String Operations
• SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on character strings. The
operator like uses patterns that are described using two special characters:
• percent ( % ). The % character matches any substring.
• underscore ( _ ). The _ character matches any character.
• Find the names of all instructors whose name includes the substring “dar”.
select name
from instructor
where name like '%dar%'
• Match the string “100%”
like ‘100 \%' escape '\'
in that above we use backslash (\) as the escape character.
String Operations (Cont.)
• Patterns are case sensitive.
• Pattern matching examples:
• ‘Intro%’ matches any string beginning with “Intro”.
• ‘%Comp%’ matches any string containing “Comp” as a substring.
• ‘_ _ _’ matches any string of exactly three characters.
• ‘_ _ _ %’ matches any string of at least three characters.
• SQL supports a variety of string operations such as
• concatenation (using “||”)
• converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)
• finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.
Ordering the Display of Tuples
SELECT column-names FROM table-name WHERE condition ORDER BY
column-names
• List in alphabetic order the names of all instructors
select distinct name
from instructor
order by name
• We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending order, for
each attribute; ascending order is the default.
• Example: order by name desc
• Can sort on multiple attributes
• Example: order by dept_name, name
String Operations (Cont.)
• The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can
be numbers, text, or dates.
• •The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included.
• •It is a comparison operator
• •Example: Find the names of all instructors with salary between $90,000
and $100,000 (that is, ≥$90,000 and ≤ $100,000)
• •select name from instructor where salary between 90000 and 100000
Null Values
• It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some of
their attributes
• null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist or signifies
'no value'.
• is null can be used to check for null values.
• Is not null can be used to check for not null values.
• Example: Find all instructors whose salary is null.
select name
from instructor
where salary is null
Aggregate Functions
• These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of
a relation, and return a value
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Count(*): Returns total number of tuples
Count(column): Return number of non null values over the column
Count(Distinct column): Return number of distinct non null values over the
column
Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
• Find the average salary of instructors in the Computer Science department
• select avg (salary)
from instructor
where dept_name= ’Comp. Sci.’;
• Find the total number of instructors who teach a course in the Spring 2010 semester
• select count (distinct ID)
from teaches
where semester = ’Spring’ and year = 2010;
• Find the number of tuples in the course relation
• select count (*)
from course;
• Find the average salary of instructors in each department
• select dept_name, avg (salary) as avg_salary
Aggregate Functions from instructor
group by dept_name;
– Group By
avg_salary
avg_salary
Aggregation (Cont.)
• Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate functions must appear in
group by list
• /* erroneous query */
select dept_name, ID, avg (salary)
from instructor
group by dept_name;
Aggregate Functions – Having Clause
Find the names and average salaries of all departments whose average salary is greater than 42000
select dept_name, avg (salary)
from instructor
group by dept_name
having avg (salary) > 42000;
Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the
formation of groups whereas predicates in the where
clause are applied before forming groups
Null Values and Aggregates
• Total all salaries
select sum (salary )
from instructor
• Above statement ignores null amounts
• Result is null if there is no non-null amount
• All aggregate operations except count(*) ignore tuples with null values
on the aggregated attributes
• What if collection has only null values?
• count returns 0
• all other aggregates return null
CONSTRAINTS
To add check constraint:
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD CONSTRAINTS constraint name CHECK (SEX IN ('M','F’));
Example: ALTER TABLE EMP ADD CONSTRAINTS SDF CHECK (SEX IN ('M','F'));
To add foreign key
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD CONSTRAINT constraintname FOREIGN KEY (attribute)
REFERENCES Referenced_table(attribute);
ALTER TABLE MA ADD CONSTRAINT KL FOREIGN KEY (DEPID) REFERENCES V_DEP(DNO);
To add unique key
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD attributename domain UNIQUE
ALTER TABLE TEST ADD C3 INT UNIQUE
CONSTRAINTS
The constraints from the table
SELECT CONSTRAINT_NAME FROM ALL_CONSTRAINTS WHERE TABLE_NAME = 'V_EMP';
To add primary key constraint
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY(attribute);
ALTER TABLE EMP ADD CONSTRAINT Con PRIMARY KEY(EMP_NO);
To drop constraint
ALTER TABLE tablename DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
ALTER TABLE V_EMP DROP CONSTRAINT SYS_C0024414;
CONSTRAINTS
To Add constraint during table creation
create table dependents(
DID number primary key,
MID varchar2(20) references v_emp(emp_no),
SEX char(1) check (sex in ('m','f'))
NAME varchar2(20) not null);
