REVIEWER IN MICROPARA 1
Microbiology - Microbiology studies tiny organisms (microorganisms) that can not be seen with
the naked eye, but can be seen using microscope, and their roles in health, disease, and
various applications. Techniques like microscopy and molecular biology are used to understand
and manipulate them. It's essential for medicine, and environmental science to understand the
behavior of the microbes in our ecosystem by doing this, it gives a knowledge on how to prevent
disease and create vaccines that can help in sustaining our life.
Why study microbiology?
Microbiology has an impact in the daily lives of humans.. by influencing aspects like food safety,
medicine, and environmental health. It helps ensure safe drinking water, enables the
development of antibiotics, and contributes to the understanding of diseases, ultimately
benefiting public health.
Parasitology studies parasites and their effects on hosts, aiming to understand, prevent,
and treat diseases caused by parasites.
Parasites organisms that live on or in a hosts organism
example: tapeworm is a parasite because it lives in the intestines of its host, absorbing
nutrients and causing harm.
Examples of Bacteria: Escherichia coli
is a bacterium in our intestines, helps digestion and serves as a model organism in labs
for genetic studies and protein production.
Called microorganisms or microbes; (2) categorized:
1. Cellular. either prokaryotes (bacteria, cyanobacteria, and archeans) or eukaryotes
(fungi, protozoa, and algae)
2. Acellular. Includes viruses
6 different fields of study of Microbiology:
1. Bacteriology. branch of microbiology concerned with the study of
bacteria
2. Virology. study of viruses
3. Mycology. deals with the study of fungi which are eukaryotic in nature
4.protozoology . The branch of microbiology based on taxonomy (Taxonomy is a way to
organize and classify things based on their similarities and differences.)
-protozoologists not only focus on taxonomy and morphological aspects and classification
purposes they also focus on medical significance.
5. Phycology. The study of multicellular organisms but deals with study of different types
of algae that can be found in different types of environments.
6. Immunology. The study of the immune system and the immune
response. 7.Parasitology. The study of parasites and their host
8. Nematology. the study of multicellular nematodes
(nematodes are small, slender worm often microscopic , found in soil,water and organisms)
Uses of microbilogy
Medicine:
Example: Vaccines and Antibiotics
Microbiology plays a crucial role in the development of vaccines that protect against
infectious diseases. Vaccines, like the ones for polio, measles, and influenza, are designed
based on understanding microbial pathogens and the immune response.
Antibiotics, such as penicillin and streptomycin, are products of microbial metabolism and
have revolutionized the treatment of bacterial infections.
Food and Beverage Industry:
Example: Fermentation
Microorganisms are used in food and beverage production through fermentation processes.
Yeast fermentation in brewing and baking, as well as lactic acid bacteria in yogurt and
cheese production, are examples of microbiological processes that enhance flavor, texture,
and preservation.
Environmental Monitoring:
Example: Water Quality Assessment
Microbiology is essential for monitoring and assessing environmental quality. Microbial
indicators, such as coliform bacteria, are used to evaluate water quality. The presence of
certain microbes can indicate contamination and potential health risks.
Agriculture:
Example: Nitrogen Fixation
Certain bacteria, like Rhizobium, form symbiotic relationships with plant roots and facilitate
nitrogen fixation. This process converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants,
enhancing soil fertility without the need for synthetic fertilizers.
Wastewater Treatment:
Example: Activated Sludge Process
Microorganisms play a key role in wastewater treatment processes. In the activated sludge
process, bacteria break down organic matter, removing pollutants from sewage water before
it is released into the environment.
Forensic Microbiology:
Example: DNA Fingerprinting
Microbial analysis is used in forensic science for DNA fingerprinting and identifying
microorganisms associated with crime scenes. This can aid in solving criminal cases and
identifying sources of contamination.
Era of microbiology and the contribution of scientist
Pre-modern Era: Unlimited knowledge of microorganisms.
Pre-Microbiology Era (Pre-17th century):
This era predates the formal study of microbiology and is characterized by limited
understanding of the microbial world.
The invention of the microscope in the 17th century would later revolutionize microbiology.
The First Golden Age (17th Century):
The invention of the microscope by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in the 1670s allowed the
observation of microorganisms for the first time.
Leeuwenhoek described bacteria, protozoa, and other microorganisms, laying the foundation for
microbiology.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (17th Century) . Developed
early microscopes and observed microorganisms, laying the foundation for microbiology.
Robert Hooke (1635-1703):English scientist Robert Hooke made important contributions to
microbiology through his work with microscopes. In his book "Micrographia" (1665), Hooke
provided detailed illustrations and observations of various substances, including molds and
fleas, under the microscope.
18th Century:Spontaneous Generation Era
Francesco Redi . Contribution:
Conducted experiments to challenge spontaneous generation, demonstrating that maggots do
not arise spontaneously but from eggs.
The prevailing belief was in spontaneous generation, the idea that living organisms could arise
from non-living matter.
Francesco Redi and Louis Pasteur conducted experiments that disproved spontaneous
generation and supported the concept of biogenesis.
Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799):Italian priest and biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted
experiments to disprove the concept of spontaneous generation. In the 1760s, he performed
experiments with sealed and open containers containing broth, demonstrating that sealed
containers remained free of microorganisms while open containers became contaminated.
Spallanzani's work supported the idea that microorganisms came from the air and not
spontaneously generated within the broth.
John Needham (1713-1781):English naturalist John Needham initially supported the theory of
spontaneous generation. In 1745, he conducted experiments with sealed flasks containing
boiled broth, claiming the presence of spontaneously generated microorganisms. However,
Needham's work was later challenged by Lazzaro Spallanzani, who argued that the sealed
flasks prevented the entry of vital air needed for spontaneous generation.
Germ Theory Era (19th Century):
Louis Pasteur's experiments in the mid-19th century demonstrated that microorganisms are
responsible for fermentation and spoilage.
Pasteur, along with Robert Koch, developed the germ theory of disease, establishing a
connection between specific microorganisms and infectious diseases.
The Second Golden Age (Late 19th to Early 20th Century):
Robert Koch's postulates were established for linking specific microorganisms to particular
diseases.
Vaccination became a reality with the development of vaccines against rabies (Pasteur) and
smallpox (Edward Jenner).
Advances in microbial staining techniques, such as Gram staining, facilitated the identification
and classification of bacteria.
Louis Pasteur . Contribution:
Established the germ theory of disease but he failed, but developed pasteurization, and created
vaccines, significantly advancing our understanding of microbiology. Robert Koch successfully
discovered that microorganisms can cause diseases and infections.
WHO IS LOUIS PASTEUR? . was a
French scientist known for the germ theory of disease, pasteurization, and creating vaccines for
rabies and anthrax. His work revolutionized microbiology and medicine.
19th era golden era of microbiology
witnessed significant breakthroughs by scientists like Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch,
establishing the germ theory of disease and laying the foundation for modern
microbiology
The 19th century can be considered a foundational period for microbiology, marked by
groundbreaking discoveries and advancements that laid the groundwork for the
understanding of microorganisms. Some key developments during this time include:
Louis Pasteur's Germ Theory (1861-1864): Louis Pasteur's work in the mid-19th century
was instrumental in establishing the germ theory of disease. Through experiments, he
demonstrated that microorganisms (bacteria) are responsible for fermentation and
putrefaction and that they play a crucial role in the transmission of diseases. This laid the
foundation for understanding the role of microorganisms in causing infections.
Joseph Lister and Antiseptic Surgery (1867): Building on Pasteur's work, Joseph Lister
introduced antiseptic practices in surgery. By using antiseptic agents to sterilize surgical
instruments and clean wounds, Lister significantly reduced postoperative infections,
demonstrating the practical applications of microbiological principles in medicine.
Robert Koch and Koch's Postulates (late 19th century): Robert Koch developed a set of
criteria known as Koch's postulates, which outlined the steps necessary to prove that a
specific microorganism causes a particular disease. Koch's work on anthrax and
tuberculosis was pivotal, and he is often referred to as one of the founders of modern
bacteriology.
Discovery of Pathogenic Bacteria: Throughout the 19th century, various scientists isolated
and identified pathogenic bacteria responsible for diseases. Examples include the
identification of the bacteria causing cholera (Vibrio cholerae) by Filippo Pacini and the
discovery of the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) by
Robert Koch.
Vaccination Developments: While the foundations of vaccination were laid in the 18th
century by Edward Jenner, the 19th century saw further developments in vaccine
research. Louis Pasteur's work on rabies vaccination in the late 1800s was a significant
milestone in the field.
Emergence of Microscopy: Advances in microscopy, particularly the development of more
powerful and sophisticated microscopes, allowed scientists to observe and study
microorganisms in greater detail. This technological progress was crucial for advancing
microbiological research.
Pure Culture Techniques: In the late 19th century, scientists such as Robert Koch
developed techniques for obtaining pure cultures of microorganisms. This was essential
for studying individual microbial species in isolation and for fulfilling Koch's postulates.
These collective achievements in the 19th century laid the groundwork for the modern
field of microbiology. The understanding of the role of microorganisms in disease, the
development of aseptic techniques, and the establishment of methods for studying
microbes in pure culture set the stage for the rapid progress that continued into the 20th
century and beyond. The 19th century can indeed be regarded as a golden era for the
foundational principles of microbiology.
The Antibiotic Era (20th Century):
The discovery of antibiotics, starting with penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928, revolutionized
medicine and microbial control.
The development of antibiotics led to significant progress in treating bacterial infections and
transformed medical practices.
Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering Era (Mid-20th Century Onward):
The elucidation of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 marked the
beginning of molecular biology.
Recombinant DNA technology and genetic engineering allowed scientists to manipulate and
engineer microorganisms for various purposes, including the production of medicines and
genetically modified organisms.
Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology Era (Late 20th Century Onward):
Microbiology expanded to study the roles of microorganisms in natural environments, including
ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles.
Biotechnology applications, such as the use of microbes in industrial processes and genetic
engineering, continued to advance.
Alexander Fleming . Contribution:
Discovered the antibiotic penicillin, revolutionizing medicine by introducing the first widely used
antibiotic.
Ronald Ross: Discovered that mosquitoes transmit malaria, laying the foundation for controlling
the spread of this deadly disease.
Paul Ehrlich: Developed the concept of selective toxicity and discovered the first synthetic
antimicrobial drug, Salvarsan, used to treat syphilis.
Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin: Developed vaccines for polio, effectively eradicating the disease
in many parts of the world.
These eras illustrate the progression of microbiology from the discovery of microorganisms to
understanding their roles in health, disease, and the environment, as well as harnessing their
potential for various applications. The field continues to evolve with ongoing research and
technological advancements.
Ecological relationships describe the interactions between different species in an ecosystem
Mutualism:
Definition: Both species benefit from the relationship. Example:
Bee and Flower Interaction . Bees collect nectar
from flowers for food, and in the process, they transfer pollen, aiding in the pollination of
the flowers. The bee gets food (nectar), and the flower benefits from the pollination,
leading to reproduction.
Commensalism:
Definition: One species benefits, and the other is neither helped nor harmed. Example:
Barnacles on Whales . Barnacles attach
themselves to the skin of whales, gaining access to nutrient-rich water. The barnacles
benefit by getting a mobile habitat and food particles from the water, while the whales are
generally unaffected.
Parasitism: Definition:
One species (parasite) benefits at the expense of the other (host). Example: Tick and
Mammal . Ticks feed on the blood of
mammals, such as dogs or deer, obtaining nutrients for their survival and reproduction.
The host experiences harm as the tick extracts its blood and may transmit diseases in
the process.
Predation:
Definition: One species (predator) hunts and consumes another species (prey).
Example: Lion and Gazelle . Lions hunt
and consume gazelles as a food source. The lion benefits by obtaining energy for
survival and reproduction, while the gazelle is negatively affected as it becomes prey.
Amensalism:
Definition: One species is harmed, and the other is unaffected. Example:
Walnut Tree and Other Plants . Walnut trees release
juglone, a chemical that inhibits the growth of nearby plants. The other plants are harmed
by the juglone, but the walnut tree is unaffected.
Competitive Interaction:
Definition: Both species are negatively affected as they compete for limited resources.
Example: Lions and Hyenas Competing for Prey . Lions and
hyenas often compete for the same prey species. The competition can result in both
groups experiencing challenges in obtaining food, leading to potential conflicts and
changes in behavior.
Neutralism:
Definition: Both species are unaffected by each other. Example:
Trees and Clouds . Trees and clouds
generally have a neutral interaction. While trees may influence local weather patterns,
the presence or absence of clouds does not significantly impact the trees in a direct way.
Understanding these ecological relationships is essential for comprehending the
dynamics of ecosystems and how different species coexist and interact with one another.
These interactions contribute to the balance and stability of ecosystems.
Viruses are acellular organisms. Their outer surface is called capsid, which is composed
of repeating sub units called capsomeres.
• Possess only a single nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, but never both
• viruses lack the necessary cellular parts that can allow them to replicate independent of
the host cell.
• Also lack the genes and enzymes that are necessary for energy production • They
are dependent on host cells for their replication and are considered as obligate
intracellular parasites. . Bacteriophages are a
special type of viruses that primarily infectbacteria .
Bacteria microbes with cellular structures, typically single-celled organisms and
prokaryotic cells
• Possess both DNA and RNA
• possess a nucleoid instead of a true nucleus, smaller ribosomes, and lack mitochondria
Fungi is a group of eukaryotic microorganisms, including molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. •
possess both DNA and RNA
• possess a true nucleus that is enclosed by a nuclear membrane and mitochondria that
function for ATP production
• Fungal ribosomes are also larger than bacterial ribosome
Protozoa single-celled, microscopic organisms, part of the protist kingdom, often found in
water environments.
• possess both DNA and RNA
• unicellular organisms that usually divide through binary fission, similar to bacteria. (2) two
morphologic forms— similar to bacteria
1. Cysts. Infective stage
2. Trophozite. Pathogenic stage
Algae are eukaryotic organisms whose outer surface consists primarily of cellulose. • described
as plant like organisms; most have chlorophyll and are thus capable of photosynthesis.
• Do not possess true roots, stems, and leaves.
Diatoms are unicellular algae that inhabit both fresh and saltwater
• cell wall contains silicone dioxide that may be utilized in filtration systems, insulation, and
as abrasives
Dinoflagellates are also unicellular algae that are important members of the
phytoplankton group.
• contribute greatly to the oxygen in the atmosphere and serve as important links in the
food chain
• Also responsible for what is known as “red tide.”
CELLS
(2) two general categories of Living Cells
1. Prokaryotes. do not possess a true nucleus and membrane bound organelles ( ex:
bacteria) 2. Eukaryotes. possess a true nucleus and membrane bound organelles. • usually
multicellular organisms and include plants, animals,fungi, parasites,and algae.
Why is it called cell . The
term "cell" in biology originates from the Latin word "cella," meaning a small room or
compartment. It was first used by Robert Hooke in 1665 to describe the small structures he
observed in cork under a microscope, resembling small rooms or cells. The name stuck and
is now widely used to refer to the basic structural and basic unit of living organisms.
A cell is the basic unit of life, Cells can live by them self because they are capable of
independent existence and can carry out all the vital functions for living.
Parts of Cell
1. Cell Membrane: A protective barrier controlling what enters and exits the cell,
maintaining internal balance.
2. Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance within the cell where organelles are suspended,
facilitating cellular activities.
3. Nucleus: Central control center containing genetic material (DNA) that governs cell
functions and reproduction.
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Network of membranes aiding in protein and lipid
synthesis, rough ER has ribosomes.
5. Ribosomes: Cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis, either floating in the
cytoplasm or attached to the ER.
6. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, packages, and transports proteins and lipids
produced by the cell.
7. Mitochondria: Powerhouses of the cell, generating energy through cellular
respiration.
8. Vacuoles (in plants) / Vesicles (in animals): Storage sacs for various substances
within the cell.
9. Cytoskeleton: Internal framework providing structural support and aiding in cell
movement.
10.Lysosomes (in animal cells): Contain enzymes for breaking down waste materials
and cellular debris.
11. Cell Wall (in plant cells): Rigid outer layer providing structural support and
protection.
12.Chloroplasts (in plant cells): Contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis, converting
light into energy in plants.
hydrophilic is interacting with water and other hydrophobic is having fear of water.
. Protein channels are like cell gates, helping specific substances move in or out efficiently.
Nucleus center unit of the cell why it contain genetic information rna and dna while controlling
the cell . Plant cells have a cell wall
and chloroplasts for photosynthesis while animal cells lack these features.
. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a molecule that stores
and transfers energy within cells. It's essential for various cellular processes, including
metabolism and powering biochemical reactions. .
Mitochondria are called the powerhouse of the cell because they produce ATP through
cellular respiration and they burn and break down the chemical bond of glucose to release
energy do to work in cell
Louis Pasteur played a significant role in improving the quality of wine in France by developing
a process known as pasteurization. Pasteurization is a heat treatment method that destroys
harmful microorganisms in food and beverages without significantly altering their taste or
nutritional content. Here's how Pasteur's work contributed to making wine drinkable:
Understanding Fermentation:Louis Pasteur began his scientific career by studying
fermentation. In the 1850s, he demonstrated that fermentation was caused by living
microorganisms, such as bacteria and yeast, converting sugars into alcohol and other
byproducts. This understanding laid the foundation for his later work in the wine industry.
Identifying Spoilage Microorganisms:Pasteur recognized that spoilage microorganisms,
particularly certain bacteria, could turn wine into vinegar or produce unpleasant flavors. These
spoilage issues were a significant concern for the French wine industry.
Heat Treatment (Pasteurization):Pasteur developed the process of pasteurization to address
the spoilage problems in wine. In 1864, he presented a paper to the French Academy of
Sciences outlining the benefits of heating wine to a specific temperature to kill harmful
microorganisms. This process could be applied to both wine and beer.
Application to Winemaking:Winemakers started adopting Pasteur's pasteurization technique
to eliminate unwanted microorganisms in wine. The process involved gently heating the wine to
a temperature that would destroy spoilage bacteria without affecting the overall quality of the
beverage.
Preserving Wine Quality:Pasteurization helped winemakers preserve the quality of their wines
and prevent spoilage. By controlling the microbial population, the process allowed for the
production of stable, drinkable wines that retained their intended characteristics.
Impact on the Wine Industry:Pasteur's work significantly improved the economic prospects of
the French wine industry. Before pasteurization, wine spoilage was a common problem, leading
to financial losses for producers. Pasteurization enabled winemakers to produce wines with
greater consistency and reduced the risk of spoilage during storage and transportation.
While Pasteur's contributions to winemaking were valuable, it's important to note that
pasteurization is not universally applied to all wines. Some winemakers prefer traditional
methods, and pasteurization is more commonly associated with certain types of sparkling wines
and fruit juices.
Louis Pasteur's understanding of fermentation and his development of pasteurization had a
positive impact on the French wine industry by improving the quality and stability of wines,
making them more enjoyable and marketable.
Bacteria and viruses play crucial roles in the development of vaccines. Vaccines are
designed to stimulate the immune system, training it to recognize and fight specific pathogens,
such as bacteria or viruses. There are different types of vaccines, and the methods used to
create them vary. Here are two common examples:
Inactivated or Attenuated Pathogens:
Example: Polio Vaccine
Inactivated vaccines use pathogens that have been killed or weakened to the point that they
cannot cause disease. The immune system can still recognize these pathogens as foreign
invaders, leading to the production of an immune response. The inactivated polio vaccine (IPV)
is an example where the poliovirus is inactivated, making it safe for vaccination.
Example: Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Vaccine
Attenuated vaccines use live pathogens that have been weakened, so they replicate poorly or
do not cause disease in healthy individuals. The measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine
contains weakened forms of these viruses, allowing the immune system to develop a response
without causing illness.
Subunit, Recombinant, or Conjugate Vaccines:
Example: Hepatitis B Vaccine .
Some vaccines use specific parts or products of pathogens rather than the whole organism.
The hepatitis B vaccine is an example of a subunit vaccine that contains a small part of the
hepatitis B virus called the surface antigen. This stimulates an immune response without
exposing the individual to the entire virus.
bacteria and viruses contribute to the development of vaccines by providing the antigens or
components that stimulate the immune system, helping the body recognize and remember
specific pathogens. The goal is to create immunity without causing the disease itself.
