Differentiability in R, Derivative

Sections A,B,C,D
January 14, 2024

1 Differentiability
1.1 Differentiability at one point

Definition Let f be a function defined in a neighborhood of a real x0 .

f (x) − f (x0 )
f is differentiable at x0 if and only if ∃l ∈ R such that lim = l.
x→x0 x − x0
df
l is called the derivative of f at x0 ; it is denoted f 0 (x0 ) or (x0 ).
dx

Example
1. Prove that the function f (x) = b is differentiable at any point x0 of R and determine
f 0 (x0 )
2. Same question for f (x) = x.
3. f (x) = sin x.

1.2 One-sided Differentiability

Definition
1. Let f be a function defined on the right of x0 .
f is differentiable at x0 on the right (or differetiable, on the right at x0 ) iff
f (x) − f (x0 )
∃l ∈ R | x→x
lim =l
>
0 x − x0

l is denoted fr0 (x0 ) and it is called the right derivative of f at x0 .

2. Let f a function defined on the left of x0 .
f is differentiable at x0 on the left (or differetiable, on the left at x0 ) iff
f (x) − f (x0 )
∃l ∈ R | lim =l
x→x0
<
x − x0

l is denoted fl0 (x0 ) and it is called the left derivative of f at x0 .

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 √
Example Examine the differentiability of f (x) = x at the right of 0

Theorem 1.2.1 Let f be a function defined in a neighborhood of x0 ,


is both differentiable on the left and on the right
f
f is differentiable at x0 ⇐⇒ 
at x0 and fl0 (x0 ) = fr0 (x0 ).

Remark If f isn’t differentiable on the left at x0 or on the right at x0 then f isn’t differentiable
at x0 .

Example Prove that f (x) = |x| isn’t differentiable at 0.

Theorem 1.2.2 Let f be a function defined in a neighborhood Nx0 of a point x0 .

If f is differentiable at x0

then ∀x ∈ Nxˆ0 lim ε(x) = 0 and f (x) = f (x0 ) + (x − x0 )f 0 (x0 ) + (x − x0 )ε(x)

∃ε | x→x
0

Theorem 1.2.3 If f is differentiable at a point x0 then f is continuous at x0 .

Remark
1. The inverse of this theorem is false.
Example: Examine the differentiability of f at 0

x cos 1
  
si x 6= 0

f (x) =  x
0 si x = 0

2. f is discontinuous at x0 =⇒ f isn’t differentiable at x0 .

Example f (x) = int(x) is defined on R;

study the differentiability of f at each point of R.

1.2.1 Algebraic operations on differentiable functions

Theorem 1.2.4 If f and g are differentiable at x0 then

1. f + g is differentiable at x0 and (f + g)0 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) + g 0 (x0 ).

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 2. f.g is differentiable at x0 and (f.g)0 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ).g(x0 ) + f (x0 ).g 0 (x0 ).
!0
f f f 0 (x0 ).g(x0 ) − f (x0 ).g 0 (x0 )
3. If g(x0 ) 6= 0 then is differentiable at x0 and (x0 ) = .
g g (g(x0 ))2

Example
1. f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 · · · + a0 is differentiable at any point of R.

an xn + an−1 xn−1 · · · + a0
2. g(x) = , is differentiable at any point of Dg.
bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 · · · + b0

Remark In the previous theorem the condition "f and g are differentiable at x0 " is only a
sufficient condition, it isn’t a necessary condition.
Example
Test the differentiability of h(x) = x2 int(x) at 0 .

1.2.2 Composition of differentiable functions

Theorem 1.2.5 Let f : E −→ F and g : F −→ G, such that E is a neighbohood of x0 and

F is a neighborhood of f (x0 ).
If f is differentiable at x0 and g is differentiable at f (x0 ) then g ◦ f is differen-
tiable at x0 moreover (g ◦ f )0 (x0 ) = g 0 (f (x0 )) .f 0 (x0 ).

π
Example Examine the differentiability of h(x) = |sin x| at x0 = , then at x0 = 0 .
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1.2.3 Derivative of the inverse function

Theorem 1.2.6 Let f : I −→ J be a function, I and J intervalls

If f is bijective and f is differentiable at x0 ∈ I provided that f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0
0 1
then f −1 is differentiable at f (x0 ) moreover (f −1 ) (f (x0 )) = 0 .
f (x0 )

1.3 Extremum

1.3.1 Definition of a critical point

A point x0 is said to be a critical point of a function f iff f is differentiable at x0 and
f 0 (x0 ) = 0.

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 1.3.2 Definition of an extremum
Let f be a function defined in a neighborhood of x0 .

1. f has a local maximum at x0 ⇐⇒ ∃η > 0 | ∀x ∈ ]x0 − η, x0 + η[ f (x) ≤ f (x0 ).

2. f has a local minimum at x0 ⇐⇒ ∃η > 0 | ∀x ∈ ]x0 − η, x0 + η[ f (x) ≥ f (x0 ).

3. f has an extremum at x0 ⇐⇒ f has a local maximum at x0 or a local

minimum at x0 .

Figure 1: Example on extremum

Definition

1. If f has a maximum at a point x0 which means:

∀x ∈ Df f (x) ≤ f (x0 )

we say that f has a global maximum at x0 .

2. If f has a minimum at a point x0 which means

∀x ∈ Df f (x) ≥ f (x0 )

we say that f has a global minimum at x0 .

Theorem 1.3.1 If f has an extremum at x0 and f is differentiable at x0

then f 0 (x0 ) = 0.

Remark
1. A critical point of a function f is not always an extremum of f .
Example: f (x) = x3 ; f admits at x0 = 0 a critical point but f does not admit at x0 = 0
an extremum , we say that (0, 0) is an inflexion point of f .

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 Figure 2: x power 3

2. A function can have at a point an extremum without being differentiable at this point.
Example: f (x) = |x| admits at x0 = 0 an extremum but f is not differentiable at 0; we
say that f has a corner at 0.

Figure 3: The absolute value

Example Find the extrema of f (x) = x3 + x2 + 1.

1.4 Fundamental theorems of differentiable functions on an interval

1.4.1 Definition
1. f is differentiable on ]a, b[ ⇐⇒ f is differentiable at each point of ]a, b[.

2. f is differentiable on [a, b[ ⇐⇒ f is differentiable on ]a, b[ and on the right at a .

3. f is differentiable on ]a, b] ⇐⇒ f is differentiable on ]a, b[ and on the left at b .

4. f is differentiable on [a, b] ⇐⇒ f is differentiable on ]a, b[ and f is differentiable on

the right at a and on the left at b.

Theorem 1.4.1 Rolle’s Theorem

If f is continuous on [a, b] and f is differentiable on ]a, b[ and f (a) = f (b)

then ∃c ∈ ]a, b[ such that f 0 (c) = 0.

Prove that f (x) = 1 + (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) admits two extremums.

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 Theorem 1.4.2 Mean Value Theorem
Let f be a function defined on [a, b] , a 6= b;

If f is continuous on [a, b].

and f is differentiable on ]a, b[

then ∃c ∈ ]a, b[ | f (b) − f (a) = (b − a)f 0 (c)

Example Prove that |sin x| ≤ |x| ∀x ∈ R

Corollary Let f be a function differentiable on an interval I.

we have:
∀x, y ∈ I : (x 6= y =⇒ ∃z strictly between x and y | f (x) − f (y) = f 0 (z).(x − y)) .

Exercise Prove by the Mean value theorem MVT that :

1 1
< ln(1 + x) − ln x < ∀x ∈ R∗+ .
x+1 x

Theorem 1.4.3 Generalized Mean Value Theorem

Let f and g be functions defined on [a, b].

If f and g are continuous on [a, b].

and f and g are differentiable on ]a, b[ with g 0 (x) 6= 0 ∀x ∈ ]a, b[

f (b) − f (a) f 0 (c)
then ∃c ∈ ]a, b[ | = 0 .
g(b) − g(a) g (c)

Theorem 1.4.4 L’Hopital’s Rule

Let f and g be differentiable on Nâ such that
g 0 (x) 6= 0 ∀x ∈ Nâ and x→a
lim f (x) = x→a
lim g(x) = 0;
0
f (x) f (x)
If ∃l ∈ R | x→alim 0 = l then x→a
lim =l
g (x) g(x)

Example Calculate the following limits:

1 − sin x 0
1. limπ = ,
x→ 2 cos x 0
!
(cos x) − 1 0
2. lim = ,
x→0 x2 0

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Remark
0
1. The L’Hopital Rule is used in cases of indeterminacy of type ; it can be extended to the
0
∞
cases .
∞
f 0 (x) f (x)
2. If lim doesn’t exist we can’t say any thing about lim ; we can see that in the
x→a g 0 (x) x→a g(x)
following example:
1
Let f (x) = x2 sin( ) and g(x) = x
x
we have 
2 1 
f (x) x sin( ) 0
lim

= lim  x =
x→0 g(x) x→0  x  0

This limit is equal to

2

1 
f (x) x sin( ) 
1

lim

= lim  x  = lim x sin =0
x→0 g(x) x→0  x  x→0 x

But
1 1 1 
  
0
f (x)  2x sin − x2 . 2 cos
lim = lim  x x x 

x→0 g 0 (x) x→0  1 

1 1
 
= lim 2x sin − cos n’existe pas
x→0 x x

1 1
 
lim 2x sin − cos doesn’t exist because
x→0 x x
1 1
   
lim 2x sin = 0 ∈ R et lim − cos doesn’t exist.
x→0 x x→0 x

Theorem 1.4.5 Let f and g be differentiable on Nâ such that

g 0 (x) 6= 0 ∀x ∈ Nâ and x→a lim g(x) = ∞.
lim f (x) = x→a
0
f (x) f (x)
If x→alim 0 = l ∈ R then x→alim =l
g (x) g(x)

1.4.2 Definition
◦
Let I be an interval, the interior of I, denoted I is the largest open interval included in I.

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Example Find the interior of each of these intervals:

[a, b] , ]a, b[ , [a, +∞[ , [a, b[

Theorem 1.4.6 Let f be differentiable on an interval I.

◦
1. f 0 (x) = 0 ∀x ∈ I ⇐⇒ f is constant on I.
◦
2. f 0 (x) ≥ 0 ∀x ∈ I ⇐⇒ f is increasing on I.
◦
3. f 0 (x) ≤ 0 ∀x ∈I ⇐⇒ f is decreasing on I.
◦
4. f 0 (x) > 0 ∀x ∈ I =⇒ f is strictly increasing on I.
◦
5. f 0 (x) < 0 ∀x ∈ I =⇒ f is strictly decreasing on I.

π
 
Example Prove that f (x) = sin x is strictly increasing on 0, .
2

Remark If I isn’t  an interval the previous theorem will not be true.

0 if x ∈ [0, 1]
example: f (x) =
1 if x ∈ [2, 3]
f is differentiable on [0, 1] [2, 3] moreover f 0 (x) = 0 ∀x ;
S

but f isn’t constant on I.

1.5 Taylor’s Theorem

1.5.1 Higher order derivatives

If f is differentiable on an open interval I, we define the derivative of f , denoted f 0 by

f 0 : I −→ R
x 7−→ f 0 (x)

If f 0 , is also differentiable on I then (f 0 )0 is said second derivative of f and is noted f 00

d2 f
or f (2) or . We also say that f is twice differentiable on I
dx2
Recurrently,  0
for n ∈ N∗ : if f (n−1) is differentiable on I then f (n−1) is said derivative of order n of
dn f
f and is noted f (n) or . We also say that f is n times differentiable on I.
dxn
Conventionaly we put f (0) = f .

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Example
π
1. f (x) = sin x, x ∈ R, Prove that f (n) (x) = sin(x + n ).
2
π
2. f (x) = cos x, x ∈ R, prove that f (n) (x) = cos(x + n ).
2

1.5.2 Leibniz’s Rule or Leibniz’s Formula

If f et g are n times differentiable at a then f.g is also n times differentiable at a, moreover :
n
k!
(f.g)(n) (a) = Cnk f (k) (a).g (n−k) (a); Cnk =
X

k=0 n! (n − k)!

1.5.3 Function of class C n

Let n ∈ N,
A function f is of class C n on an open interval I if and only if f is n times differentiable on
I and the nth derivative f (n) is continuous on I.
We denote by C n (I) the set of all functions of class C n on I.

Remark By convention, we denote by:

1. C 0 (I) the set of the continuous functions on I.

2. C ∞ (I) the set of real functions that belong to C n (I) for all n ∈ N .

Example

1. ex , cos x, sin x ∈ C ∞ (R).

2. Prove that the function

x3 cos 1

si x 6= 0

f (x) = x
0

si x = 0
is of class C 1 on R but it isn’t of class C 2 on R.

1.5.4 Taylor’s theorem (or Taylor’s formula) with the Lagrange form of the
remainder
If f is a function such that

1. f ∈ C n (I), I an open interval containing a.

2. For x ∈ I, x 6= a, f (n+1) exists on ]a, x[ (respectively on ]x, a[ ).

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 then ∃cx ∈ ]a, x[ (respectively on ∃cx ∈ ]x, a[ ) such that

(x − a)0 (0) (x − a) 0 (x − a)2 (2)

f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a)
0! 1! 2!
(x − a)n (n) (x − a)n+1 (n+1)
+ ··· + f (a) + f (cx )
n! (n + 1)!
n
f (k) (a) (x − a)n+1 (n+1)
(x − a)k +
X
= f (cx )
k=0 k! (n + 1)!
| {z } | {z }
T aylor polynomial theLagrangef ormof theremainder

This formula is called :

Taylor’s Formula with Lagrange form of the remainder on Na to order n.
If a = 0, the formula is called Maclaurin’s Formula with Lagrange form of the
remainder.

Remark If n = 0 et x = b, we obtain the Mean value theorem.

1.5.5 Corollary
Let I be an open interval containing a point a.
If f ∈ C n+1 (I) then ∀x 6= a ∃cx strictly between x and a such that:
n
f (k) (a) (x − a)n+1 (n+1)
(x − a)k +
X
f (x) = f (cx ).
k=0 k! (n + 1)!

Example: Maclaurin’s Formula with Lagrange form of the remainder

1. ∀x ∈ R∗ ∃cx strictly between x and 0 such that
x3 x5 x7 x2n+1 x2n+2
sin x = x − + − + · · · + (−1)n + (−1)n+1 . . sin(cx ).
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)! (2n + 2)!

2. ∀x ∈ R∗ ∃cx strictly between x and 0 such that

x2 x4 x6 x2n x2n+1
cos x = 1 − + − + · · · + (−1)n + (−1)n+1 sin(cx ).
2! 4! 6! (2n)! (2n + 1)!

3. ∀x ∈ R∗ ∃cx strictly between x and 0 such that

x2 x3 x4 xn xn+1
ex = 1 + x + + + + ··· + + .ecx .
2! 3! 4! n! (n + 1)!

Exercise 1 Use the Taylor’s Formula with Lagrange form of the remainder to prove the
following inequalities:
x3
∀x ∈ R∗+ sin x ≥ x −
3!
10
 √
Exercise 2 Let f (x) = 1+x

1. Write the Maclaurin’s Formula with Lagrange form of the remainder of f on N0̂ to order
5.
√
2. Deduce an approximate value of 2.

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