaller diameter coaxial cables.
• Characteristic impedance of coaxial line is

1 µ D
R0 = ln ohms
2π ε d
Since µr=1, for non magnetic material substituting εoµo we get

60 D
R0 = ln ohms
µr  d 
Velocity of Propagation for coaxial
cable
1 c
v= = m/s
µε µrε r
Since μr=1
1
c =
µ 0 ε 0

1
v= m/s
εr
 Problem
• A coaxial line has the following physical
dimensions. Diameter of inner
conductor=0.49cm,Inner diameter of outer
conductor=1.10cm,
• Polyethylene dielectric €r=2.3.
• Calculate i) Inductance per unit lengths
• ii) Capacitance per unit length
• iii) characteristic impedance
• iv) the velocity of propagation.
 TE Mode propagation in Rectangular
waveguide
• The TE mode propagation has Ex, Hx
Ey, Hy
Ez, Hz
As per the wave equation

∆ H z = −ω µεH z
2 2

Substituting Equation 1

Δ2 value
 ∂2H z ∂2H z ∂2H z
+ + = −ω 2
µεH z
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2

∂2
= γ 2

∂z 2
∂2H z ∂2H z
+ + γ 2
H Z = −ω 2
µεH z
∂x 2
∂y 2

∂2H z ∂2H z
+ + γ 2
H Z + ω 2
µεH z = 0
∂x 2
∂y 2

∂2H z ∂2H z
+ + H Z (γ 2
+ ω 2
µε ) = 0
∂x 2
∂y 2
 h 2 = γ 2 + ω 2 µε
∂2H z ∂2H z
+ + h 2
HZ = 0 Equation 2
∂x 2
∂y 2

H z = XY
X is a pure function of x only.
Y is a pure function of y only
Assume

X = (C 1 CosBx + C 2 SinBx )

Y = (C 3 CosAy + C 2 SinAy )
H = (C CosBx + C SinBx)
z 1 2

(C CosAy + C SinAy)
3 4

Equation 3
 Boundary Conditions
BC-1
• Ex=0 at y=0 It is true for x varying from 0 to a
BC-2
• Ex=0 at y=b It is true for x varying from 0 to a
BC-3
Ey=0 at y=0 It is true for y varying from 0 to b
BC -4
Ey=0 at x=a It is true for y varying from 0 to b
 γ ∂E z
jωµ ∂H z
Ex = − 2 − 2
h ∂x h ∂y

Since Ez =0

jωµ ∂H z
Ex = − 2
h ∂y

jωµ ∂
Ex = − 2 [H z ]
h ∂y
Equation 4
 Substituting Equation 3 in equation 4

jωµ∂
Ex =− 2 [(C1CosBx )(C3CosAy+C2SinBy
+C2SinBx
h ∂y
 Problem
• An air filled rectangular waveguide of inside
dimensions operates in the dominant TE10
mode as shown in following figure. Compute
the cut off frequency and determine the
guided wavelength at the frequency 3.5 GHz.
• A TE11 Mode is propagating through a circular
waveguide. The radius of the guide is 5 cm,
and the guide contains an air dielectric.
Compute the cutoff frequency.
 Circular waveguide
• TM Mode in circular waveguide
• Ez, Hz
• Eρ, Hɸ
• Hρ, Eɸ

• Solving we find Ez and substitute it in the other

wave components.
 ∆2 E z = −ω 2 µεE z

Substituting Δ2

∂ 2
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 2
∂ 2
∆2 = 2 + + 2 + 2
∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ 2
∂z

∂ 2 E z 1 ∂E z 1 ∂ 2 Ez ∂ 2 Ez
+ + + = −ω 2
µεE z
∂ρ 2
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ2 2
∂z 2

∂ 2 E z 1 ∂E z 1 ∂ 2 Ez ∂ 2 Ez
+ + + + ω 2
µεE z = 0
∂ρ 2
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ2 2
∂z 2
∂ 2 E z 1 ∂E z 1 ∂ 2 Ez
+ + + γ 2
E + ω 2
µεE z = 0
∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ
2 2 2 z

∂ 2 E z 1 ∂E z 1 ∂ 2 Ez
+ + + (γ 2
+ ω 2
µε ) E z = 0
∂ρ 2
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ2 2

∂ 2 E z 1 ∂E z 1 ∂ 2 Ez
+ + + h 2
Ez = 0
∂ρ 2
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ2 2

Substitute Ez=PQ

P is a function of ρ only
Q is a function of ɸ only
∂ 2 PQ 1 ∂PQ 1 ∂ 2 PQ
+ + + h 2
PQ = 0
∂ρ 2
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ
2 2

∂ 2 P Q ∂P P ∂ 2 Q
Q 2 + + 2 + h 2
PQ = 0
∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ 2

Dividing by 1/PQ on both sides

1 ∂2P 1 ∂P 1 ∂ 2Q
+ + + h 2
=0
P ∂ρ 2
Pρ ∂ρ Qρ ∂φ
2 2

Multiplying by ρ2 on both side

ρ 2 ∂ 2 P ρ ∂P 1 ∂ 2Q
+ + + h ρ =0
2 2

P ∂ρ 2
P ∂ρ Q ∂φ 2

1 ∂ 2Q
= −n 2
Q ∂φ 2

ρ 2 ∂ 2 P ρ ∂P
+ − n 2
+ h ρ =0
2 2

P ∂ρ 2
P ∂ρ

Multiplying P on both sides

∂ 2
P ∂P
ρ 2
+ ρ − n 2
P + h ρ P=0
2 2

∂ρ 2
∂ρ
 ∂ 2
P ∂P
ρ 2
+ ρ + P ( h ρ
2 2
− n 2
)=0
∂ρ 2
∂ρ

Comparing with Bessel’s function

∂ 2
y ∂y
x 2
+ x + ( x 2
− n 2
)y = 0
∂x 2
∂x

x = ρh
y=P
Solution for the above equation in power series is

P = Jn(ρh )

Q = An Cosnφ

Ez=PQ

E z = Jn(ρh )An Cosnφ

In terms of propagation constant

E z = Jn(ρh )An Cosnφe −γz

Eρ, Hɸ
Hρ, Eɸ

jωε ∂E z
Hρ =
ρh ∂φ
2

− γ ∂E z
Eρ = 2
h ∂ρ
 − jωε ∂E z
Hφ =
h 2
∂ρ

− γ ∂E z
Eφ = 2
ρh ∂φ
∂E z
= Jn (ρh )hAn Cosnφe
1 −γz

∂ρ
∂E z
= − Jn(ρh ) An nSinnφe −γz

∂φ
 jωε
Hρ = nJn (ρ h )An Sinn φe − γz

ρh 2

−γ 1
E ρ = 2 Jn (ρh )hAn Cosnφe −γz

h
 − jωε 1
Hφ = 2
Jn (ρh )hAn Cosn φe − γz

−γ
Eφ = nJn ( ρ h ) A Sinn φe − γz

ρh 2 n
 Cavity Resonator
• Hollow metallic tube which exhibits resonance
behavior when excited by EM field.
• Frequency range is greater than 3 GHz.
• Only two modes exists
• TEmnp
• TMmnp
 Two types

Rectangular Cavity Resonator Circular Cavity Resonator

• Resonance frequency
• fr= 2a or 2b (Rectangular waveguide)

• Quality factor

fr
Q=
[3dBBW ]
• Input Impedance should match with output
Impedance
 Applications
1 Tuned circuits
2 Ultra High Frequency tubes
3 Klystron Amplifier/ Oscillators
4 Cavity Magnetron
5 Duplexer for radars
6 Cavity wave meters in measurement of
frequency.
 Resonance Frequency f0 for
Rectangular cavity Resonator

h = γ + ω µε
2 2 2

h =A +B
2 2 2

mπ
A=
a

nπ
B=
b
 A + B = γ + ω µε
2 2 2 2

2 2
 mπ   nπ 
 +   = γ + ω µε
2 2

 a   b 
γ = α + jβ
α =0
γ = jβ
 2 2
 mπ   nπ 
 +   = ( jβ ) + ω µε
2 2

 a   b 
2 2
 mπ   nπ 
ω µε =   +   + β
2 2

 a   b 
• Condition for a resonator to create resonance
pπ
β=
d

p is half cycle variation in electric or magnetic

field.
d is the distance between the shorting plate.
 2 2
 mπ   nπ 
( 2 π f 0 ) µε = 
2
 +   + β 2

 a   b 
2 2
1  mπ   nπ 
( f0 ) 2
=   +   + β 2

2 πµε  a   b 

2 2 2
c  mπ   nπ   pπ 
f0 =   +   +  
2π  a   b   d 

2 2 2
c  m   n   p 
f0 =   +   +  
2  a   b   d 
 Strip lines
• It is a multi conductor transmission line.
• Suitable for planar wave transmission.

• Planar transmission is made up of a layer of

dielectric one or several grounds.

• Planar transmission line used from 100 MHz

to 100 GHz.
It has central conductor which is composed of thin conducting strip
“W”

It has two outer conductors connected namely

top ground plane and bottom ground plane.

The distance between the two outer conductors is “b”.

 The region between the two conducting materials is filled with a dielectric
material whose relative permittivity is εr

The presence of homogenous dielectric between the conducting ground planes

support TEM mode of propagation.

Electric field originate from the central conductor and moves

out in a directed way and terminates at the ground plane.
 Microstrip lines
• It has strip conductor of thickness “W”.
• The thickness of strip conductor is “t”.
• Below the strip conductor there exists a
dielectric material
• The position of ground plane to strip
conductor is represented by “h”
• No perfect TEM form of microwave
transmission is available and hence it is known
as Quasi TEM.

• Selecting proper dielectric constant will

produce minimal losses.
 Non TEM Mode
• For wave guiding structures that cannot
support a TEM wave (non-TEM lines) like a
rectangular waveguide, it is not possible to
define a unique voltage and current at a given
point along the structure. This is known as
Non TEM modes.
• If the current and voltage are not unique,
then there is also no unique impedance in
the circuit analysis sense (a ratio of voltage to
current).
• For these reasons, we choose to define
equivalent voltages, currents and impedances
for non-TEM lines which, even though they
are not unique, yield the proper physical
behaviour of the guided wave.
• Voltage and current are defined only for a
particular waveguide mode, and are defined
such that
• voltage is proportional to the transverse
electric field
• Current is proportional to the transverse
magnetic field
• The ratio of Voltage to the current for a single
travelling wave should be equal to the
characteristic impedance of the line.
 e( x, y) + − jβz − − jβz
Et (x, y, z) = e( x, y)( A e
+ − jβz
+A e − − jβz
) = (V e +V e )
C1

h(x, y) + − jβz − − jβz

Ht (x, y, z) = h(x, y)( A e
+ − jβz
+A e − − jβz
) = (I e − I e )
C2

e, h Are transverse field variations of the mode

A+ A − Are the field amplitudes of travelling wave.

V (z ) = V e
+ − jβ z − − jβ z
+V e

I (z ) = I e
+ − jβ z − − jβ z
−I e

V+ V−
C1 = + = −
A A

I+ I−
C2 = + = −
A A
 Ferrite Components – Faraday
Rotation
• Ferrite materials are non metallic materials
with
• resistivity greater than 10 14 greater than
metals,
• Dielectric constant εr = 10 to 15
• Permeability μr =1000
• It is obtained by mixing Metal Oxide with
Ferrous Oxide.
 Faraday Rotation
• It is the rotation of the Electric field of a
linearly polarized wave which is passing
through a magnetized ferrite medium.
• Consider an infinite losses medium. A static
magnetic field B0 is applied along the direction of
Z.

• A plane TEM wave that is linearly polarized along

the x axis at z=0 is made to propagate through
the ferrite rod in z direction.
• The plane of polarization of this wave will rotate
with the distance phenomenon called “Faraday
rotation”.
• The plane of polarization changes as the wave
passes through the guide.
• Ay linearly polarized wave can be regarded as
vector sum of two counter rotating circularly
polarized wave.
• The ferrite material offers different
characteristics to these waves with the result
of phase changes.
Angle of Rotation

θ = (β − β − )
l +
2

Length of Ferrite rod is “ l ”.

β+ phase shift of right circularly polarized wave

β- phase shift of left circularly polarized wave

• The microwave devices which are used for
Faraday rotation.
• Gyrator
• Circulator
• Isolator
 Scattering Parameters for a Two port
Network
• V1+ is Incident voltage at port 1
• V1- is reflected voltage at port 1
• V2+ is Incident voltage at port 2
• V2- is Reflected voltage at port 2
 Normalized Voltage Wave
+
V
a 1 = 1

Z 01

−
V
b 1 = 1

Z 01
 +
V
a 2 = 2

Z 02

−
V
b 2 = 2

Z 02
 Scattering Parameters based on
Normalized Voltage Wave

b1 b1
S11 = S12 =
a1 a2

b2 b2
S 21 = S 22 =
a1 a2
Total Reflection at b1 and b2

b1 = S11a1 + S12 a2

b2 = S 21a1 + S 22 a2
Scattering Matrix

 b1   S11 S12   a1 
b  =  S   
S 22  a2 
 2   21
 Scattering parameters based on
voltage wave
V1−
b1 Z 01 V1−
S 11 = = +
= +
a1 V1 V1
Z 01

V1−
b1 Z 01 V1− Z 02
S 12 = = +
= +
a2 V2 V2 Z 01
Z 02
 V2−
b2 Z 02 V2− Z 01
S 21 = = +
= +
a1 V1 V1 Z 02
Z 01
−
V 2

b2 Z 02 V2−
S 22 = = +
= +
a2 V2 V1
Z 02
• If Z01= Z02

V1 − V1−
S 11 = + S 12 = +
V1 V2

V − V2−
S 21 = 2 S 22 = +
+ V1
V 1
• So total reflected Voltage at port 1 and port 2

− + +
V =S V +S V
1 11 1 11 1

− + +
V = S V + S 22V
2 21 1 2
 Gyrator
• It is a non reciprocal ferrite device.
• It is a two port device
• It has the following characteristics
• Linear, Lossless , passive and memory less
two port device.
• It is having a relative phase shift of 180
degrees in the forward direction and 0
degree phase shift in the reverse direction.
• Rectangular waveguide section with a 90
degree twister
• Circular waveguide
• Inside the circular waveguide a ferrite rod of
proper length is present

• Rectangular waveguide dominant mode is

TE10
• Circular waveguide dominant mode is TE11
• Twister
• Forward direction
It offers 90 degree rotation in anticlockwise
direction.
Reverse Direction
• It offers 90 degree rotation in clockwise
direction.
• When a wave enters port 1 its plane of
polarisation rotates by 90 degree because of
twist in the waveguide .
• It again undergoes Faraday rotation through
90 degree because of ferrite rod and the wave
which comes out of port 2 will have a phase
shift of 180degree compared to wave entering
port 1.
• But when same wave enters port 2 ,it
undergoes faraday rotation through 90 degree
in the anticlockwise direction. Because of the
twist ,this wave gets rotated back by 90degree
comes out of port 1 with zero phase shift.
• Hence a wave fed from port 2 does not
change its phase in a gyrator.
 Scattering matrix

 S11 S12 
[S ] =  
 S 21 S 22 

 0 1
[S ] =  
− 1 0
 Isolator
• It is a unilateral two port non reciprocal
network.
• It is used to Isolate one component of
reflection from other in an transmission line.
• The entire standing waves are observed by
Isolator.
 S matrix for a Isolator is

0 0 
[S ] =  
1 0
Isolator are the two port devices which are non- reciprocal having no attenuation
from port 1 to port 2 and infinite attenuation from port 2 to port 1.
• The input card is in y-z plane¸ the dominant mode
wave where in the E-field vector is vertical travelling
from left to right passes through resistive card with out
attenuation and enters the ferrite rod where it
undergoes faraday rotation of 45 degree clockwise.
• The wave again undergoes a rotation 45 degree in the
anti-clockwise direction due to twisted waveguide
and E-field vector at the output is vertical.
• The horizontal resistive card has no effect on the E-field
as the same is vertical to its plane.
• Therefore the wave travelling from left to right pass
though without any attenuation.
• In the reverse direction from port 2 to port 1
the vertical polarized wave will become
horizontally polarized and resistive card will
block the signal.
 Circulator
• A circulator is a multiport device which has
the property that each terminal is connected
to the next terminal in clockwise terminal.

• It is also called as unilateral device since

power flows in only one direction.
 Circulator
• Three port circulator
• If input is at port 1 then output will be at port
2 the port 3 will have a output of zero.
• Four port circulator
• If input is at port 1 then output will be at port
2 the port 3 and port 4 will have a output of
zero.
• If input is at port 2 then output will be at port
3 the port 1 and port 4 will have a output of
zero.
• If input is at port 3 then output will be at port
4 the port 1 and port 2 will have a output of
zero.
• If input is at port 4 then output will be at port
1 the port 2 and port 3 will have a output of
zero.
 Operation of Circulator
• The wave entering port 1 in TE10 mode is
converted into TE11 mode because of
rectangular to circular transition
• The wave passes port 3 unaffected since the
electric field is not significantly cut and it is
rotated through 45 degree in clockwise
direction due to the ferrite rod
• It also passes through port 4 unaffected.
• The wave comes out of port 2 due to the
alignment so as to receive the signal.
 Port 2 to Port 3 Operation
• The wave entering port 2 undergoes a shift of
45 degree due to the twist .Then it passes
through the alignment of port 4 unaffected.
• Then it undergoes a 45 degree shift due to
the ferrite rod in clockwise direction and
reaches port 3.
  Pinput 
InsertionLoss = 10 log10  

 Poutput 

 Ptermiated 
IsolationLoss = 10 log10  

 Pinput 
 Application
1. It is used as Duplexer for RADAR antenna
systems.
2. It is used as a Mixer
3. Circulators is as coupling elements is
reflection amplifier ,such as parametric
amplifiers.
4. Circulator can be used as low power devices
as they can handle low powers.
S Matrix of 3 Port circulator

 S11 S12 S13 


S = S 21 S 22 S 23 
 
 S 31 S 32 S 33 
1. All three ports are perfectly matched
S11, S22, and S33,is zero.
2. Circulator obeys Non Reciprocity
S13, S21, and S32,is one.
S31, S12, and S23,is zero.
 0 0 S13 

S = S 21 0 0 
 
 0 S 32 0 
 0 0 1 

S= 1 0 0 
 
0 1 0
 Unit III
J V ANAND
ECE Department
Siddhartha Institute of Science and Technology
(Autonomous),
Puttur, Tirupati (Dist.), AP.
• Waveguide Components and Applications:
Coupling Mechanisms–Probe, Loop, Aperture
types. Waveguide Discontinuities - Waveguide
irises, Tuning Screws and Posts, Matched Loads.
Waveguide Attenuators – Resistive Card, Rotary
Vane types. Waveguide Phase Shifters - Rotary
Vane types. Scattering Matrix– Significance,
Formulation and Properties. S-Matrix
Calculations for – 2 port Junction, E- plane and
H-plane Tees, Magic Tee, Hybrid Ring.
Directional Couplers –2Hole, Bethe Hole types.
 Coupling
• Coupling two or more waveguide components
so as to some transfer energy in and out of the
component.
• The process either takes energy or adds
energy.
• Types
Probe Coupling
Aperture Coupling
Loop Coupling
Probe Coupling or Capacitive Coupling
• When a small probe is inserted into a
waveguide and supplied with microwave
energy.
• It acts as an quarter wave antenna.
• Current flows into the probe and sets up
electric field.
• It provides an uniform energy and so it is
called as an Antenna.
Inserting the probe into the wider side distance should be λg /4.

The probe should be inserted at the wider side and at the center.
 Aperature Coupling
• When coupling is required between two
waveguide of different cross sectional areas,
Aperature coupling is preferred.
• A small fraction of energy is lost through
apertures when they are inserted in a
waveguide.
 Loop coupling
• Loop coupling enables coupling of magnetic
field in the waveguide.
• In loop coupling a conductor is inserted into
the waveguide setting up a magnetic field in
the waveguide.
• It is achieved by inserting a small loop which
carries high current into the waveguide.
The center of the loop is equal distance from
top and bottom of the walls of waveguide.
 Waveguide Discontinuities
• In transmission lines, reflection will occur due
to mismatch of load. To minimize reflections
lumped elements or stubs are being used.
• In waveguide, reflections will occur if there is
any mismatch. Any succeptance appearing
appearing across the guide causing mismatch
needs to cancel out by introducing another
succeptance of same magnitude but opposite
value.
• Waveguide Iris are used for minimize
reflection(mismatch or waveguide).
 Types of waveguide irises
• Inductive Irises
• Capacitive Irises
• Parallel resonant Irises
• Series resonant Irises
 Inductive Irises
• The Inductive Irises is placed in a position
where magnetic field is strong.
• The plane of polarization of Electric field is
parallel to the Irises.
• The current through the Irises causing
magnetic set up.
• Energy storage of magnetic field takes place
and there is an increase in Inductance at the
point of waveguide Irises.
 Capacitive Irises
• The potential which existed between the top
and bottom walls now exists between the
surface which are closer.
• Due to this capacitance is increased at the
point of Irises.
 Parallel Resonant Irises
• If the inductive and capacitive irises are
combined suitably (correctly shaped and
positioned), the inductive and capacitive
reactances introduced will be equal, and the
iris will become a parallel resonant circuit.
• Resonant iris acts as a band-pass filter to
suppress unwanted modes.
 Waveguide Posts and Screws
• Once waveguide irises is fixed it cannot be
removed. So preference is given for waveguide
posts and screws..
• Posts and screws made from conductive
material can be used for impedance-changing
devices in waveguides.
 Waveguide Posts
• A cylindrical post is introduced into the
broader side of the waveguide; it produces a
similar effect as an iris in providing lumped
capacitive/inductive reactance at that point.
• When a metal post extends completely across
the waveguide, parallel to an electric field, it
adds an inductive susceptance that is parallel
to the waveguide.
• A post extending across the waveguide at
right angles to the electric field produces an
effective capacitive susceptance that is in
shunt with the waveguide at the position of
the post.
• The advantage of such posts over irises is the
flexibility they provide, which results in ease
of matching.
 Tuning Screws
• A screw is generally inserted into the top or
bottom walls of the waveguide, parallel to the
electric-field lines. It can give a variable amount
of susceptance depending on the depth of
penetration.
• A screw with an insertion distance (screw depth)
less than λg/4 produces capacitive susceptance.
When the distance is equal to λg/4, we have
series resonance. When the distance is greater
than λg/4, it produces inductive susceptance,
 Waveguide Attenuators
• Attenuator is a device which absorbs certain
portion of power when wave passes through
it.
Waveguide Attenuators

Rotatory vane
Resistive card type

Fixed Variable type

• Resistive card is a card coated with carbon or
aquadag.

• Resisitive card attenuators are not highly

accurate but cheaper and frequency
dependant.
 Fixed Resisitive card Attenuators
• In fixed type the card is bonded to the
waveguide.
• The card is tapered at both the ends to
maintain a low input and output standing
wave ratio over use full microwave band.
• The maximum attenuation is achieved by
having card parallel to the Electric field and
at the centre of waveguide where electric
field is maximum.
• The conductivity and size of the card are
adjusted by trial and error methods to obtain
desired attenuation value.

• In high power versions ceramic materials are

used instead of resistive cards.
 Variable Resistive card Attenuator
• A variable version of this attenuator is known as
Flap attenuator.
• The card enters the waveguide through the non
radiating slot in broad wall and there by
interscepting and absorbing a portion of TE10
wave.
• The hinge arrangement allows the card
penetration and hence attenuation is in the range
of 0 to 30 dB can be achieved with longitudinal
slot.
Non of the TE 10 is radiated through the slot.
 Rotatory Vane type Attenuator
• It consists of
3 resistive cards
Rectangular to circular waveguide
Intermediate Circular waveguide
Circular to rectangular waveguide.
 Operation
• The input transition converts the TE 10 wave
into vertically polarized TE11 wave in a circular
waveguide.

• Resistive cards penetration into the waveguide

is adjustable. It provides complicated
attenuation variation with depth of insertion
and frequency.
• Intermediate section is free to rotate.

• Two resistive cards are placed in the output of

each transition as shown.

• When the input resistive card perpendicular

to the electric field , the wave propagates the
wave propagates through the first section
without loss.
• When the card is rotatable section is
horizontal (θm=0) the wave passes through it
and output section without loss thus the total
loss is 0 dB.
• When the rotatable section is changed with an
angle θm.
• The rotatory section absorbs all the E Sin θm
component and only the Cos θm arrives at the
fixed section 2.
• Fixed section 2 absorbs the E sinθcos θ
component .
• And finally E Cos2 θm arrives at the waveguide.

• Attenuation is given by

 Re sistivecard 
A = 10 log10  
 Cos θ m
4

 Waveguide phase shifter
• A phase shifter is a two port component that
provides a fixed or variable change in the
phase of the travelling wave.
• Wave guide phase shifter are of two types
Dielectric
Rotary vane type
• The phase delay due to a waveguide section of
length “l” is given by
2π
β l = l
λ g

• The λg value is given by

λ
λg = 2
 f 
1 −  c 
 f 
 c
λg = 2
 fc 
f εr 1 −  
 f 

λg it can be varied by varying the dielectric constant

or the width of the waveguide.
 Dielectric phase shifter
• The variable type of dielectric phase shifters
employs a low-loss dielectric insertion in the air-
filled guide at a point of the maximum electric
field to increase its effective dielectric constant.

• This causes the guide wavelength, λg to decrease.

Thus, the insertion of the dielectric increases the
phase shift in the wave passing through the fixed
length of the waveguide section.
Dielectric phase shifter

Tapering of the dielectric slab has resorted in

order to reduce the reflections.
 Rotary vane type phase shifter
• The precision phase shifter can be realized by
a rotary phase shifter, which is useful in
microwave measurement.
• The essential parts of this phase shifter are
three waveguide sections: two fixed and one
rotary.
• The fixed sections consist of quarter-wave
plates, and the rotary section consists of half-
wave plates; all the plates are of a dielectric
type.
• The center section is rotatable to provide the
required phase shift.
• The dielectric plate is usually thin with εr > 1,
μr = 1.

• It is used as a calibration standard due to its

high accuracy.
• Each of the two fixed sections, attached to a
transition, consists of a piece circular
waveguide with a dielectric plate making an
angle of 45 degree with the horizontal.
• The additional phase lag depends upon the
properties of the material from which the slab
is cut and the dimensions of the slab.
• The length of the plate is selected in such a
way that this additional phase lag is 90 degree
in case of quarter wave plate and 180 degree
in case of half wave plate.
• As same materials are used to make half and
quarter wave plates, the length of one
becomes double of the other.
 Operation
• It consists of three circular waveguide section
two fixed and one rotary. Two fixed section
have a quarter wave plate while the rotatable
section consists of half wave plate.
• The input is vertically polarized with a phase
shift of zero degree. E∠0 o
• It is decomposed into two components
parallel and perpendicular to the dielectric
slab.
• The value of each component is E ∠0o
2
• The effect of input quarter wave is to delay
the perpendicular component by βl and
parallel component by βl-π/2 which results in
a clockwise circularly polarized wave at the
input of rotatable section.
• With the length of Half plate is equal to 2l the
perpendicular component experience phase
delay of 2βl and Parallel component
experience a delay of 2βl-π.
• At the last fixed section the quarter wave plate
add the phase of βl to the perpendicular
component and βl-π/2 for parallel
component.
• As a result the perpendicular component
becomes
E
∠ − 4 β l − 2θ m
2

• Parallel component becomes

E
∠ − 4 β l − 2 π − 2θ m
2
• The total phase that can be achieved is

E
∠ − 4 β l − 2θ m
2
 S Matrix Formulation
• The S parameters provide complete
characterization of two port network.
• These parameters are based on the concept of
travelling waves.
• These waves are scattered at high frequencies.
 Significance of S matrix
• The parameters that linearly relate the
incident and reflected wave are called
as scattering parameters or” S
Parameters”.
• The matrix describing linear relationship
is called Scattering matrix.
 Advantages
• It is not possible to have open and short
circuits at microwave frequencies.
• Equipments are not available to measure
total voltage and current for microwave
frequency.
• Active devices like microwave transistors
• There is a voltage and current on each port.

• This voltage (or current) can be decomposed

into the incident (+) and reflected component
(-).
• Vn+ is the amplitude of the voltage wave
incident on port n.
• Vn- is the amplitude of the voltage wave
reflected from port n.
• The scattering matrix or [S] matrix, is defined
in relation to these incident and reflected
voltage wave as:
 Properties of S matrix
1. [S] is always a square matrix of order (n×n).

2. [S] is always a symmetric matrix.

Sij= Sji
3. [S] is always a unitary matrix.

[S ][S ] = [I ]
∗ T
[S ]
∗
= Complexcon jugateof [S ]

4. The sum of the products of each term of

any row or column multiplied by complex
conjugate of the corresponding terms of any
other row is zero.
5. Complex S parameters of a network are
defined with respect to the position of the
port or reference plane.
 E- plane
• A Rectangular slot is cut along the broader
dimension of the waveguide and a side arm is
attached.
• The arms of rectangular waveguides make two
ports called collinear ports i.e., Port1 and
Port2, while the new one, Port3 is called as
Side arm or E-arm.
• An E plane Tee is a waveguide Tee which axis
of side arm is parallel to the E field.
• Since power is equally divide into two ports it
is also called 3dB Splitter.
 Operation
• If collinear arms are symmetrical about side
arm, when waves are fed into side arm 3 the
waves appearing at port 1 and port 2 of the
collinear arm will be of same magnitude with
opposite phase.
• E plane is a voltage or series junction
symmetrical about side arm.
 S Matrix of E plane tee
• It is a square matrix of order 3× 3.

It is a 3×3 matrix as there are 3 possible inputs

and 3 possible outputs.
If port 3 is properly matched then S33=0

From the property of E plane tee

S13= -S23
From the symmetry property
Sij= Sji

S21= S12
S23= S32
S31= S13
 H plane
• A Hplane Tee junction is formed by cutting a
rectangular slot along the width of main
waveguide and attaching another waveguide
the side arm called H arm.
 Magic tee or Hybrid Tee
• A Magic Tee or Hybrid Tee is a 4 port
waveguide H-Plane tee that is a combination
of an E-Plane and Waveguide Tee.

• The microwave tee whose rectangular slot is

cut along the width and breadth of long
waveguide.
• A magic tee has four ports:
• Port 1 - Co-linear
• Port 2 - Co-linear
• Port 3 - Sum Port
• Port 4 - Difference Port
• Operation of a Magic Tee:

• Case 1: When two signals of equal magnitude

are fed from port 1 and 2, we get a zero at
port 4 and the sum of the two signals at port
3.
• Case 2: When a signal is fed through port 3, it
gets divided equally between port 1 & 2 and
both the outputs are in phase. No output
comes from port 4.
• Case 3: When a signal is fed through port 4, an
output of equal magnitude but opposite
phase at port 1 & 2 (the signals are 180
degrees out of phase). Output at port 3 is
zero.
 Properties of S matrix
• The properties of Magi Tee can be defined by
its [S]4×4 matrix.
• It is a 4×4 matrix as there are 4 possible inputs
and 4 possible outputs.
2. If the ports 3 and 4 are perfectly matched to
the junction, then
S33 = S44
3. As it has H-Plane Tee section
S13= S23
4. As it has E-Plane Tee section
S14= -S24
3. The E-Arm port and H-Arm port are so
isolated that the other won't deliver an
output, if an input is applied at one of them.
Hence, this can be noted as
S34= S43 =0
• From the symmetry property, we have
Sij= Sji

• S12=S21,S13=S31,S14=S41

• S23=S32,S24=S42,S34=S43
Substituting all the above equations in
equation , to obtain te
 Applications of Magic tee
• Magic Tee junction is used to measure the
impedance.
• A null detector is connected to E-Arm port
while the Microwave source is connected to
H-Arm port. The collinear ports together with
these ports make a bridge and the
impedance measurement is done by
balancing the bridge.
• Microwave source is connected in arm (3), and
null detector in arm (4).
• The unknown impedance is connected in arm (1),
and a standard variable known impedance in arm
(1).
• Power from microwave source (a3) gets equally
divided into ports 1 & 2.
• Impedance at port 1 & 2 are not equal to
characteristics Impedance Zo hence there will be
reflections from arm(1) and (2).
• If ρ1& ρ2 are reflection coefficients from port
1 & 2, then they will enter in null detector
port (4) given by:
• Magic Tee is used as a duplexer.
• The duplexer is a circuit which works as both the
transmitter and the receiver, using a single
antenna for both the purposes.
• Port 1 and 2 are used as receiver and transmitter
where they are isolated and hence will not
interfere.
• An antenna is connected to E-Arm port. A
matched load is connected to H-Arm port, which
provides no reflections. Now there exists
transmission or reception without any problem.
• Magic Tee is used as a Mixer
• E-Arm port is connected to the antenna and
the H-Arm port is connected to the local
oscillator.
Port 2 has matched load which has no
reflections and port 1 has the mixer circuit,
which gets half of the signal power and half of
the oscillator power to produce IF frequency.
• Magic Tee junction is also used as Microwave
Bridge, Microwave discriminator etc.
Hybrid Ring
 Unit IV
J V ANAND
ECE Department
Siddhartha Institute of Science and Technology
(Autonomous),
Puttur, Tirupati (Dist.), AP.
• Microwave Tubes: Limitations and Losses of conventional
tubes at microwave frequencies. Microwave tubes – O
type and M type classifications. O-type tubes: 2 Cavity
Klystrons – Structure, Reentrant Cavities, Velocity
Modulation Process and Applegate Diagram, Bunching
Process and Small Signal Theory – Expressions for o/p
Power and Efficiency. Reflex Klystrons – Structure,
Applegate Diagram and Principle of working,
Mathematical Theory of Bunching, Power Output,
Efficiency.
• M-Type Tubes: Introduction, Cross-field effects.
Magnetrons – Different Types, 8-Cavity Cylindrical
Travelling Wave Magnetron – Hull Cut-off and Hartree
Conditions.
• Vacuum tubes are electronic devices in which
electron flows through vacuum from one
electrode to another.
• These are voltage controlled devices.
• Conventional tubes example are triode,
transistor and vacuum tubes etc.
• Microwave tubes example are Klystron,
Magnetron and Gunn diode.
 Limitations of conventional tubes
usage at Microwave frequencies.
• The reason that conventional tubes cannot be used
for frequencies greater than 100 MHz are as follows:
1. Inter electrode capacitance effect.
2. Lead Inductance effect
3. Transit time effect
4. Gain Bandwidth limitations
5. Effect of RF Losses / Skin depth
6. Effect due to radiation losses.
Circuit reactance
Inter electrode capacitance effect.
Lead Inductance effect
 Inter electrode capacitance effect

Vacuum tubes such as triode consists of 3 electrodes Grid, Plate and Cathode
and they are separated by dielectric such as air.
• Capacitance exists between two metal plates
separated by dielectric.
• So the capacitance of the two electrode is
called inter electrode capacitance

εA
c= Xc =
1
d 2πfC

A is Area
D is distance
As frequency increases, the reactance Cgp, Cgk
and Cpk decreases and begins to short circuit
the input and voltages. This leads to
reduction in amplification. The capacitance is
also minimized.

To achieve the desired capacitance is achieved

by increasing distance between electrodes or
reducing the area of electrodes.
 Lead Inductance effect
• Inductance exist for any conducting wire
1
L= X l = 2πFL
µA
When the frequency increases the inductive reactance increases .
At microwave frequencies inductive reactance is very high due to
this there exist impedance matching problem at input and
output state.
• There will be reflections which cause small
fraction of input will reach the terminal for
amplification purposes.

• The lead inductance and inter electrode

capacitance produces unwanted tuned circuits
which produces parasitic oscillations
hampering performance of devices.
 Transit time
• The time taken by an electron to travel from
cathode to anode of a electron tube is called
transit time.
• d
τ=
vo

• Transit angle is
θ g = ωτ d
θg =ω
v0
Transit time is small at low frequency .
At higher frequencies the input electron changes by 10 to 100 times.
 Gain Bandwidth Product
• Gain Bandwidth Product = G ×BW.
• In conventional tubes to obtain higher gain
Bandwidth will be narrow.
• At microwave frequency conventional tubes
start resonating and for resonant circuitry
Gain bandwidth product is always a constant.
• So as to achieve higher gain we should
compromise the bandwidth.
 Effect of RF Losses / Skin depth
• It is introduced at microwave frequency which
will not allow signal to pass through.

Skin depth is inversely proportional to frequency.

 Effect due to radiation losses.
• At microwave frequency electrode pins of
vacuum tubes start radiating.

• Radiation losses increases with increase in

frequency.
 Classification of Microwave tubes
O type M type
Linear beam tubes Cross Field tubes
Electric field and Electric field and
magnetic field are magnetic field are
parallel to each other perpendicular to each
other
2. Klystron and Travelling Magnetron is an example
wave tube are examples of M type tubes.
of O type tubes.

3.Electron travel in linear Electron travel in curved

path. path.
 Two cavity Klystron Amplifier
• It is a low power microwave amplifier.
• It is a velocity modulated tube which consists
of two cavity
Buncher cavity and Catcher cavity.
• Here a high velocity electron beam is formed
and sent down along a glass tube through
input cavity (buncher), a field drift space and
an output cavity to an collector electrode
(anode).
• The anode is kept at positive terminal with
respect to cathode.
• The electron beam passes through a gap “A”
consisting of two grids of the buncher cavity
separated by a very small distance and the
other two grids of catcher cavity with a small
gap ‘B’.
• The input and output are taken from tube via
resonant cavities with the aid of coupling
loops.
• The RF signal to be amplified is used for
exciting the buncher cavity thereby
developing an alternate voltage of signal
frequency across the gap A.

• Consider the Gap voltage on electron beam

passing through the gap A.
When an RF input cycle is applied.
1
• point B
At
• The accelerating voltage is zero and is going
positive.
• At this instant, the electric field across gap “A”
is unaffected RF signal.
• Let this electron be called as Reference
electron eR which travels unchanged velocity.
2eV
v0 =
m
V is the voltage between the Cathode and Anode.
v0 denotes the velocity.
m mass
 1
• At point C
• The input RF cycle the electron which leaves
Gap A
• This electron el is subjected to maximum
positive RF Voltage and hence travels to Gap B
with an increased velocity
v > v0
and this electron tries to overtake the
reference electron eR.
• At A1
• An electron ee that passes through gap A
slightly before the reference electron is
subjected to a maximum negative field.
• Hence this electron is decelerated and travels
with reduced velocity v0.
• This electron falls back behind the reference
electron eR
• Therefore the velocity of electron varies in
accordance with RF INPUT VOLTAGE, resulting
in velocity modulation of electron beam.

• As a result of these actions the electron in the

bunching limit between A’ and C’ gradually
bunch together as they travel down the drift
space from gap A to gap B.
• The pulsating stream of electron pass through
gap B vary cyclically with time.

• Drift space converts velocity modulation into

current modulation.
• Bunching occurs only once per cycle centered
around reference electron.

• With proper design a little RF power applied

to the bunch cavity results in large beam
currents at catcher cavity with considerable
power gain.
 Velocity modulation process in two
cavity Klystron tube
• When electrons are first accelerated with dc
voltage between cathode and anode be V0
and v0 the velocity of the electron, L be the
drift space length and the RF signal to be
amplified by the klystron be Vs.
 Equilibrium condition

1
eV0 = mv0
2

2
V0 is the applied between the anode and cathode.

v0 is the velocity of electron.

2eV0
v0 =
2

2eV0
v0 =
m
1
mv1 = e(V0 + V1 Sinωt )
2

2e
v1 = (V0 + V1 Sinωt )
2

2e
v1 = (V0 + V1Sinωt )
m
 2eV0  V0 
v1 = 1 + Sinωt 
m  V1 

1
 V0  2
v1 = v0 1 + Sinωt 
 V1 

This is the equation for velocity modulation.

• After neglecting higher order terms we get as

 V1 
v1 = v0 1 + Sinωt 
 2V0 
• Electron entering the buncher cavity at t= t0
• Electron leaving the buncher cavity at t= t1
• Electron entering the catcher cavity at t= t2
• Electron leaving the catcher cavity at t= t3
• Average transit time through the grid is
d
τ=
v0

Average transit angle through the grid is

ωd
ωτ =
v0
• Average velocity
θg 
Sin  
Vs = V1  2  Sin  ω t + θ g 

θg   0

   2 
 2 
Velocity modulation equation is
2e   θ g 
V (t1 ) = V0 + β iVi Sin ωtθ + 
m  2 

βi is known as beam coupling coefficient of input cavity.

 Bunching process
Once the electrons leave the buncher cavity, they drift
with a velocity along the space between two cavities.
The effect of velocity modulation produces, bunching
of electron beam or current modulation.
The electrons that pass the buncher cavity with zero
voltage travel with unchanged velocity and become the
bunching centre.
Electrons that pass the bunching cavity during
positive half cycles of microwave input become faster
and electrons that pass during the negative half cycle
become slower.
 Problem 1
• A two cavity klystron amplifier has the
following characteristics:
• Voltage gain = 15 dB,
• Input Power = 5 mW,
• Rsh of input cavity = 30 k ohm,
• Rsh of output cavity =40 k ohm,
• load impedance = 40 k ohm.
• Find input rms voltage and the output rms
voltage.
 Problem 2
• A reflex klystron operates at the peak mode of
n = 2 with V0 = 280 V, I0 = 22 mA and signal
voltage V1 = 30 V. Determine input & output
power and efficiency.
 Reflex Klystrons
• It is a single cavity microwave generator of
low power and low efficiency.
• It consists of an electron gun, a filament
surrounded by cathode and a focusing
electrode at cathode potential.
• After passing the gap in the cavity electron
travel to a repeller electrode which is at a
high negative potential VR.

• The electron never reach the repeller because

of the negative field and are returned back
towards the gap.
 Operation
• There are two voltages in reflex klystron
Anode voltage used to accelerate the electron
beam.
Repeller voltage VR used to reflect the
electrons to push back into the resonator
cavity.
• The operation is understood by 3 types of electron
eR Reference electron
el late electron
ee Early electron

A reference electron eR crosses the anode cavity but

has no extra velocity. It repels back after reaching the
repeller electrode with same velocity.
• Another electron ee which started earlier than
the er reaches the repeller first , but returns
slowly so that it reaches at the same time as
the reference electron.
• We have another electron called late electron
which starts later than er and ee . But it moves
with greater velocity while returning back,
reaching at the same time as er and ee.
• The three electrons el, er and ee reach the gap
at the same time forming an electron bunch.
• The travel time is called as transit time.
• Observe the bunching limit is from positive
maximum to negative maximum of RF Cycle
only.
• The electron which encounter positive half
cycle of RF field will be accelerated.

• The electron which encounter zero RF field

will pass with unchanged original velocity.

• The electron which encounter negative half

cycle of RF field will be deaccelerated.
• All these electrons which are velocity
modulated will be repelled by the repeller
and bunched at the cavity.
 Modes of reflex klystron
• The repeller distance (L) and voltage can be
adjusted to receive all velocity modulated
electrons at the same time on positive peak of
RF voltage.

• These electron bunched together loss kinetic

energy to cavity to conserve total power.
• The bunching of electrons can occur at any
positive peak of RF cycle. Hence, we can get
more than one modes of oscillation.
• If the bunching occur at the immediate peak
of RF signal, its frequency range is different
and number of cycles is

3
N=
4
If the bunching occur at the next peak of RF
signal,

3
N = 1
4
t0 is the time taken by reference electron to
travel in repeller space and come back to the
cavity at any positive peak.

 3
t0 =  n + T = NT
 4

 3
N = n + cycles
 4
• Thus by adjusting repeller voltage for a given
dimension of reflex klystron the bunching can
be made to occur at N cycles.

•
• The lowest order mode ¾ occurs for maximum
value of repeller voltage.

• Higher order modes occurs at lower repeller

voltage.
 Output power of Reflex klystron
• To generate maximum energy returning
electron beam should cross the cavity gap
when gap field is maximum retarding.
• From Applegate diagram for maximum energy
transfer, round trip transit angle refers to
center of bunch and is given by

ω(t2 − t1 ) =ωT = (n −1)2π

1
0

 1
N = n −  Number of modes
 4
• Number of cycles is denoted by ‘n’

1
ω(t2 −t1) =ωT =n×2π − ×2π
1
0
4
π
ωT = 2πn −
1
0 Equation 1
2
• In reflex klystron the bunching parameter X’
has to be negative with respect to X of two
cavity klystron.
• Magnitude of the fundamental component is

I 2 = 2 I 0 β i J 1 (X 1
) Equation 2

The dc power supplied by beam voltage is

Pdc = V0 I 0 Equation 3
• The ac delivered to the load is

V1I 2
P ac = Equation 4
2
Substituting equation 2 in equation 4

V 1 2 I 0 β i J 1 (X 1
)
P ac =
2
 Pac = V1 I 0 β i J 1 (X 1
) Equation 5

We have bunching parameter

β Vθ 1
X = 1 1 1 0

2V0

θ = ωT
1
0 0
1
 β1V1ωT 1
X = 1 0

2V0

β1V1  π
X =  2πn − 
1

2V0  2
 2V0 X 1
V1 =
 π
β1  2πn − 
 2
Put V1 in equation 5

1
I 0 β i J 1 (X )
2V0 X
Pac = 1

 π
β1  2πn − 
 2
 2V0 X 1
Pac = I 0 J 1 (X 1 )
 π
 2πn − 
 2 Equation 6
 Efficiency

P ac
γ =
P dc
 1
I 0 J 1 (X 1 )
2V0 X
 π
 2πn − 
γ=  2
V0 I 0

2 X 1 J 1 (X 1 )
γ=
π
2πn −
2
X1 J1(X1) reaches maximum when X1=2.408
J1(X1)= 0.52

2 × 2.408 × 0.52
γ=
π
2π × 2 −
2
γ = 22.7

Maximum theoretical efficiency is between 20 to 30 percentage.

 Magnetron
• It is a high powered vacuum tube that works
as a self excited microwave oscillator.

• The electric and magnetic field are

perpendicular to each other. The principal
tube in this type is called M type Magnetron.
There are 3 types of Magnetron

1. Negative resistance type

2. Cyclotron frequency type
3. Travelling wave or cavity type.
 Negative resistance type

• Negative resistance between two anode

segments is used.
• They have low efficiency.
• They have low frequency less than 500 MHz.
 Cyclotron frequency magnetron

• The synchronism between the electric

component and oscillating electron is
considered.
• Useful for frequency higher than 100 MHz.
 Travelling wave or cavity type
• The interaction between electron and
rotating electromagnetic field is taken into
account.
• High peak power oscillations are provided.

• Used in RADAR applications.

 Cylindrical Magnetron
• Cylindrical Magnetron is also known as Cavity
magnetron.

• It is a high power microwave oscillator having

multiple cavities.

• It is a crossed field or M type tube in which

electric field and Magnetic fields are crossed
each other.
Cylindrical Magnetron consists of a cylindrical cathode of radius
“a”,
at the centre surrounded by cylindrical anode of radius “b”.

The anode consists of several equispaced reentrant cavity present

at the circumference.
• The space between anode and cathode is
known as interaction space.

• The dc voltage is applied between the anode

and cathode.

• The permanent magnet is used to produce a

strong magnetic field.
• The electric field is present radially and the
magnetic field is present axially.
 Modes of operation
• If there are N reentrant cavities in the anode,
there exists ‘N’ resonant frequencies.

• The phase shift between two adjacent cavity

can be expressed as

2πn
φn =
N

• Where n=0, ± 1, ±2,…… ±N/2 modes of oscillation.

 Magnetron operated in π mode

• When n= N/2
φn = π

In this π mode , the successive cavities in anode have opposite polarities.

So phase excitation is maximum in the cavities.
 Working principle
• The DC Voltage is applied between the
cathode and anode.

• When the DC voltage and magnetic flux are

adjusted properly, the electrons from the
cathode try to travel towards the anode.
Case I
• If the magnetic field is absent the electron
“ea” directly goes to anode under radial
electric field.
Case II
When a small magnetic field is present inside
the magnetron, the electron deviates from its
straight path.

The result of Electric and magnetic field will

cause the curved path.
Case III
When the magnetic field is further increased,
then electrons get highly deflected by the
magnetic field.

The effect causes the anode current to be zero

it is called “critical magnetic field”.
Case IV
• If the magnetic field is increased further
beyond the critical level then the electron
return to the cathode itself without reaching
the anode.
• The process of reaching the emitted electron
back to the cathode is known as back heating.

• Hull Cut off voltage

In order to avoid this back heating the supply
voltage provided to the cathode must be cut
off after the “critical magnetic field”.
 Hull Cut off voltage

• This is the cut off voltage between anode and

cathode so that electron will just graze the
anode and return towards the cathode. This is
called Hull cut off voltage equation.
 e 2 2 a  2
Voc = B0 b 1 − 2 
8m  b 

B0 is the magnetic flux density.

• The corresponding magnetic flux density is
called cut off magnetic flux density (Bc)

• Cut off magnetic flux density

1 8mV0
Bc =
b e
• Bc is the cut off magnetic flux density.
• b anode radius
• m small magnetic field
• V0 is operating voltage
• e electron charge
• 8 number of cavities
 Hartree Condition
• Hartree condition is determined as follows the
electron flow is assumed to exist.

• If a weak electromagnetic wave is present

electron flow to anode is possible provided
that the electrons are in synchronism with
the wave.
 Problem 3
• A normal circular magnetron has the
following parameters inner Radius Ra=0.15
m, Outer Radius R0=0.45 m, Magnetic flux
density β0 = 1.2 m Wb/m2.
Determine the Hull cut-off Voltage and the
cyclotron frequency in GHz.
 Hull Cut off Derivation
• Force on electron due to both electric and
magnetic field is given by

F = − e( E + µ × B )

F = −e(− Er ar + µ × B )
 ma = −e(− Er ar + µ × B )

−e
a= (− Er ar + µ × B )
m
Equation 1
 ar aφ az
dr dφ
µ×B= r 0
dt dt
0 0 Bz
 dφ dr
µ × B = rBz a r − Bz aφ
dt dt
Equation 2

Applying equation 2 in 1

− e dφ dr 
a=  − Er ar + rBz ar − Bz aφ 
m dt dt 
 e e dφ  e dr
a =  Er − Bz r a r + Bz aφ
m m dt  m dt
 Cylindrical coordinate system

 d 2r   
dφ
2
1 d  2 dφ  e e dφ  e dr
 2 − r    r a +  r a =
 φ  E r − B z r  r
a + B z aφ
 dt  dt   r dt  dt  m m dt  m dt
 Compare ar andaɸ
 d 2r  dφ    e
2
e dφ 
 2 − r     = E r − B z r 
 dt  dt    m m dt 

1 d  2 dφ  e dr
r  = + Bz
r dt  dt  m dt
• Cyclotron Angular frequency

e
ωc = BZ
m
 1 d  2 dφ  1
 = ω c (r )
d 2
r
r dt  dt  2 dt

Integrating on both sides with respect to t

dφ 1
r 2
= ω c r + k1
2

dt 2 Equation A
 dφ
=0
dt

1
k1 = − ω c a 2

dφ 1
r2
= ωc (r 2 − a 2 )
dt 2
dφ 1  a 
2
= ωc 1 − 2 
dt 2  r 
The kinetic energy of an electron due to electric
field is
1
mv = eV
2

2
2 eV
v =
2
= rr + rφ
2 2

m
2 2
2 eV  dr   dφ 
v = 2
=  + r 
m  dt   dt 
At r =b
dr
=0
dt

2 2
2 eV 0  dr   dφ 
=  + r 
m  dt   dt 

2
2eV0  dφ 
= b 
m  dt 
 2  dφ 
2
2eV0
=b  
m  dt 

2
2eV0 2  dφ 
=b  
m  dt 
 2
2 1  a 
2
2eV0
= b  ωc 1 − 2  
m 2  r 

2
2eV0 
2 1  a  2
= b  ωc 1 − 2  
m  2  b 
 2
2 a  2
2eV0 2 1
= b ω c 1 − 2 
m 4  b 

2
2 2 a 2
8eV0
= b ω c 1 − 2 
m  b 

Substitute ωc values

2 2
2 e  2 a  2
8eV0
= b   Bz 1 − 2 

m m  b 
 2 2
2 e  2 a  2
8eV0
= b   Bz 1 − 2 
m m  b 
Divide by e/m on both sides

2
1 e  2 2 a  2
V0 =  b Bz 1 − 2 
8 m   b 
Unit V

Anand J V
• Microwave Measurements: Description of
Microwave Bench – Different Blocks and their
Features, Precautions. Microwave Power
Measurement – Bolometer Method.
Measurement of Attenuation, Frequency,
VSWR, Cavity Q, Impedance Measurements.
 Microwave Frequency
Low Frequency Measurement Measurement
At low frequency it is • Difficult to measure voltage
convenient to measure voltage and current since they vary
and current and uses them to in position within a
calculate power. transmission line.

At low frequency, circuits use • At microwave frequency

lumped elements which can many elements are
be identified and measured distributed and impedance
of whole circuit can be
measured.
 Microwave Frequency
Low Frequency Measurement Measurement
Parameters are exactly known. • Many quantifies used in at
microwave measurements
are relative and it is not
necessary to know absolute
values.
• Further for power
measurements
• It is usually sufficient to
know the ratio of two
powers rather than exact
input power or output
power.
• At microwave frequencies characteristics of
devices is calculated by S parameters.
• Following parameters can be used to measure
the microwave frequency
• Frequency meter, Power, Attenuation, VSWR,
Phase, Impedance, Insertion loss, Dielectric
loss, Noise factor.
 Frequency Meter

Mechanical Electronic method

Wave meter Slotted line

Absorption method Transmission line

 Wave meter method

• It is also known as Direct method.

• A wavemeter is typically constructed of a
cylindrical cavity resonator with a variable
short termination.
• The shorting plunger is used to change the
resonance frequency of the cavity by changing
the cavity length.
• The wavemeter axis is placed perpendicular to
the broad wall of the waveguide.

• Dominant mode TM 011 is used in wavemeter

• Suitable mode is TE 011 is used as it has higher
Q and absence of axial current.
• The TM010 mode is excited in the cavity though
the coupling hole by the magnetic field
coupling.
• Any possible oscillation due to plunger can be
avoided by placing a block of polytron an
absorbing material, at the back of tunning
plunger.
• The various plunger positions results in
different cavity resonant frequencies.
• This tuning can be calculated by use of know
frequency as input or a observing a dip in
power meter.
• The power meter is connected at the output
side of the waveguide.
• Quality factor of 1000-5000 will result in
accuracies as small as 1% to 0.005 %.

• The absorption cavity characteristics and its

equivalent circuit is
• There are two types namely
Transmission cavities:
which pass only the signal frequency to which
they are tuned.
• Absorption cavities
• which attenuate the signal frequency to
which they are tuned.
• Absorption cavity is preferred for laboratory
frequency measurement
• Cavity meters are rugged simple and highly
accurate.
• Accuracies upto 99.9% can be achieved.
• The resonant frequency of the cavity wave
meter is determined primarily by physical
dimension a,b,d and the mode is determined
by m,n,p
2 2 2
c m n  p
f0 =   +  + 
2  a  b  d 
• A highly effective ‘Q‘ factor is preferred for
good accuracy.
 Slotted line
• The slotted line consists of a slotted section of a
transmission line, where the measurement has to
be done.
• It has a travelling probe carriage, to let the probe
get connected wherever necessary, and the
facility for attaching and detecting the
instrument.
• In a waveguide, a slot is made at the center of the
broad side, axially.
• A movable probe connected to a crystal detector
is inserted into the slot of the waveguide.
• In a microwave transmission line or
waveguide, the electromagnetic field is
considered as the sum of incident wave from
the generator and the reflected wave to the
generator.
• The reflections indicate a mismatch or a
discontinuity. The magnitude and phase of the
reflected wave depends upon the amplitude
and phase of the reflecting impedance.
• The standing waves obtained are measured to
know the transmission line imperfections
which is necessary to have a knowledge on
impedance mismatch for effective
transmission. This slotted line helps in
measuring the standing wave ratio of a
microwave device.
• λg = 2[ distance between two successive maximum]
• λg = 2[ distance between two successive minimum]
2ab
λc =
m 2b 2 + n 2 a 2

1 1 1
= +
λ0 2
λg 2
λc2

c
f =
λ0
 Down conversion method
• Unknown frequency fx is down converted by
mixing it with known frequency fa such that
fx-fa = fIF

The variable frequency source generates a

harmonic such that
fa=nf1
• Typical values for f1 = 100 to 500 MHz for a
range of fx upto 20 GHz.
 Microwave test bench set-up
Signal Generator
• It generates a microwave signal, in the order
of a few milliwatts.
• This uses velocity modulation technique to
transfer continuous wave beam into milliwatt
power.
• A Gunn diode oscillator or a Reflex Klystron
tube could be an example for this microwave
signal generator.
• Isolator
It is a two port device.

It allows microwave signals to propagate in

the forward direction.
It does not allows microwave signals to
propagate in the reverse direction.
Variable Precision Attenuator
• This is the attenuator which selects the
desired frequency and confines the output
around 0 to 50dB.
Isolator
• Variable attenuator
It sets the amount of attenuation.
Frequency meter
This is the device which measures the
frequency of a signal.
With the frequency meter, the signal can be
adjusted to resonant frequency.
• Slotted line
• It measures the sum of incident wave from the
generator and the reflected wave to the generator.
• Standing waves are measured using VSWR meter.
• Thus impedance mismatch can be calculated.
Crystal detector
• It is used to demodulate the signal.
• The output of crystal detector is directly
proportional to the square root of input
voltage.
Vmax
VSWR =
Vmin
Detector mount
• It is used to demodulate the signal.
• It is used to detect low frequency signals with
the help of IN23 detector diode.
Termination
• Total test bench is terminated with some load
called as termination.
 Precautions to be taken while setting
up microwave bench for measurement
1. To protect repeller from damage the repeller negative voltage
is always applied before anode voltage.
2. While modulating repeller should never become positive with
respect to cavity.
3.Fan should be operated to reduce the heat for reflex klystron
and gunn diode oscillator
4. Before switching ON the power supply, set
Beam voltage control knob to minimum
position.
Repeller voltage control knob to maximum
position.
HT( High Threshold) switch in OFF position.
 Microwave power measurements
• The microwave power inside a waveguide is
invariant with position of measurement and
the power measured is average power.
• The technique used to measure the power
depends on the value of power to be
measured (low or high).
• Thus power measurements are divided into 3
categories
• Measurement of low power (0.01mW to
10mW)---- Bolometer technique.
• Measurement of medium power (10mW to
10 W)---- Calorimetric technique.
• Measurement of high microwave power
(greater than 10W)---- Calorimetric watt
meter.
 Bolometer technique
• Devices such as bolometer and thermocouple
whose resistance changes with the applied
power are capable of measuring microwave
powers.
• Bolometers are mostly used among these.
• Bolometer is a simple temperature sensitive
device whose resistance varies with
temperature.
• Bolometers are of two types:
Barretters and Thermistors
Barretters
It has a positive temperature coefficient and
their resistance increases with increase in
temperature.
It consists of short length of fine platinum wire
mounted on a cartridge like ordinary fuse
• Thermistors
• It has a negative temperature coefficient and
their resistance decreases with increase in
temperature.
• Bascially semiconductor materials.
• Bolometer such as crystal diode is a square
law device
• It produces a current that is proportional to
the square of the applied voltage.
• Bolometer is mounted inside the waveguide
where the bolometer itself is used as a load,
with the operation resistance as R1 ohms.
• Now the low microwave power which is to be
measured is applied .
• Some power is absorbed by the bolometer
and dissipated as heat and the resistance
changes to R2
• The change in resistance (R1-R2) is
proportional to the microwave power which
can be absorbed using a bridge.
• Inaccuracy is introduced due to the bolometer
non linear characteristics.
• In the balanced bolometer bridge technique the
bolometer is made to be one of the arms of the
bridge.
• Initially, the bridge is balanced by adjusting R5 which
varies the dc power applied to the bridge and the
bolometer element is brought to a predetermined
operating resistance before microwave power is
applied.
• Let the voltage at the battery be E1 at balance.
• The microwave power is now applied and the
power gets dissipated in the bolometer.
• The bolometer heats up and then changes its
resistance.
• Therefore the bridge becomes unbalanced.
• The applied dc power is changed to E2 to get
back to the balance and this change in dc
power will be propotional to the microwave
power.
• Alternatively a detector G can be directly
callibrated in terms of microwave power.
• So that when the bridge is unbalanced the
detector reads the microwave power directly.
 Calorimetric technique
• Medium power stated in the range of 10mw
to 10W. Such powers can be measured using
Calorimetric technique.
• Principle:
Temperature rise of a special load monitored
is proportional to the power responsible for
the rise.
• It consists of identical temperature sensitive
resistors or gauge in two arms an indicating
meter and two load resistors.
• The input load resistor senses the unknown
input microwave power and the comparison
head is associated with comparison power.
• Input load power and input temperature
gauge are placed close to each other so that
heat generated in the input load resistor raises
the temperature of the gauge. This results in
the unbalance in the bridge.
• The signal due to the imbalance is then
amplified and then applied to the comparison
load resistor which is placed closer to the
comparison gauge.
• Hence the heat generated in comparison load
resistor is transferred to the gauge and the
bridge is rebalanced.
• The meter measures the amount of power
that is supplied to the comparison load in
order to rebalance the bridge.
• It can be calibrated directly in terms of input
microwave power.
• It is necessary that the characteristics of two
gauges be matched and also heat transfer
characteristics from each load be the same for
equal power dissipation of two loads.
 Measurement of Attenuation
• Microwave components and devices always
provide some degree of attenuation.
Attenuation is the ratio of input power to the
output power and is normally expressed in dB.

• Attenunation (in dBs)=  Pin 

10 indB
• Pin is the input power  Pout 
• Pout is the output power
• The amount of attenuation can be measured
with two methods

• Power Ratio method

• RF Substitution method
 Power Ratio method
• This method involves measuring powers P1
and P2 whose attenuation is to be measured.

• The ratio of powers P1 / P2 expressed in dB

gives attenuation.
P1

P2
• The power and the attenuation
measurements may not be accurate, when the
input power is low and attenuation of the
network is large.
 RF Substitution method
• This method overcomes the drawback of
power ratio method here we measure
attenuation at a single power position.
• This method consists of measuring output
power say ‘P’ by including the network whose
attenuation is to be measured as in set up 1.
• In set up 2, the device is replaced by a
precision calibrated attenuator which can be
adjusted to obtain the same power ‘P” as
measured in set up 1.

• Under this condition the attenuation read on

the precision attenuator would give the
attenuation of the network directly.
 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
• Any mismatch load leads to reflected waves
resulting in standing waves along the length of
the line.
• The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage
gives VSWR as shown
 V
S = max

V min

1− S
ρ =
1+ S

P Re
ρ = flected

P Incident
• S varies from 1 to infinity
• ρ varies from 0 to 1
 Measurement of Low VSWR
• Values of VSWR not exceeding 10 are very
easily measured with set up shown
• Initially the attenuator is adjusted to give an
adequate reading on the DC millivoltmeter.
• The probe on the slotted waveguide is moved
to get maximum reading on the meter Vmax.
• Next the probe on the slotted line is adjusted
to get minimum reading on the meter Vmin.
• The ratio of the first reading to the second
gives VSWR
Vmax
VSWR =
Vmin
• The meter can be calibrated in terms of VSWR.
• In this case, the probe on the slotted line and
pad are adjusted to give maximum deflection
on VSWR meter.
• The full scale deflection corresponds to VSWR
value of 1.
• As an example, a Full scale output of 10mV
corresponds to a VSWR of 1.
• Now the probe is adjusted to get minimum
reading on the meter. If the corresponds to 5
mV, then VSWR 10mV
=2
5mV
• If the corresponds to 3.3 mV, then VSWR
10mV
=3
3.3mV
• If the corresponds to 1 mV, then VSWR
10mV
= 10
1mV
• The method will not give accurate results
when VSWR greater than 10 is measured.
 Measurement of High VSWR
• For VSWR greater than 10, we use “double
minimum method”.
• In this method the probe is adjusted to find
the minimum reading on the meter (Vmin).
• The probe is then moved to a point where the
power is twice the minimum.
Let the position denoted as “d1”.
• The probe is then moved to twice the power
point on the other side of minimum say “d2”
Vx = 2Vmin
2 Pmin ∞ V x
2

∞Vx
2 2
2V min

Vx = 2Vmin
• The VSWR can be calculated by using the
formula
λg
VSWR =
π (d 2 − d1 )
λ
λ g = 0
2
 λ 
1 −  0

 λ c 

c
λ0 =
f
λc cut off wavelength
 Problem 1
• Estimate the SWR of a transmission system
operating at 10GHz. Assume TE10 wave
transmission inside a waveguide of
dimensions a=4cm, b=2.5cm. The distance
measured between twice minimum power
points = 1 mm on a slotted line.
 Problem 2
• Two identical directional couplers are used in
a waveguide to sample the incident and
reflected powers. The output of the two
couplers is found to be 2.5mW and 0.15mW.
Determine the value of VSWR in the
waveguide.
 Problem 3
• Assume you have two directional couplers (20
dB) in a guide to sample the incident and
reflected powers. The outputs of the two
couplers are 3mw and 0.1mw respectively.
What is the value of VSWR in the main
waveguide? What is the value of reflected
power.
 Possible Errors in VSWR
Measurements:
1. Detector may not work square law region for
both Vmax and Vmin

2. Depth of the probe in the slotted line

carriage is made as minimum. If not, it may
cause reflections in addition to the load
reflections.
3. For the device having low VSWR, connector
used for measurement must have proper
matching with line impedance.

4. If the geometrical shape of the slotted line is

not proper, Vmax (or) Vmin value will not
constant across the slotted line.
5. If the microwave signal is not properly
modulated by a 1 kHz square wave, then
signal becomes frequency modulated thereby
it causes error in the Vminvalue measured.
The value becomes lower than the actual.
6. Residual VSWR of slotted line carriage may
cause error in the measurements.
Low VSWR Measurements: (S<20)
1. Microwave Source is energized with 1 kHz
square wave signal as carrier.
2. Tunable passive components are so adjusted
to get reading across the VSWR meter in 30 dB
scale.
3. Detector (Tunable probe detector) is adjusted
to get maximum power across the VSWR
meter.
4. Slotted line carriage is moved from the load
towards source to find the standing wave
minimum position.
5. By adjusting the gain control knob of VSWR
meter and attenuator the reading across the
VSWR meter is made as 1 or 0 dB known as
normalization.
6. Again the slotted carriage is moved towards
source to find the next minimum position. The
reading shown at this point in the VSWR
meter is the ratio of magnitude of reflected
signals minimum and maximum voltages

Vmax
S=
Vmin
7. VSWR meter has three different scales with
different ranges as specified below
NORMAL SWR Scale 1 1-4
NORMAL SWR Scale 2 3.2 -10
EXPANDED SWR Scale 3 1- 1.33
8. If the device under test (DUT) is having the
range of VSWR 1 – 4, reading is taken from the
first scale from the top
(NORMAL SWR Scale 1, 1 – 4).
9 . If the device under test (DUT) is having the
range of VSWR 3.2 – 10, reading is taken from
the second scale from the top
(NORMAL SWR Scale 2, 3.2 – 10).
10. If the device under test (DUT) is having the
range of VSWR 1 – 1.33, reading is taken from
the third scale from the top
(EXPANDED SWR Scale 3 (1 – 1.33).
11. If the device under test (DUT) is having the
range of VSWR 10 – 40, a 20 dB range is
selected in the VSWR meter and reading is
taken from the first scale from the top
(NORMAL SWR Scale 1 – 1 – 4) which is then
multiplied by 10 for getting the actual reading.
 Cavity Q
• The quality factor Q of a resonant cavity is
termed as follows:
Unloaded

Energy stored in the cavity

Q 0 = 2π
Energy lost per cycle in the cavity
• Loaded

Q L = 2π Energy stored in the cavity

Energy lost per cycle in the cavity
+ Energy lost per cycle in the
external system
f0
QL =
∆f
f0 denotes the resonant frequency of the cavity.

Δf denotes the 3dB bandwidth.

• Energy lost per cycle in the external system
Energy stored in the cavity
Q E = 2π Energy lost per cycle in the external
system
• The three definitions can be related by using

1 1 1
= +
QL Q0 QE
Quality factor (Q) using Reflectometer
method
• Reflectometer usually measures the
reflection coefficient.

• In addition, it also measures the magnitude

of reflection coefficient ┌ at resonance and
half power points.
• From reflection coefficient calculate
1.Calculate VSWR
2. Find Half power frequencies and
bandwidth.
3. Calculate Q factor.
 Impedance Measurements
• Impedance of a microwave can be measured
using anyone of the following measurements

• Magic Tee
• Slotted line
• Reflectometer
 Measurement of Impedance Slotted line

using slotted line position of Vmax and Vmin and also VSWR are accurately determined
• When load is not properly matched to the
waveguide reflections occur the incident and
reflected waves will combine to produce a
standing wave which contains Vmax and Vmin.

• Input signal power can be adjusted with the

help of this variable attenuator.
• Using slotted line the position of Vmax and Vmin
and also VSWR are accurately measured.
• The unknown measurements can be obtained
by data recorded using a Smith chart.

• The magnitude and phase of reflection

coefficient can be measured in this method.
 Measurement of Impedance using
Reflectometer
• The reflectometer indicates the magnitude of
Impedance but not the phase angle whereas
slotted section measure gives both.
• Two directional coupler are used to sample
incident power Pi and Reflected power Pr from
the load.
• The magnitude of reflection coefficient ρ can
be directly obtained from th reflectometer
from which impedance can be calculated
ZL − Zg
ρ=
ZL + Zg
• Zg Known Impedance
• ZL unknown Impedance

• Due to directional coupler properties there

will be no interference between forward and
reverse waves.
• The input power is kept low by means of
variable attenuator.
 Content of the above Unit 1 to Unit V
had been taken from following text and
reference books
 TEXT BOOKS :

1. Microwave Devices and Circuits, Samuel Y.

Liao, 3/e, Prentice Hall of India, 2004.
2. Microwave Principles, Herbert J. Reich, J.G.
Skalnik, P.F. Ordungand H.L. Krauss , CBS
Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 2004.
 Reference Books
1.R.E. Collin, Foundations for Microwave
Engineering, IEEE Press, John Wiley,
2. Microwave Circuits and Passive Devices, M.L.
Sisodia and G.S.Raghuvanshi, Wiley Eastern Ltd.,
New Age International Publishers Ltd.,1995.
3. Microwave Engineering Passive Circuits, Peter A.
Rizzi, PHI,1999.
4. Electronic and Radio Engineering, F.E. Terman,
McGraw-Hill, 4th Edition, 1955.
5. Microwave Engineering, D. M. Pozar, 4/e, John
Wiley & Sons Inc, 2012.