ENG 221 – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING II

THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical
element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are
very small. However, atoms do not have well-defined boundaries, and there are different ways to
define their size that give different but close values. The basic structure of an atom is as shown in
fig 1.1

Fig 1.1 The basic structure of an atom

• An atom has a nucleus at the centre containing neutrons and protons
with one or more electrons circulating around the nucleus in electron shells or at different
energy levels.
• Protons are positively charged.
• Neutrons have no charge.
• Electrons are negatively charged.
• The electrons are held by an electrostatic force of attraction by its negative charge and
positive charge of protons.
• An atom is electrically neutral because the same proton number (positive charge) in the
nucleus is balanced by the electron number (negative charge) in the shells.

How to identify atoms of different elements

• Proton number is also called atomic number.
• The atomic number (proton number) determines the identity of an element.
• Each element has different proton number and no two different elements have the same
proton number.
• For examples, hydrogen has one proton number, carbon has six proton numbers and
chlorine has seventeen proton numbers.

BOHR MODEL
In atomic physics, the Rutherford–Bohr model or Bohr model, introduced by Niels Bohr and
Ernest Rutherford in 1913, depicts the atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by
electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus—similar in structure to the solar system,
but with attraction provided by electrostatic forces rather than gravity. After the cubic model
(1902), the plum-pudding model (1904), the Saturnian model (1904), and the Rutherford model
(1911) came the Rutherford–Bohr model or just Bohr model for short (1913). The improvement
to the Rutherford model is mostly a quantum physical interpretation of it. The Bohr model has
been superseded, but it helped to lead the way to a modern quantum mechanical model of the atom.
To overcome this difficulty, Niels Bohr proposed, in 1913, what is now called the Bohr model or
postulate of the atom. He suggested that electrons could only have certain classical motions:

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Definition: The Bohr Model
The Bohr model is essentially summed up by these three “postulates” or assumptions:
• Electrons in atoms make circular orbits around the nucleus.
• The angular momentum of an orbiting electron is quantized: it can only be an integer
multiple of the reduced Planck constant ℏ: 𝐿 = 𝑛ℏ. In other words, electrons can only orbit
the nucleus at the specific distances where their angular momentum obeys the above
equation.
• In order to jump to a further (higher) orbit from the nucleus, an electron must absorb energy
in the form of a photon. Conversely, an electron moving to a nearer (lower) orbit to the
nucleus will emit energy in the form of PHOTON or emitting electromagnetic radiation with
a frequency ν determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck
relation:

E = E2 − E1 = hv
Where h is Planck's constant. The frequency of the radiation emitted at an orbit of period T is as
it would be in classical mechanics; it is the reciprocal of the classical orbit period:
1
f =
T
The significance of the Bohr model is that the laws of classical mechanics apply to the motion of
the electron about the nucleus only when restricted by a quantum rule. Although Rule 3 is not
completely well defined for small orbits, because the emission process involves two orbits with
two different periods, Bohr could determine the energy spacing between levels using Rule 3 and
come to an exactly correct quantum rule: the angular momentum L is restricted to be an integer
multiple of a fixed unit:
h
L=n = nh
2
Where n = 1, 2, 3, ... is called the principal quantum number, and ħ = h/2π. The lowest value of
n is 1; this gives a smallest possible orbital radius of 0.0529 nm known as the Bohr radius. Once
an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the proton. Starting from the angular
momentum quantum rule, Bohr was able to calculate the energies of the allowed orbits of the
hydrogen atom and other hydrogen-like atoms and ions.
An electron has a charge of 1.6x10-19C and a mass of 9.1x10-31Kg. For the electrons to be stable
in the orbit, the centrifugal force acting on it must be balanced by the electrostatic pull as shown
in the figure 1.2 below resulting from the positively charged nucleus on the electron which is
mV 2 qq qq
expressed as;, = 1 2 2 , hence mV 2 r = 1 2 . In the Bohr model, the orbital radius 𝑟 of an
r 4o r 4 o
40 h2 n2
electron in energy level 𝑛 is given by r = . According to the Bohr model, electron
mq 2
angular momentum is quantized. This means that electron orbits are only possible where the
angular momentum 𝐿 of an orbiting electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant ℏ
where 𝐿 = 𝑛ℏ.

2
 V

electron
nucleus Fe
q2
q1 F e

Figure 1.2 forces acting on the electron.

A photon is a tiny particle that comprises waves of electromagnetic radiation. As shown by
Maxwell, photons are just electric fields traveling through space. Photons have no charge, no
resting mass, and travel at the speed of light.
Photon Energy Formula
We know that the speed of light (c) is constant in a vacuum. Hence, more photons of high
frequencies such as gamma rays and X-rays travel at absolutely the same speed as low-frequency
photons, like infrared radiations. When the frequency of a photon increases, the wavelength
decreases. When the frequency decreases, the wavelength increases. The equation that relates these
parameters for photons is given as below:
c = λf
Since wavelength and frequency are interdependent parameters, the equation for the energy
contained in a photon is given by:
E = hf or E = hc/λ
Where,
E = energy of the photon
h = Planck’s constant (6.62607015) × 10-34 J.s or kg m2 s−1)
f = photon frequency
λ = photon wavelength
c = speed of light (3 x 108 meters/second)
The photon energy at 1 Hz is equal to 6.626 × 10−34 J and the Planck’s constant in terms of eV is
4.14 × 10−15 eV· s.

Example 1
A photon is emitted as an atom makes a transition from n = 4 to n = 2 level. What is the energy,
frequency and wavelength of the emitted photon?
Solution
we are given that, Initial orbit of electron = ni = 4
Final orbit of electron = nf = 2.
Also we know that, Speed of electromagnetic waves = c = 3 × 108 m/s,
Planck’s constant = h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js.
We want to calculate the energy, frequency, and wavelength of the emitted photon, when the atom makes
a transition from ni = 4 to nf = 2. Frequency of the emitted photon can be calculated by using the equation,
E = hf,
Let’s at first calculate E by using the following relation,
 1 1 
E = −13.6  2 − 2  eV
 n f ni 

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 1 1
E = −13.6  2 − 2  eV = 2.55eV
2 4 
Thus frequency of photon will be
E 2.55eV 2.55 x1.6 x10−34 J
f = = =
h 6.63x10−34 Js 6.63x10−34 Js
f = 6.15 x1014 Hz
Wavelength of the emitted photon can be calculated by using the following equation. c = fλ
c 3x108 m / s
= = −7
= 4.875 x10−7 m = 488nm
f 6.15 x10 Hz

Example 2
Calculating the Angular Momentum of an Electron in a Hydrogen Atom
Solution
In the Bohr model of the atom, what is the magnitude of the angular momentum of an electron in
a hydrogen atom in the ground state? Use a value of 1.05×10-34 J⋅s for the reduced Planck constant.
The Bohr model of the atom tells us that the angular momentum 𝐿 of an electron in an atom is
quantized. Specifically, it tells us that 𝐿 can only be an integer multiple of the reduced Planck
constant ℏ. This is expressed by the equation 𝐿 = 𝑛ℏ, where 𝑛 is a positive integer known as
the principal quantum number.
The ground state of an atom is the lowest energy level, and that the principal quantum number of
an electron in the ground state will take the lowest possible value, 𝑛 = 1.The fact that this is a
hydrogen atom is relevant because the Bohr model is generally only accurate for single-electron
atoms, and hydrogen atoms have only one electron.
Since 𝑛 = 1, we can just substitute this into the above equation to find the angular momentum:𝐿=1ℏ
=1.05×10-34 Js =1.05×10-34 Kg.m2s-1

Example 3
Calculating the Orbital Radius of hydrogen Electron Using the Bohr Model
Solution
40 h 2 n 2
We have that r =
mq 2
𝑟 is the orbital radius of an electron in energy level 𝑛 of a hydrogen atom, 𝜖 is the permittivity
of free space, ℏ is the reduced Planck constant, 𝑚 is the mass of the electron, and 𝑞 is the charge
of the electron, to calculate the orbital radius of an electron that is in energy level 𝑛=4 of a
hydrogen atom.
4 (8.85 x10−12 ) x(10.5 x10−34 ) 2 x42
r= −31 −19
= 8.412 x10−10 m
(9.11x10 )(1.60 x10 )

VALENCE AND CONDUCTION BANDS

The electrons at the outermost shell of an atom are called the valence electrons and have the least
binding energy and the band they occupy is called the valence band. This band is never empty but
may be completely filled or partially filled. It is the highest occupied band. The valence band has
the highest range of electron energies in which electrons are normally present at absolute zero
temperature.
The next higher band is the conduction band and may be empty of partially filled with electrons
and also referred to as the lowest unfilled energy band. The electrons in the conduction band move
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freely and they constitute the conduction electrons. The valence band and conduction band are
separated by a gap called the forbidden energy gap as shown in fig 1.2.

Fig 1.2
The relationship between the valence band and conduction band are used to determine the electrical
properties of materials. When electrons which are negatively charged are ejected from the valence
band, it leads to a break in the covalent band leaving behind a positively charged hole. Electrons
usually jumped from valence band to conduction band. The difference in characteristics is as
shown below
Conduction Band Valence Band

Energy band formed by a series of energy

Higher energy level band
levels containing valence electrons

Partially filled by the electrons. Always filled with electrons

High Energy State Low Energy State

Above Fermi level Below Fermi level

Electrons move into the conduction band Electrons will move out of the valence band
when the atom is excited when the atom is excited

The highest energy level which can be

Current flows due to movement electrons. occupied by an electron in the valence band
at 0 K is called the Fermi level.
Band structure is responsible for the explanation of the electrical properties of a material. The way
in which the energy states are filled is the same as it was found for the free electron case. For
energy function, E(k), the integral as given in Eq.

Band gap or Forbidden Band

In semiconductors and insulators the two bands are separated by a band gap, while in semimetals
the bands overlap. A band gap is an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist due
to the quantization of energy. Electrical conductivity of non-metals is determined by the
susceptibility of electrons to excitation from the valence band to the conduction band. The
forbidden band is the energy gap between a conduction band and valence band. Some of its
characteristics include;
• No free electron is present.
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 • No Energy.
• The Width of the forbidden energy gap depends upon the nature of the substance.
• As temperature increases (↑), the forbidden energy gap decreases (↓) very slightly

Electrical conductivity
The measure of how freely current can flow through a material is called conductivity. Copper,
with its high conductivity of 5.95 x 107 W-1m-1, conveys electric flow more freely than does
aluminum, with its marginally lower conductivity of 3.77 x 107 W-1m-1. Conductivity is the
converse of resistivity r:

s = 1/r.
In solids, the ability of electrons to act as charge carriers depends on the availability of vacant
electronic states. This allows the electrons to increase their energy (i.e., accelerate) when an
electric field is applied. This condition is only satisfied in the conduction band, since the valence
band is full in non-metals.
As such, the electrical conductivity of a solid depends on its capability to flow electrons from the
valence to the conduction band. Hence, in the case of a semimetal with an overlap region, the
electrical conductivity is high. If there is a small band gap (Eg), then the flow of electrons from
valence to conduction band is possible only if an external energy (thermal, etc.) is supplied; these
groups with small Eg are called semiconductors. If the Eg is sufficiently high, then the flow of
electrons from valence to conduction band becomes negligible under normal conditions; these
groups are called insulators.

Mobility
eT
It describes the ease with which charge carriers drift in the material, expressed as n = , where
m
e is the charge of the electron, τ is the relaxation time and m is the mass of the electron.

Example
If a semiconductor is transparent to light with a wavelength longer than 0.87 µm, what is its
band-gap energy?
Solution
Photon energy of light with 0.87 µm wavelength is, with c being the speed of light

C (6.63x10−34 ) J .sx(3x108 )m / s
hv = h =
 0.87  m
1.99 x10−19 J . m 1.99 x10−19 (eV . m)
hv = =
0.87  m 1.6 x10−19 x0.87  m
1.24(eV . m)
hv = = 1.42eV
0.87  m
Therefore, the band gap of the semiconductor is 1.42 eV. The semiconductor is perhaps GaAs

THE BAND MODEL IN ELECTRICAL MATERIALS

a. Conductor

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Conductors are those materials which allow the flow of electric currents. In conductor the valence
band and conductor overlaps as shown in fig 1.3c. The conduction band is then partially occupied
(even at low temperatures), resulting in a “high” electrical conductivity. In conductors, there is no
forbidden gap and there are large numbers of conduction electrons.
b. Insulator
Insulators are those materials which do not allow the flow of electric currents. In insulator the
valence band and conductor are separated by a large gap as shown in fig 1.3a. In this case the
valence band (and all bands of lower energy) is fully occupied, and the conduction band is empty.

Fig 1.3
c. Semiconductor
These are group four elements from the periodic table. The properties of semiconductors combine
the properties of conductors and insulators. A semiconductor is a substance, which can conduct
electricity under some conditions. At room temperature, there is no conduction in semiconductor
but when the temperature is increased, the energy gap decrease in width and the ejection acquire
more energy and are liberated into the conduction band. When electrons leave the valence band it
creates a hole which is positively charged. The accounts for why conduction in semiconductors is
by means of electrons and holes.
In semiconductor the valence band and conductor are separated by a small or narrow gap as shown
in fig 1.3b .They are of high resistance — higher than typical resistance materials, but still of much
lower resistance than insulators. The types of semiconductor are;

(i) Intrinsic semiconductor: They are called pure semiconductor e,g. germanium and silicon. They
have small energy gap at room temperature and the electrons poses more energy to move between
the valence band and conduction band. For every electron liberated there is an equally a positively
charged hole created in the valence band. When an electric field is applied to intrinsic
semiconductor, electrons move to anode and holes move to cathode. An intrinsic semiconductor
is an undoped semiconductor. This means that holes in the valence band are vacancies created by
electrons that have been thermally excited to the conduction band, as opposed to doped
semiconductors where holes or electrons are supplied by a “foreign” atom acting as an impurity.

(ii) Extrinsic semiconductor: An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor doped by a specific

impurity which is able to deeply modify its electrical properties, making it suitable for electronic
applications (diodes, transistors, etc.) or optoelectronic applications (light emitters and detectors).
The impurities are pentravalent atom such as phosphorous with five valence electrons or trivalent
atom such as boron with three valence electrons.

Extrinsic semiconductors are grouped into N - type or P - type semiconductor depending on the
type of dopants. When doped with pentravalent atom, N - Type Extrinsic semiconductor is formed
and when doped with trivalent atom, P - Type Extrinsic semiconductor is formed.

P-type semiconductors

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P type semiconductor is formed when a trivalent atom such as boron is added to a pure
semiconductor material such as germanium. The three valence electrons of boron form covalent
bond with three of the surrounding germanium atom leaving a fourth band incomplete. This
creates a hole. The boron produces positive holes in the germanium resulting in the formation of
positive type (p type) extrinsic materials. A P-type semiconductor is an extrinsic semiconductor
in which an impurity acting as an acceptor has been intentionally added to pure semiconductor
material. These impurities are called acceptors since once they are inserted in the crystalline
lattice; they lack one or several electrons to realize a full bonding with the rest of the crystal.

N-type semiconductors
N-type semiconductor is an extrinsic semiconductor. N type semiconductor is formed when a
pentravalent atom such as phosphorous is added to a pure semiconductor material such as
germanium. The impurity here is phosphorous which is dopped with silicon or germanium to
form an N- type material. The impurities are called donor impurities since they have to give an
extra electron to the conduction band in order to make all the bonds with neighboring atoms
(phosphorous atom is pentavalent in nature while Si is tetravalent).
The fifth phosphorous atom which cannot combine with the germanium atom is loosely bound to
the phosphorous. If electric field is applied to it, this loosely bound electron move from the
valence band into the conduction band.
Doping greatly increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal. A dopped semiconductor
containing free holes is called "P-Type", and when it contains free electrons, it is known as "N-
Type". The semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions
to control the concentration and regions of p - and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal
can have many p- and n-type regions; the p–n junctions between these regions are responsible for
the useful electronic behavior.
Although some pure elements and many compounds display semiconductor properties, silicon,
germanium, and compounds of gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices

What is P-N Junction?

Definition: A p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material
types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.
The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes and the n-side or the
negative side has an excess of electrons. In a semiconductor, the p-n junction is created by the
method of doping.

Formation of P-N Junction

A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor material, p-type
and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. The "p" (positive) side contains an excess of
holes, while the "n" (negative) side contains an excess of electrons. The p-n junction is created by
doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of
crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of
dopant).
If we use different semiconductor materials to make a p-n junction, there will be a grain boundary
that would inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to the other by scattering the electrons
and holes and thus, we use the process of doping. We will understand the process of doping with
the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a
small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type
silicon. This sheet will now contain both p-type region and n-type region and a junction between

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these two regions. The processes that follow after the formation of a p-n junction are of two types
– diffusion and drift. As we know, there is a difference in the concentration of holes and electrons
at the two sides of a junction, the holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side and the electrons from
the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give rise to a diffusion current across the junction.

Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionized donor is left behind on
the n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on
the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, and ionized
acceptor is left behind in the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in the
p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the
junction is termed as the depletion region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side
of the junction, an electric field direction from a positive charge towards the negative charge is
developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to the n-side
of the junction. This motion is termed as the drift. Here, we see that the direction of drift current
is opposite to that of the diffusion current.

Example
What is the hole concentration in an N-type semiconductor with 1015cm–3 of donors?
Solution:
For each ionized donor, an electron is created. Therefore n = 1015cm–3
n 2 1020 cm−3
P = i = 15 −3 = 105 cm−3
n 10 cm
Example
What is n if p = 1017cm–3 in a P-type silicon wafer?
Solution
ni 2 1020 cm−3
P= = 17 −3 = 103 cm−3
p 10 cm

Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in the p-n junction diode:
• P-type
• N-type
There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is based on the voltage applied:
• Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.
• Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
• Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
and the positive is connected to the n-type.

Forward Bias
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When the p-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-type connected to
the negative terminal of the battery, then the p-n junction is said to be forward-biased. When the
p-n junction is forward biased, the built-in electric field at the p-n junction and the applied electric
field are in opposite directions. When both the electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has
a magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner
depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied voltage
is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region becomes
completely negligible and the current flows across it unimpeded.

Reverse Bias

When the p-type is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-type is connected
to the positive side of the battery, then the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased. In this case,
the built-in electric field and the applied electric field are in the same direction. When the two
fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field
creating a more resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region becomes more resistive
and thicker if the applied voltage becomes larger.

Zero Bias Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the
PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers)
in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the
junction against this barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced
as IF

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

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P-N Junction Formula
The formula used in the p-n junction depends upon the built-in potential difference created by
the electric field is given as:
N N 
Eo = VT  D2 A 
 ni 
Where,
• E0 is the zero bias junction voltage
• VT is the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature
• ND and NA are the impurity concentrations
• ni is the intrinsic concentration.

Working Principle of Diode (How does current flow in PN junction diode?)

The n side will have a large number of electrons and very few holes (due to thermal excitation)
whereas the p side will have a high concentration of holes and very few electrons. Due to this, a
process called diffusion takes place. In this process free electrons from the n side will diffuse
(spread) into the p side and combine with holes present there, leaving a positive immobile (not
moveable) ion in the n side. Hence, few atoms on the p side are converted into negative ions.
Similarly, few atoms on the n-side will get converted to positive ions. Due to this large number of
positive ions and negative ions will accumulate on the n-side and p-side respectively. This region
so formed is called as depletion region. Due to the presence of these positive and negative ions a
static electric field called as "barrier potential" is created across the p-n junction of the diode. It is
called as "barrier potential" because it acts as a barrier and opposes the further migration of holes
and electrons across the junction.

Fig 1.5
V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode
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I-V characteristics curve of a P-N junction diode is a curve between the voltage and current through
the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along the y-axis. The above
graph is the VI characteristics curve of the PN junction diode. With the help of the curve we can
understand that there are three regions in which the diode works, and they are:
• Zero bias
• Forward bias
• Reverse bias
When the PN junction diode is under zero bias condition, there is no external voltage applied and
this means that the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current.
When the PN junction diode is under forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to the positive
terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage. When the
diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the potential barrier. For silicone diodes,
when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the potential
barriers decrease and there is a flow of current.
When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly and the curve obtained is non-
linear as the voltage applied to the diode is overcoming the potential barrier. Once the potential
barrier is overcome by the diode, the diode behaves normally and the curve rises sharply as the
external voltage increases and the curve obtained is linear.
When the PN junction diode is under negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the
negative terminal while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage.
This results in an increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning
as minority carriers are present in the junction.
When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have increased kinetic energy
which affects the majority charges. This is the stage when the diode breaks down. This may also
destroy the diode.

An equation which describes the exact current through a diode, given the voltage dropped across
the junction, the temperature of the junction, and several physical constants. It is commonly known
as the diode equation:

 NKT
qVD

ID = IS  e − 1
 
I D = Diode current in amperes
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IS = reverse saturation current in amperes typically 1x10-12 amperes
e = Euler’s constant = approximately 2.72
Q = charge of electron which is 1.6x10-19 Coulombs
V
D = voltage applied across the diode in volts, positive for forward bias and negative for reverse
bias.
N = non-ideality or emission coefficient = 1 for germanium and 2 for silicon
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10-23
T = junction temperature in Kelvin

The term kT/q describes the voltage produced within the P-N junction due to the action of
temperature, and is called the thermal voltage, or Vt of the junction. At room temperature,

(
I D = I S e 40VD − 1 ) for germanium and (
I D = I S e 20VD − 1 ) for silicon.
REVIEW:
• A diode is an electrical component acting as a one-way valve for current.
• When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode allows current, the diode
is said to be forward-biased.
• When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode prohibits current, the
diode is said to be reverse-biased.
• The voltage dropped across a conducting, forward-biased diode is called the forward voltage.
Forward voltage for a diode varies only slightly for changes in forward current and
temperature, and is fixed by the chemical composition of the P-N junction.
• Silicon diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.7 volts.
• Germanium diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.3 volts.
• The maximum reverse-bias voltage that a diode can withstand without “breaking down” is
called the Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV rating.
• Bulk resistance of a pn junction diode is the sum of the resistance of the p and n materials. It
(V + VB )
is given as rB = rP + rN = r
If
25mV 50mV
• Junction resistance of a diode r j , is given as rj = for germanium and rj = for
If If
silicon.

• AC resistance is given as rac = rB + rj ; ac r = rB for large values of forward bias and

rac = rj for small values of forward current
• Reverse resistance = reverse voltage/reverse current.

Applications of PN Junction Diode

• p-n junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive to the light when
the configuration of the diode is reverse-biased.
• It can be used as a solar cell.

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 • When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.
• It is used as rectifiers in many electric circuits and as a voltage-controlled oscillator in
varactors.

DIODE IN LINEAR CIRCUIT

The basic circuit symbol of the diode is shown on Figure 1. Unlike the resistor, whose two
terminal leads are equivalent, the behavior of the diode depend on the relative polarity of its
terminals.
+ _

Figure 1. Diode circuit model

Vd
r

V VR R
id

Fig 2 diode circuit

The current id can be calculated by using KVL and KCL equations as follows;
V – Vd = id(r + R)
V − Vd
id =
r+R
A graphical procedure called the plotting a load line graph can be used for solving nonlinear circuit
problems. The techniques work for diodes and transistors amplifiers circuits. This is achieved by
plotting the IV characteristics graph. Considering the diode circuit below
Vd

V VR R
id

By KVL and KCL the load line equation is V = Vd + VR

V = Vd + VR
V = Vd + id R
V − Vd
id =
R
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Frequently Asked Questions on p-n Junction
What happens when the battery voltage is increased in a forward-biased p-n junction?
The current through the junction increases when the battery voltage is increased in a forward-
biased p-n junction.
What happens when a p-n junction is reverse biased?
The holes and electrons tend to move away from the junction.
What are the two breakdown mechanisms of the p-n junction?
The two breakdown mechanisms are Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown
What is static resistance of a diode?
Static resistance of a diode is defined as the ratio of the DC voltage applied across the diode to
the DC current flowing through the diode.
What is the dynamic resistance of a diode?
Dynamic resistance of a diode is defined as the ratio of change in voltage to the change in
current.
What is reverse resistance?
Reverse resistance is defined as the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it is
reverse biased.

STUDY QUESTIONS
Q1. An a.c. voltage of peak value 20 V is connected in series with a silicon diode and load
resistance of 500 Ω. If the forward resistance of diode is 10 Ω,. find :
(i) Peak current through diode
(ii) Peak output voltage
(iii) What will be these values if the diode is assumed to be ideal?
Solution:
Peak input voltage = 20 V
Forward resistance, rf = 10 Ω
Load resistance, RL= 500 Ω
Potential barrier voltage, V0 = 0.7 V
The diode will conduct during the positive half-cycles of a.c. input voltage only.
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.1 (ii)

(i) The peak current through the diode will occur at the instant when the input voltage reaches
positive peak i.e. Vin = VF = 20 V

ii) Peak output voltage:

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Ideal Diode Case:

Q2. Find the current through the diode in the circuit shown in Fig. 2(i). Assume
the diode to be ideal.

Fig. 2
Solution:
We shall use Thevenin’s theorem to find current in the diode. Referring to Fig. 2(i),

Fig. 2 (ii) shows Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Since the diode is ideal, it has zero resistance

Q3. Calculate the current through 48 Ω resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. 3 (i).Assume the diodes
to be of silicon and forward resistance of each diode is 1 Ω.

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 Fig. 3
Solution:
Diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased. We can,
therefore, consider the branches containing diodes D2 and D4 as “open”.
Replacing diodes D1 and D3 by their equivalent circuits and making the branches containing
diodes D2 and D4 open, we get the circuit shown in Fig. 3 (ii). As we know for a silicon diode,
the barrier voltage is 0.7 V.

Q4. Determine the current I in the circuit shown in Fig. 4 (i). Assume the diodes to
be of silicon and forward resistance of diodes to be zero.

Fig. 4
Solution:
The conditions of the problem suggest that diode D 1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse
biased. We can, therefore, consider the branch containing diode D 2 as open as shown in Fig. 4
(ii).Further, diode D1 can be replaced by its simplified equivalent circuit.

Q5. Find the voltage VA in the circuit shown in Fig. 5 (i). Use simplified model.

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 Fig. 5
Solution:
It appears that when the applied voltage is switched on, both the diodes will turn “on”. But that is
not so. When voltage is applied, germanium diode (V0 = 0.3 V) will turn on first and a level of
0.3V is maintained across the parallel circuit.
The silicon diode never gets the opportunity to have 0.7 V across it and, therefore, remains in
open-circuit state as shown in Fig.5 (ii).

Q6. Find VQ and ID in the network shown in Fig. 6(i). Use simplified model.

Fig. 6
Solution:
Replace the diodes by their simplified models. The resulting circuit will be as shown in Fig. 6
(ii).By symmetry, current in each branch is ID so that current in branch CD is 2ID.Applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the closed circuit ABCDA, we have,

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Q7. Determine current through each diode in the circuit shown in Fig. 7 (i). Use
simplified model. Assume diodes to be similar.

Fig.7
Solution:
The applied voltage forward biases each diode so that they conduct current in the same direction.
Fig. 7 (ii) shows the equivalent circuit using simplified model. Referring to Fig. 7 (ii),

Q8. Determine the currents I1, I2 and I3 for the network shown in Fig. 8(i). Use
simplified model for the diodes.

Fig. 8
Solution:
As we can see in Fig. 8 (i) both diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased. Using simplified model
for the diodes, the circuit shown in Fig. 8(i) becomes the one shown in Fig. 8 (ii).

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Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loop ABCDA in Fig. 8 (ii), we have,

Q9. Determine if the diode (ideal) in Fig. 9 (i) is forward biased or reverse biased.

Fig. 9
Solution:
Let us assume that diode in Fig.9 (i) is OFF i.e. it is reverse biased.The circuit then becomes as
shown in Fig. 9(ii). Referring to Fig. 9 (ii), we have,

Now V1 – V2 = 2V is enough voltage to make the diode forward biased. Therefore, our initial
assumption was wrong, and diode is forward biased.

Q10. Determine the state of diode for the circuit shown in Fig. 10 (i) and find ID and VD . Assume
simplified model for the diode.

Fig. 10
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Solution:
Let us assume that the diode is ON. Therefore, we can replace the diode with a 0.7V battery as
shown in Fig. 10 (ii). Referring to Fig.10 (ii), we have,

Since the diode current is negative, the diode must be OFF and the true value of diode current is
ID =0 mA. Hence our initial assumption was wrong. In order to analyze the circuit properly, we
should replace the diode in Fig. 10 (i) with an open circuit as shown in Fig.10 (iii).

Fig.10 (iii)
The voltage VD across the diode is :

We know that 0.7V is required to turn ON the diode. Since VD is only 0.4V, the answer confirms
that the diode is OFF.

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