COURSE

GUIDE

EDU321
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Course Team Dr. Ayanniyi Alhassan (Course Developer/Writer)

Dr. B. I. Ajufo (Reviewer 2015)
Dr. Dorothy Ofoha (Reviewer 2022)
Prof. Ogidan Rotimi (Course Editor) - NOUN
Fatele S. O. (Copy Editor) – NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

EDU321 COURSE GUIDE

© 2022 by NOUN Press

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Printed 2022

ISBN: 978-978-058-376-7
 MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Conceptual Clarification………………………… 1

Unit 1 Concept of Learning and Learning Process ……… 1

Unit 2 Study of Psychology of Learning and its Importance
to the Teacher 5…………………………………. 7
Unit 3 Factors Affecting Learning ………………………. 12

Module 2 Theories of Learning and their Educational

Implications ……………………………………. 18

Unit 1 Overview of Learning Theories………………… 18

Unit 2 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning ……… 22
Unit 3 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism………… 30
Unit 4 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning ……. 37
Unit 5 Applications of Operant Conditioning …………. 51
Unit 6 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory…………….. 59
Unit 7 Cognitive Fields Theory of Learning …………. 67

Module 3 Permanency in Learning …………………… 77

Unit 1 Motivation in Learning ……………………….. 77

Unit 2 Theories of Motivation in Learning…………… 88
Unit 3 Transfer of Learning……………………………. 100
Unit 4 Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering
and Forgetting ………………………………... 110
EDU321 MODULE 1

MODULE 1 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION

Module Structure

Unit 1 Concept of Learning and Learning Process

Unit 2 Study of Psychology of Learning and its Importance to the
Teacher
Unit 3 Factors Affecting Learning

UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF LEARNING AND LEARNING

PROCESS
Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Leaning Outcomes
1.3 Concept of Learning and Learning Process
1.3.1 Definition of Learning and its Attributes
1.3.2 Five Stages of Learning Process
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.1 Introduction

When you hear the word Learning, what comes to your mind? How would
you describe learning? Have you ever thought about what goes on in the
process of learning? How does an individual learn a set of knowledge,
skills, habits, interests, attitudes and similar other things in life? Such
questions have always been a subject of enquiry and investigation before
psychologists. This unit will introduce you to what Psychologists refer to
as Learning. Here, we will define and clarify the concept of learning and
discuss some of its attributes. We will also look at the processes through
which learning can take place i.e., how an individual acquires learning.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define the concept of learning and discuss some of its attributes

• discuss the five stages of learning process.

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

1.3 Concept of Learning and Learning Process

1.3.1 Definition of Learning and its Attributes

An Overview of Learning

Learning is a psychological concept that cuts across psychology and

education. Learning is the most important factor in understanding human
behaviour. You are learning, as you read your course materials, watch
videos, and engage in a discussion. Learning is also involved in many
other aspects of life. You learn to ride a bicycle, drive a car, cook, and to
play football. Learning influences behaviour to such a great extent that it
is one of the most important concepts that psychologist’s study. In fact,
learning occupies a very important place in our lives. Most of what we do
or do not do is influenced by what we learn and how we have learnt it.

Learning occurs right from the birth of the child and proceeds until he/she
dies. Learning is acquired due to the prior experience one has gained. A
child may learn from their environment consciously or unconsciously,
and in the process, their behaviour is being modified either negatively or
positively. However, the essence of enrolling in the school is to acquire
desirable/positive behaviour under the tutelage of the teacher. learning
involves acquiring knowledge and skills through experience (Lumen
Learning, 2020). To this end, learning can be described as a process by
which an individual:

i. acquires a novel idea or experience to a situation;

ii. retains and applies the idea, skills and knowledge in solving the
confronting problems.
iii. modify one’s behaviour by the experience gained in the past and
making the change permanent.

What is Learning?

Learning has been defined in many ways: To a layman learning refers to

knowing something. ‘We learn what we are taught. To some, it is the
process of acquiring knowledge. Psychologists do not agree with the
simplistic layman’s view about learning. We need to have a clear
understanding of what psychologists refer to as learning. From a
psychological point of view, learning is defined as a relatively permanent
change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience or practice. Note
the key words in this definition – ‘permanent’ ‘change’ ‘behaviour’
‘experience’.

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EDU321 MODULE 1

This definition emphasises four attributes of learning:

1. Learning involves change in behaviour, be it good or bad.

2. The change in behaviour must be relatively permanent. For

instance, a temporary change in behaviour due to fatigue, illness,
alcohol, drugs are not considered learning.

3. Only change in behaviour acquired through experience or practice

is considered learning. Experience may be acquired directly
through practice or observation or indirectly through reading. The
child brings changes in their behavior after gaining experiences
from the environment. Let us look at the term learning from this
scenario:

While a child is approaching a burning match stick, he/she gets

burnt and withdraws. The next time when the child faces a burning
match stick, they would waste no time in withdrawing themselves
away. The child learns to avoid not only the burning match stick
but also all burning things. When this happens, we say that the
child has learnt that if one touches a flame, one gets burnt. In this
way, we say that the experience gained brings a change in the
behaviour of that child.

4. Finally, learning is universal and continuous. It is not confined to

our schooling only. As a matter of fact, learning is a life-long
process. It is not limited to any age, sex, race or culture.

What is NOT considered learning?

• A change in behaviour due to fatigue, illness, alcohol, drugs are

not considered learning. Why? That is because it is not permanent.
For instance, the change in the behaviour of a drunkard cannot be
regarded as learning since such a change in behaviour is not
permanent.

• Some behaviour cannot be described as being learnt because they

occur at the moment of anatomical maturation. This type of
learning occurs as one matures physically. For example, a child
does not learn how to walk, eat or talk but acquires these skills as
he/she advances in age. This behaviour is regarded as “specie-
specific behaviour” (Ayeni, 1991).

In other words, learning does not include the changes in behaviour on

account of maturation. However, maturation must take place before
learning can take effect. For instance, when you look at the stages of a

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

child’s development, you can see that the child first knows how to eat,
then knows how to sit, to crawl about, stand, walk, run about, and knows
how to speak. The child is now capable of doing some things which they
could not do earlier in life. Would you consider those changes that occur
in the stages of that child’s development (being able to eat, sit, crawl,
stand, walk, run and speak) as learning? No, they are not considered
learning because those changes in the behaviour of the child came about
as a result of maturation.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. From a psychological viewpoint define the concept of learning

2. Mention five changes in behaviour that cannot be regarded as
learning

1.3.2 Five Stages of Learning Process

In order for learning to take place in the school, the teacher plays a
significant role in guiding the learner by motivating him towards learning
activity through which he can achieve a purposeful goal. To achieve this,
there are defined and clear processes of learning through which the
desired changes will take place. These include:

1. Sensation – This is the process of receiving, translating and

transmitting message from the environment to the brain. This
process normally goes through bodily senses of sight, hearing,
feeling, touching, smelling, tasting etc. These bodily senses are
generally referred to as gateways to knowledge.

2. Perception – This is the process of organising and interpreting

information received from the outside world. Sensation and
perception are closely interrelated. Sensation causes the individual
to turn his head, eyes or body in a particular direction while
perception maintains the length of attention or consideration
focused upon the direction of thing.

3. Association – This is the third stage in learning process. It is the

ability of connecting one’s new experience with his previous
experience. Integrating the new knowledge or skills to previous
experience

4. Generalisation --. This is the fourth stage in learning which

involves the establishment of principles, theories, inferences, laws,

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EDU321 MODULE 1

conclusions or rules based on the knowledge and skills one has

acquired.

5. Application – This is the final stage in the learning process. It is

the process of using or applying the new knowledge or skills to
solve problems in actual life situation.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

Explain the first stage of learning process

1.4 Summary

This unit has exposed you to the definition of learning and its attributes.
You also learnt the five stages of learning process. Now that we have
examined the concept of learning and identified its attributes, I will expect
that you begin to think about how this knowledge can guide you in helping
your learners adjust to the learning process.

1.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Bugelski, B.R. (1986). The Psychology of Learning New York: Holt.

Dinkmeyer, D. (1985). Child Development: The Emerging Self.

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice – Hall.

Gagne, R. (1970). The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart

& Winston.

Kingsley, H. L & Garry, R., (1957). The Nature and Condition of

Learning (2nd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice - Hall.

O’Connor, K. (1993). Learning: An introduction London: Scott, Foreman

and Company.

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. From a psychological viewpoint learning is defined as a relatively

permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
experience or practice.
2. Five changes in behaviour that cannot be regarded as learning
include change in behaviour due to the following factors: fatigue,
maturation, illness, drugs, and alcohol.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. The first stage of learning process is Sensation – This is the

process of receiving, translating and transmitting message from the
environment to the brain. This process normally goes through
bodily senses of sight, hearing, feeling, touching, smelling, tasting
etc. These bodily senses are generally referred to as gateways to
knowledge.

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EDU321 MODULE 1

UNIT 2 STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND

ITS IMPORTANCE TO THE TEACHER
Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Leaning Outcomes
2.3 Study of Psychology of Learning and its Importance to the
Teacher
2.3.1 Concept of Psychology
2.3.2 Relevance of the Study of Psychology of Learning
2.4 Summary
2.5 ` References/Further Reading/Web Sources
2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

2.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, we focused on clarifying the concepts of learning and

some of its attributes. I believe you can now describe and define the
concept of learning from your own understanding. In this unit you will be
exposed to the concept of psychology and understand why the study the
psychology of learning is of importance to the teacher. Have you ever
wondered why people behave the way they do and why they do the things
they do? Psychology as a branch of knowledge is devoted to the study of
behaviour of human beings and animals. To this end, the relevance of
psychology cannot be doubted, more importantly that the well-trained
teachers will need it to understand the behaviour of their students in
relation to the learning process.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define the concept of psychology

• discuss the need for the study of psychology of learning

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

2.3 Study of Psychology of Learning and its

Importance to the Teacher

2.3.1 Definition of Psychology

What is psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and

behaviour. It is the study of the mind, how it works, and how it affects
behaviour. A human being usually exhibits moods of joy and anger, have
different learning ability and interact differently. When all these happen,
we are eager in finding the circumstances that are surrounding these
actions and make judgment in our own way. Psychology provides clues
to these phenomena in a more scientific way. Therefore, Oladele (1998)
describes psychology as a science subject which seeks to comprehend,
predict and control the behaviour of man and lower animals. Psychology
is premised on logical ways for knowing, explaining, controlling and
improving behaviour. Psychologists attempt to find answers to (a) how
human beings and animals receive stimuli from their environment and
their perceptions about such stimuli (b) how organisms learn and
remember experiences (d) how they differ in their characteristics and (d)
cope with various problems in life in order to understand the complex
nature of organism and to contribute to better standard of living of
organisms.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. What do you understand by the term Psychology?

2. Why do we need to study psychology?

2.3.2 The Relevance of the Study of Psychology of Learning

The relevance of the study of psychology of learning can never be over-

emphasised. This is because since the main objective of the school as an
institution is to bring about desirable changes in the behaviour of the
learner through the process of learning, it demands therefore that all those
who will engage in bringing about these changes should understand the
approaches of learning in order to develop effective teaching strategies
and be able to manage their classrooms competently.

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EDU321 MODULE 1

The need for the study of psychology of learning includes the following:

• To understand the theories of learning: There is the need to

understand the theories of learning so that the teacher will be able
to apply the principles of those theories in classroom situations.

• To understand Individual differences: There is the need to

understand the individual differences in learning among learners
so that the teaching methods selected by the teacher can care take
care of the individual differences existing among the learners.

• To master the concept of motivation: There is the need for the

teacher to master the concept of motivation developed by various
theorists of learning in order to understand the needs and motives
of the learners at different age levels and be able to organise those
activities which create interest and motivation in them.

• To understand the process of remembering and forgetting: The

teacher needs to understand the process of remembering and
forgetting so that they can utilise efficient methods to minimise the
percentage of forgetfulness.

• To help the learner to transfer skills: With the knowledge gained

from the study of psychology of learning, the teacher can help the
learners to transfer skills and information acquired in classroom to
life situations outside the school.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

As a teacher in training, give three reasons why you need to study

psychology of learning

2.4 Summary

An attempt has also been made to define the concept of psychology. The
importance of psychology of learning to the teacher was also discussed.
There is a vital need for the study of psychology of learning most
especially by those who engage in imparting knowledge. This is because
the more they understand the principles of learning, the more efficiently
they become in guiding classroom teaching and learning

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

2.5 References/Further Reading/ Web Sources

Bugelski, B.R. (1986). The Psychology of Learning. New York: Holt.

Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., and Podell, D.M., (1997). Educational

Psychology Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and
Benchmark Publishers.

Dinkmeyer, D. (1985). Child Development: The Emerging Self. Englewood

Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice – Hall.

Gagne, R. (1970). The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston.

Jon Mueller’s, Resources for the Teaching of Social Psychology and the
Online Resources from the Social Science Information Gateway.
Downloaded on 20/09/2006.

Hilgard, E.R., Atkinson, R.C., and Atkinson, R.L., (1971). Introduction

to Psychology. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.

O’Connor, K. (1993). Learning: An Introduction. London: Scott, Foreman and

Company.

Oladele, J.O. (1998). Fundamentals of Psychological Foundations of

Education. Yaba: Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science of Behaviour. New York: Macmillan.

Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and

Information Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL

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EDU321 MODULE 1

2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior. Psychology

is a science subject which seeks to comprehend, predict and control
the behaviour of man and lower animals.

2. We need to study psychology for us to understand why humans

behave the way they do and to find the circumstances that are
surrounding their actions and make judgment in our own way.
Again, we need to study psychology to find answers to (a) how
human beings and animals receive stimuli from their environment
and their perceptions about such stimuli (b) how organisms learn
and remember experiences (d) how they differ in their
characteristics and (d) cope with various problems in life in order
to understand the complex nature of organism and to contribute to
better standard of living of organisms.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. Three reasons why the study of psychology of learning is of

importance to the teacher
• To understand the theories of learning: There is the need to
understand the theories of learning so that the teacher will be able
to apply the principles of those theories in classroom situations.
• To understand Individual differences: There is the need to
understand the individual differences in learning among learners
so that the teaching methods selected by the teacher can care take
care of the individual differences existing among the learners.
• To master the concept of motivation: There is the need for the
teacher to master the concept of motivation developed by various
theorists of learning in order to understand the needs and motives
of the learners at different age levels and be able to organize those
activities which create interest and motivation in them.

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

UNIT 3 FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Outcomes
3.3 Identification and Classification of Major Factors Affecting
Learning
3.3.1 Factors Resident in the Learner (Personal Factors)
3.3.2 Factors Resident in the Teacher
3.3.3 Factors Resident in the Environment
3.4 Summary
3.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
3.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, we discussed the concept of psychology and the

relevance of psychology of learning to the teacher. In this unit we shall
focus our attention on Factors affecting learning. Have you ever wondered
on why some learners excel at school, while others struggle? Well, it may
interest you to know that in the learning environment, there are three
variables that affect the efficiency of learning, namely; the learner, the
teacher and the environment. You are going to learn how each of these
variables can affect the way a learner learns.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• discuss the factors resident in the learner that can affect learning
• explain in what ways the factors resident in the teacher can affect
the way a learner learns
• discuss the environmental factors that can affect the learner.

3.3 Identification and Classification of Major Factors

Affecting Learning

3.3.1 Factors Resident in the Learner (Personal Factors)

Certain factors are innate or personal to the learner that are specifically
unique to him/ her. These factors include intelligence, physical health,

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EDU321 MODULE 1

personality patterns, attitudes, maturation, and motivation, which affect

the way students learn. Let's take a closer look at these factors.

Intellectual ability

Whatever genetic traits that the learner has inherited at conception

become very crucial in the rate of learning of the child. Research studies
revealed that intelligence is positively related to learning ability of the
children, hence intellectual ability affects learning. Pupils with low
intelligence often encounter serious difficulty in mastering schoolwork.
Some students can readily understand abstract concepts, while others
need extra effort to grasp the meaning of concepts. Everyone has different
intellectual strengths and weaknesses.

Physical health

Under this group are included such factors as visual and physical defects
and ill health. It is generally recognised that ill health retards physical and
motor development and ultimately interferes with learning. The health of
the learner will likely affect his ability to learn and his power to
concentrate. Children suffering from visual, auditory, and other physical
defects are seriously handicapped in developing skills such as reading and
spelling.

Personality patterns and attitudes

The learner’s self-worth and personality have been found to affect

learning. We have many likes and dislikes and beliefs and opinions which
predispose us to behave in certain ways. Our attitudes may be positive,
negative or neutral. For instance, if we are inclined towards reading
books, we will have a positive attitude towards books. Thus, the positive
or negative predisposition within a person has important motivational
components. When students have a positive attitude towards the school,
they will like school and are likely to endeavour to do well in school.

Maturation for readiness to learn

Learning is directly dependent on maturation. i.e., maturation determines

the readiness for learning. No learning can take place unless the individual
is matured enough to learn. The child will not learn if he/she is not
prepared and matured mentally to start learning. Readiness is an important
condition for learning. It has been observed that some parents like to push
their children to school even when such children are not yet matured to

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

start school, parents should wait for the child to be mentally ready before
the child is allowed to start school.

Motivation

Motivation also affects learning. Motivation refers to the drive to action.

Motivation is at the heart of learning process. It generates the will in an
individual to do something. A learner’s motivation and will power to learn
is a great deciding factor of his/her success in learning. It is presumed that
if an individual has will to learn, then automatically he/she will find ways
for effective learning. When teaching a concept, always consider how the
material is relevant to your students' lives, because when individuals see
the reason for learning, their motivation increases, which would
ultimately affect the way the learning process of students.

Learning Factors

Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods
of study, and learning style may affect the learning process of any child.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Discuss how the physical health of a child can affect his/her learning
process?

3.3.2 Factors Resident in the Teacher

Teacher’s behaviour and personality

The teacher’s personality is an important element in the success and

failure of the learner. The teacher’s personality is composite of his
physical appearance, his mental capacity, his emotional behaviour and his
attitudes. If the teacher is one that uses the cane frequently or shouts
angrily at pupils, the efficiency of learning will be negatively affected. If
the teacher shows a preference towards certain students or uses
derogatory and humiliating language, that can also affect the learning
process of the child. Teachers must therefore recognise that in all the
activities in the classroom they are directly affecting the behavior of
learners.

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EDU321 MODULE 1

Instructional Factors

The teacher’s method of teaching and mastery of subject matter are

instructional factors that affect learning in school. If the teacher proceeds
too rapidly and does not constantly check up on the extent to which the
pupil is mastering what is being taught, the pupil accumulates a number
of deficiencies that interfere with successful progress.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

Explain how the teacher’s personality can affect the way a learner
learns

3.3.3 Factors Resident in the Environment

One of the factors that affect the efficiency of learning is the environment
in which learning takes place. The environment includes the learner’s
home, school and the entire society.

Physical environment (home/school)

Certain unpleasant events in the home or school which are stored in the
memory of the child throughout life could affect the child’s learning
process. An unhealthy home environment adversely affects the learning
of the students. Dilapidated school buildings and schools without
adequate equipment and instructional materials may affect the learning of
the child in life. Whether at home or in school, the learning conditions
must be favourable and adequate if teaching is to produce the desired
results.

Socio-economic background
The impact of mother, father, other children, uncles and aunties on the
learning of the child is enormous. Socio-economic background refers to
the level of education of the parents, income, where they reside etc.
Students come from various backgrounds. Some are poor while others
come from affluent households. Students from affluent households will
most likely have more educational support and resources to help them
through school.

Society/cultural background
An individual’s learning is mostly affected by his/her cultural background
and the opportunities provided for informal and formal education. The
socio-cultural environment within which the child lives has a significant
impact on his/her learning. For instance, a child who from comes a society

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

where education is not valued may not be favourably disposed toward

learning. In fact, all learning occurs with special reference to the cultural
context of an individual.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Briefly explain how parental socio-economic status of a child can affect

his/her learning.

3.4 Summary

Student learning is a multi-faceted system, which can be affected by many

factors. In this unit you have become acquainted with some of the factors
affecting learning. A thorough knowledge and understanding of these
factors is very essential for the teachers and parents in providing and
guiding learning among the children. If you are cognisant of these factors,
then you will know what you can do to help your students succeed in
class. Getting to know your students as individuals will help you to learn
which factors might affect their learning.

3.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources

Amao-Kehinde, A.O. (2000). Human Development and Learning. Lagos:

Obaroh & Ogbinaka Publishers Limited.

Sulaiman F. R. & Onabamiro, A. A (2009). Psychology, Child

Development (A Basic Text in Psychological Foundation of
Education). Ijebu-Ode:

Alamsek Press Ltd.

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EDU321 MODULE 1

3.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. How the physical health of a child can affect his/her learning
process

It is generally recognised that ill health retards physical and motor

development and ultimately interferes with learning. The health of the
learner will likely affect his ability to learn and his power to concentrate.
Children suffering from visual, auditory, and other physical defects are
seriously handicapped in developing skills such as reading and spelling.

Answers to SAEs 2

2. How the teacher’s personality can affect the learning efficiency

of her student
The teacher’s personality is an important element in the success and
failure of the learner. The teacher’s personality is composite of his
physical appearance, his mental capacity, his emotional behaviour and his
attitudes. If the teacher is one that uses the cane frequently or shouts
angrily at pupils, the efficiency of learning will be negatively affected. If
the teacher shows a preference towards certain students or uses
derogatory and humiliating language, that can also affect the learning
process of the child. Teachers must therefore recognise that in all the
activities in the classroom they are directly affecting the behavior of
learners.
Answers to SAEs 3

1. Briefly explain how parental socio-economic status of a child

can affect his/her learning.
Socio-economic background refers to the level of education of the
parents, income, where they reside etc. Students come from various
backgrounds. Some are poor while others come from affluent households.
Students from affluent households will most likely have more educational
support and resources to help them through school; while children from
poor background may not have such an opportunity.
Seminar Topic
Each student is expected to present seminar paper on this topic:
“The teacher’s personality is an important element in the success and
failure of the learner”. Discuss”

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

MODULE 2 THEORIES OF LEARNING AND THEIR

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

In the units of the previous Module, we focused on clarifying the concepts

of psychology, learning and the importance of psychology of learning to
the teacher. In Module 2, we will turn our attention to Theories of
Learning and their Educational Implications. First, we shall have a brief
overview of theories of learning and then take a closer look at some of the
key theories of learning and discuss how the principles of the theories can
be applied to classroom practices.

Module Structure

Unit 1 Overview of Learning Theories

Unit 2 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning
Unit 3 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism
Unit 4 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning
Unit 5 Applications of Operant Conditioning
Unit 6 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Unit 7 Cognitive Fields Theory of Learning

UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF LEARNING THEORIES

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Leaning Outcomes
1.3 Overview of Learning Theories
1.3.1 What are Learning Theories?
1.3.2 Classification of Learning Theories
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.1 Introduction

In the previous module, we focused on clarifying the concepts of learning

and psychology. In this unit, we shall have a brief overview of theories of
learning and the classification of these theories into two major camps of
learning theories. As you already know that people learn differently, and
that’s exactly where learning theories come into play. These theories
explain how the learning process happens, and understanding them will
help you deliver knowledge to students in a very effective way

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EDU321 MODULE 2

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define learning theories

• classify the two major camps of learning theories and outline their
basic assumptions.

1.3 Overview of Learning Theories

1.3.1 What are Learning Theories?

A theory is a set of generalised statements supported by experimental

evidence. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people learn,
thereby helping us to understand the inherently complex process of
learning (Sivakumar, 2017). Psychologists have tried to explain how
people learn and why they learn. They have conducted many experiments
and on the basis of these experiments they have developed several
principles and theories about how people learn. In a nutshell, learning
theories are different sets of principles that explain how people learn.
Why are learning theories important?

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

What do you understand by Learning theories?

1.3.2 Classification of Learning Theories

Several theories have evolved about how people learn. In the broad sense,
the theories of learning may be classified into two major groups -
Behaviourist theories and Cognitive field theories.

Behaviourist theories of learning focus only on external observable

behaviours to explain how learning takes place. Behaviourists defined
learning simply as an observable change in behaviour. They regard
learning as the connection between stimulus and response (S-R), which is
why they are also commonly referred to as stimulus-response (S-R)
theories. They believe that all behaviours are learnt through interaction
with the environment. The main proponents of these theories include
Pavlov (1927), Thorndike (1928), Skinner (1968), and of course,
Bandura.
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Cognitive-field theory of learning pay more attention to what goes on in

the learner's mind and focus on mental processes rather than observable
behaviours. They emphasise the importance of perception in
learning/insight learning

Self-Assessment Exercises 2
1.
2. What are the two major camps of learning theories?
3. Outline their basic assumptions about learning

1.4 Summary

In this unit, we have looked at definition of learning theory and identified

the two major camps of theories of learning with their basic assumptions.

1.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa:

College of Education.

Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M., (1997). Educational

Psychology Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and
Benchmark Publishers.

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2001). Educational Psychology: Windows on

Classrooms. Columbus: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved

from [Link]

Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba:

Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka:

Meks-Unique (Nig.) Publishers.

Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its educational

implications. Teacher Education Support Services.
[Link]
[Link]

Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and

Information Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL.

20
EDU321 MODULE 2

1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people learn and

why they learn. Psychologists have conducted many experiments
and on the basis of these experiments they have developed several
principles and theories about how people learn. Hence, learning
theories are different sets of principles that explain how people
learn

Answers to SAEs 2

1. The two major camps of the theories of learning are Behaviourist

theories and Cognitive field theories.
2. Basic assumptions about Behaviourist theories:

• Behaviourist learning theories focus only on external

observable behaviours to explain how learning takes place.
Behaviourists defined learning as an observable change in
behaviour. They interpret learning in terms of association
between stimulus and response, which is why they are also
commonly referred to as stimulus-response (S-R) theories.
They believe that learning occurs through interaction with
the environment.

Basic assumptions about Cognitive-field theory

• Cognitive-field theory of learning pay more attention to

what goes on in the learner's mind and focus on mental
processes rather than observable behaviours. They
emphasize the importance of perception in learning/insight
learning

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

UNIT 2 PAVLOV’S THEORY OF CLASSICAL

CONDITIONING
UNIT STRUCTURE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom
Implications (1)
3.3.1 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning
2.3.2 Classroom Implications of Classical Conditioning Theory
2.4 Summary
2.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

2.1 Introduction

Theories are the foundations for most of the discoveries in psychology.

Several learning theories have since been developed to explain how the
learners respond to particular stimuli under certain influences. In the
previous unit, you learnt that the learning theories are classified into two
major groups – the behaviourist theories, with Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner
and Bandura as the main proponents; and the cognitive field theories. We
said the behaviourist theories of learning focus only on external
observable behaviours to explain how learning takes place and that the
cognitive-field theory pays more attention to what goes on in the learner's
mind and focus on mental processes rather than observable behaviours. In
this unit and in the units that follow you will be exposed to some of the
key theories within the two camps of learning theories and how the
principles of the theories can be applied to classroom practices. We will
begin our discussion with those of behaviourist theories, starting with
Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• explain the basic principles of classical conditioning theory

• discuss the classroom implications of classical conditioning
theory.

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2.3 Behaviourist Learning Theories and their Classroom

Implications (1)

2.3.1 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), was a renowned Russian Psychologist. He

propounded the theory of classical conditioning in learning. Classical
conditioning theory explains how an organism’s behaviour becomes
paired with some stimuli/factors in the environment. This theory,
sometimes referred to as “stimulus-substitution”, represents a condition
where through contiguity and repetition in a presentation of a stimulus, a
learner generalises an existing stimulus-response connection to some new
stimuli.

How classical conditioning works

In order to understand how classical conditioning works, it is important

to become familiar with the basic principles of the process. In classical
conditioning a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with
an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally produces an
unconditioned response (UCR). As a result of this association, the
previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same response and thus
becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) capable of eliciting a conditioned
response (CR) by itself. There are three basic phases of this process. Let’s
consider Pavlov’s experiment.

In Pavlov’s experiment, the dog salivated each time food was presented
to the dog. The food in this situation is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS):
a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism. The dog’s
salivation is an unconditioned response (UCR): a natural reaction to a
given stimulus. This kind of reaction or response was referred to as
unlearnt/reflex action. Pavlov believed that the food (UCS) would
naturally produce salivation (UCR) in dogs. This is the first stage in the
process of classical conditioning.

In stage 2, a sound of the bell was presented to the dog and it did not
salivate. The sound of bell is a neutral stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus
that does not naturally elicit a response. When Pavlov paired the sound
of the bell with the food repeatedly, the dog would produce salivation.
This is what he called the conditioning stage.

At Stage 3, after sometime Pavlov then withdrew the food and presented
the sound of the bell alone (CR). the dog salivated to the sound of bell
alone. Wow! the sound of the bell began to elicit salivation from the dog.
Thus, the sound of the bell which was previously a neutral stimulus
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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

became a conditioned stimulus (CS) capable of eliciting the conditioned

response by itself. At this stage learning has occurred. The dog learned to
salivate at the sound of the bell. This kind of learning could be referred to
as Learning by association.

As you can see, there are three basic steps/phases of this process. Let’s
summarise the steps as follows:

Steps in the Process of Classical Conditioning

• When food (UCS) is placed in a dog’s mouth, salivation takes

place (UCR): food is UCS, and the salivation UCR.
(unlearnt/reflex action)

• Next, Pavlov paired the sound of the bell and food to the dog and
the dog salivated CS + UCS = UCR.

• After some time, Pavlov then withdrew the food and presented the
sound of the bell alone (CS). The dog salivated which is the
conditioned/learnt response (CR).

➢ After sometime, when the sound of bell was no longer

accompanied with the food, the tendency of the dog to salivate
gradually diminishes until it finally stopped (Extinction Stage).
➢ To make the dog recover from extinction, it must be presented with
food (UCS) again.

Thus, the experiment is summarised below with these graphic

illustrations:

Stage 1 UCS (food)

(Original
reflex action)

UCR (salivation)

Stage 2 UCS (food)+ CS (sound of bell)

(Conditioning
training

UCR

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EDU321 MODULE 2

Stage 3 CS (sound of bell)

(Conditioning/lea
rnt response)

CR
Fig. 1: Graphic illustrations of the three stages in classical
conditioning

From the above illustrations the following revelations were made:

1. That when UCS alone was presented to the dog, the dog only
produced UCR. i.e., the behaviour of the organism was a reflex or
natural one.

2. By the time the UCS was associated with CS (bell), the dog started
to condition itself to the sound of bell.

3. When CS alone was presented to the dog, it had already

conditioned its response to the sound of the bell, hence,
conditioned response was emitted.

4. When bell was no longer accompanied with the food, the tendency
of the dog to salivate gradually diminishes until it finally stopped
(Extinction Stage).

5. To make the dog recover from extinction, it must be presented with

UCS again.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1

1) Briefly describe the three steps in the process of classical

conditioning
2) What is the meaning of Extinction stage in classical
conditioning?
3) Fill in the missing words:
In the classical conditioning experiment, the unconditioned
stimulus is __, the conditioned stimulus is the ___, the
unconditioned response is the___, and the conditioned response
is the ____.

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

2.3.2 Classroom Implications of Pavlov’s Theory

1. Classical conditioning primarily influences emotional behaviour.

Things that make us happy, sad, angry etc. become associated with
neutral stimuli that gain our attention. For example, if a teacher
beats any child excessively then that child will begin to fear that
teacher even after hearing his name only. On the contrary, if
teacher exhibits love and affection for students, in return, the
students will show full regard for that teacher.

2. Many of our fears and phobias may be traced back to some kind of
conditioning. For instance, a student will feel a great deal of fear
or anxiety after being punished excessively. And when he
experiences the fear, he gets associated with other things in the
situation. Thus, the student’s fear gets tied up with taking tests,
with certain teachers and in extreme cases, with school itself. In
other words, punishment will discourage such students from
attending the school

3. Classical conditioning has been used to remove the fear response

in a child who learnt to associate painful experiences with school.
Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by
creating a positive classroom environment to help students
overcome anxiety or fear.

4. Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical

conditioning. A negative or positive response comes through the
stimulus being paired with. For example, providing the necessary
school material for primary school pupils will develop good
feelings about school and learning in them.

5. The principles of classical conditioning can be used in various

areas of teaching-learning in the classroom. A child learns through
conditioning.

6. Principles of classical conditioning are very helpful in developing

good habits in children cleanliness, punctuality and respect for
others. Bad habits can be eliminated through conditioning.
Classical conditioning can be used for developing a favourable
attitude to subjects, teachers and above all the school.

7. Some school subjects are learnt more adequately through the

process of conditioning, e.g., reading, writing, spelling, and
mathematics (multiplication tables) are learnt more effectively
through the process of conditioning.

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EDU321 MODULE 2

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

Describe two classroom implications of classical conditioning theory

2.4 Summary

We have seen that classical conditioning is a process in which an

organism learns to respond in a particular way to a stimulus that
previously did not bring about that response This shows that behaviour of
an organism can be manipulated using some environmental factors. In
classical conditioning a person or animal learns to associate a neutral
stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally produces
an unconditioned response (UCR). As a result of this association, the
previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same response and thus
becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) capable of eliciting a conditioned
response (CR) by itself. The key relevance of the theory to learning is that
it emphasises learning by association. It is believed that you have greatly
benefited from Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory. You should be
familiar with this theory and apply it to teaching-learning activities where
applicable.

2.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa:

College of Education.

Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M., (1997). Educational

Psychology Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and
Benchmark Publishers.

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2001). Educational Psychology: Windows on

Classrooms. Columbus: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved from

[Link]

Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba:

Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka:

Meks-Unique (Nig.) Publishers.
27
EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its educational

implications. Teacher Education Support Services.
[Link]
[Link]

Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and

Information Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL.

28
EDU321 MODULE 2

2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. The three steps involved in the process of classical conditioning:

• Step 1 - Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food)

produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral
stimulus (bell) does not produce a response.
• Step 2 - During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food)
is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral
stimulus (sound of the bell).
• Step 3 - After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a
conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned
stimulus.
2. Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned response when the
unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned
stimulus.
3. In the classical conditioning experiment, the unconditioned
stimulus is food, the conditioned stimulus is the sound of bell, the
unconditioned response is the salivation, and the conditioned
response is the salivation.

Answers to SAEs 2

Two classroom implications of classical conditioning theory:

• Some school subjects are learnt more adequately through the

process of conditioning, e.g., reading, writing, spelling, and
mathematics (multiplication tables) are learnt more effectively
through the process of conditioning.
• Classical conditioning can be used to remove the fear response in
students who learnt to associate painful experiences with school.
Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by
creating a positive classroom environment to help students
overcome anxiety or fear.

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

UNIT 3 THORNDIKE’S THEORY OF

CONNECTIONISM
Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Outcomes
3.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom
Implications (2)
3.3.1 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism
3.3.2 Thorndike’s Laws of Learning
3.3.3 Classroom Implications of Thorndike’s Theory
3.4 Summary
3.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
3.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1 Introduction

In the previous unit we focused on Pavlov’s theory of classical

conditioning. In this unit, you will learn about Thorndike’s theory of
connectionism, who is also a behaviourist. Here, we will look at the
principles of the theory and learn about the three laws of learning
propounded by Thorndike and also discuss the classroom implications of
his theory. He reveals that the foundation of learning is the association
between sense impressions and impulses to action.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• describe the basic tenets of Thorndike’s theory of connectionism

• describe Thorndike’s Laws of learning
• enumerate classroom implications of Thorndike’s theory.

3.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their

Classroom Implications (2)

3.3.1 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism

Edward Thorndike was an American psychologist, who lived between

1874 and 1949. Thorndike titled his theory “Connectionism”. He derived

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EDU321 MODULE 2

this theory by using cats, puzzle box and food. According to Thorndike,
the fundamental of learning is the association between stimuli and
responses. These associations become strengthened, or weakened by the
nature and frequency of the stimuli-responses pairings. This means that
an organism will repeat the behaviour if it obtains a pleasant or satisfying
stimulus after first demonstrating it. He therefore postulated that learning
is a product of the relationship between stimulus and response. This
connection between stimulus and response is called a stimulus-response
bond, or an S-R bond. The stronger the S-R bond, the better a person has
learned the lesson. Thorndike described this type of theory as learning by
“trial and error”.

To establish his claim, he conducted an experiment in which a hungry cat

was placed in a cage, with food outside the cage. The logic was that the
cat has to escape before it could get the food. There was a release
mechanism inside the cage which the cat would operate before it could
get outside. At first, the cat made a series of effort trying to escape to get
food. Eventually, it succeeded in operating the mechanism, which
allowed it to escape and obtain food. On subsequent attempts, the random
movement was reduced, and the cat concentrated much on the direction
of the release mechanism until it was able to escape again. The time of
escape decreased until the cat eventually operated the release mechanism
as soon as it found itself in the cage. In this ‘trial and error’ fashion, the
cat hit on the release mechanism to get the food.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Describe the basic tenets of Thorndike’s theory of connectionism?

3.3.2 Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

Thorndike propounded three laws of learning on the basis of his theory.

These are the law of readiness, the law of exercise and the law of effect.

1. The Law of Readiness states that a particular state of affairs will

prove to be satisfying to the extent that the subject is ready for it.
E.g., food is a satisfier only when the animal is hungry i.e., a child
will learn best only when he/she is ready to learn. The child will
not learn if he/she is not prepared and matured mentally to start
learning. Schools cannot force students to learn if they are not
biologically and psychologically prepared. Basic needs of students
must be satisfied before they are ready to learn. Students who are
exhausted or in ill health cannot learn. They can learn only when
they are ready. They can learn only when they are ready. The law

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

is indicative of the learner's state to participate in the learning

process. According to Thorndike, readiness is preparation for
action. Readiness is an important condition for learning.

Educational Implications

Teachers should prepare the minds of the students to be ready to

accept the knowledge, skills and aptitudes. For this, he should
provide opportunities for those experiences in which students can
spontaneously participate. ‘Simple to Complex’ is the important
maxim. The teacher should assess the readiness of the learner
before presenting content by identifying the knowledge the learner
already has, his skills, his abilities, his motives, his experiences
and make this the starting point.

2. Law of Exercise: This law states "Any response to a situation will,

other things being equal, be more strongly connected with the
situation in proportion to the number of times it has been connected
with that situation and to the average vigour and duration of the
connection." That is, repetition strengthens S-R bonds. According
to this law, the more something is repeated, the longer it will be
retained. Thorndike explained that repetition promotes learned
associations (stimulus and response). Constant practice is
necessary if an action is to be strengthened. Lack of practice may
weaken an event.

The Law of Exercise has two parts: (a) the law of use and (b) the
law of disuse.

• Law of use- the more often an association between stimulus

and response (S-R) is made the stronger the connection will
be. i.e., the more you do something, the better you are good at
it. That is, 'practice makes perfect'.
• Law of disuse- the longer an association between stimulus and
response (S-R) is unused the weaker it becomes. When a
connection between stimulus and response is not made over a
period of time, the strength of that connection is weakened.
i.e., the lack of practice brings about forgetting.

Educational implications
More and more opportunities should be provided to the students to
use and repeat the experiences they get in the classroom.

3. Law of Effect: This law states that if a stimulus results in a

positive outcome, it strengthens the S-R bond, while if it results in
a negative outcome, the S-R bond is weakened. That is, behaviours

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EDU321 MODULE 2

that are followed by positive responses are likely to be repeated

and those that are followed by negative responses, not repeated.
This law states that learning occurs only when responses are
followed by reward and satisfaction. On the other hand, if
frustration or punishment is experienced by the learner, the
connection between stimulus and response becomes weakened.
Think about Mary who gets good grades when she studies. Every
time she gets a good grade after studying, the S-R bond is
strengthened, and the student learns even more that studying
results in getting a good grade. On the other hand, if Mary gets a
bad grade after not studying, the S-R bond between not studying
and good grades is weakened. The student learns that not studying
does not result in good grades.

Educational Implications
A pleasing environment should be created in the classroom.
Experiences provided to the students should be satisfying and
meaningful. They should be organised in the order of increasing
difficulty. Material should be provided in a number of interesting
ways including the use of instructional aids.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1) What is the relevance of Law of Effect on student’s learning?

2) Which of the laws of learning can be said to reflect the adage
‘practice makes perfect’?

3.3.3 Classroom Implications of Thorndike’s Theory

1. The teacher should know that the students learn better when their
needs and interests are considered, hence the teacher should ensure
that the learning activities revolve around the students.

2. Readiness is a prerequisite for learning; the teacher is therefore

advised to consider the mental or cognitive capability of the
learners when planning the curriculum or instructional contents.

3. The teacher should recognise the fact that the students will like to
repeat the actions for which they received positive regards. Hence,
the teacher should always use various motivational strategies to
sustain the interest of the students in the classroom.

4. The teacher should always present his/her materials in a logical and

more coherent way. This is the major way of arresting and
sustaining the interest of the learners in educational activities.

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

5. The teacher should consider the use of punishment as a last option

in reducing the undesirable behaviour in his /her classroom. This
is because the punishment cannot actually address the problem it
rather hardens the students and makes them to be more violent in
the classroom and it also creates behaviour problems.

6. The teacher should recognise the importance of practice in the

learning process. Learning may not occur unless practice is
reinforced. This means that the teacher should engage their
students in assignment or homework, if a meaningful learning must
be achieved.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

List four contributions of Thorndike’s Theory to classroom situations

3.4 Summary

The basis of Thorndike’s theory is that learning is strengthened when

accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and weakened when
associated with an unpleasant feeling. The theory stresses readiness,
exercises (repetition) and effect as the conditions for learning. Every
learning experience should contain elements that leave the student with
some good feelings. A student’s chance of success is definitely increased
if the learning experience is a pleasant one. It is believed that you must
have understood the tenets of the theory and the importance of readiness,
exercise, and effect on the learning process.

3.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa:

College of Education.

Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M., (1997). Educational

Psychology Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and
Benchmark Publishers.

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2001). Educational Psychology: Windows on

Classrooms. Columbus: Merrill Prentice Hall.

34
EDU321 MODULE 2

Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved from

[Link]

Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba:

Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

Onyehalu, A.S. (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka:

Meks-Unique (Nig.) Publishers.

Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its educational

implications. Teacher Education Support Services.
[Link]
[Link]

Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and

Information Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL.

35
EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

3.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Thorndike believed that all learning is explained by connections

that are formed between stimuli and responses. This connection
between stimulus and response is called a stimulus-response bond,
or an S-R bond. The stronger the S-R bond, the better a person has
learned the lesson. In Thorndike’s view, learning is the process of
forming associations or bonds. Learning is achieved when an
individual is able to form associations between a particular
stimulus and a response.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. According to the law of effect, all learning involves the formation

of S-R connections and connections are strengthened or weakened
according to their consequences. Responses to a situation that are
followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses followed by
discomfort are weakened. Thus, learning is strengthened when
accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and weakened
when associated with an unpleasant feeling. The learner needs to
have success in order to have more success in the future. It is
important for the instructor to create situations designed to
promote success. That is, behaviours that are followed by positive
responses are likely to be repeated and those that are followed by
negative responses, not repeated.
2. The law that reflects the adage ‘practice makes perfect’ is the Law
of Exercise with specific reference to the Law of use

Answers to SAEs 3

Four contributions of Thorndike’s Theory to classroom situations:

List out any four of the classroom implications described under sub-
section 8.3.3.

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EDU321 MODULE 2

UNIT 4 SKINNER’S THEORY OF OPERANT

CONDITIONING
Unit Structure

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Learning Outcomes
4.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom
Implications (3)
4.3.1 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning
4.3.2 Reinforcement versus Punishment
4.3.3 Schedules of Reinforcement
4.3.4 Classroom Implications of Operant Conditioning Theory
4.4 Summary
4.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
4.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

4.1 Introduction

In the previous unit you learned about Thorndike’s theory of

connectionism. In this unit, you are going to learn Operant conditioning
theory of B.F. Skinner, who is also a behaviourist. Here, you will get to
learn basic principles of the theory, different forms of reinforcement and
punishment, schedules of reinforcement and, of course, also discuss the
classroom implications of the theory.

4.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• describe the basic principles of operant conditioning theory

• discuss the different forms of reinforcement and punishment
• explain the schedules of reinforcement
• discuss the classroom implications of operant conditioning theory.

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

4.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their

Classroom Implications (3)

4.3.1 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning

Operanting conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a type of

learning in which an individual's behaviour is modified by its
consequences.

Operanting conditioning theory of learning was formulated by B.F.

Skinner who was an American Psychologist. His theory came based on
the lapses discovered in the classical conditioning theory. Skinner
believed that classical conditioning explained only how behaviour that
has already been acquired can occur in the presence of a new stimulus
(Lumen Learning, 2020). Skinner, however, believed that most learning
consists of acquiring new behaviour. He believed that behaviour is an
outcome of response that follows the action. The learner will possibly
repeat the action of a particular behaviour if it is followed/ rewarded with
a pleasant consequence.

Skinner explained two types of responses in his theory. One can be

elicited only by a known stimulus which he called as respondent or
reflexive behaviour. For example, stepping on a sharp object or touching
a hot metal will automatically make someone to produce reflex response.
The second type is the response that an individual emits following his/her
own decision, which he called as operant behaviour. Operant behaviours
are under conscious control. Operant behaviour emits voluntary response.
Skinner attaches greater importance to operant behaviour which is
primarily concerned with response rather than stimuli. It is based on the
fact that behaviour operates upon the environment and which are in turn,
controlled by their environmental consequences i.e., their future
probability of occurrence is either increased or decreased by the events
that follow their emission. Operant conditioning believes that behavioural
responses become connected to environmental stimuli largely as a result
of what happens after the response occurs.

Skinner developed his operant conditioning theory as an expansion of

Thorndike’s Law of Effect. Skinner revealed in his theory that learning is
a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behaviour, according
to skinner, are the result of an individual’s response to events (Stimuli)
that occur in the environment. Our behaviour is either strengthened or
weakened by the immediate presence of a reward or punishment. That is,
any response followed by reward is strengthened; any response followed

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by pain is weakened. Therefore, learning is a function of the result of the

response.

To establish his claims, Skinner conducted an experiment. Skinner

constructed a box with a small lever inside it. He placed a hungry rat in
the box. In the box, the rat moved around tirelessly and each time the
lever is pressed, a pellet of food dropped out. The rat becomes persistent
in pressing the lever so that the food could fall. The food that comes down
for the rat reinforces its action. In contrast, if the food is not accompanied
with the pressing of lever, the number of presses would fall gradually to
the lowest point

In this type of theory, it is the result or consequence of a behaviour that

makes that behaviour more likely to be repeated. If the result of behaviour
is gratifying, one is likely to respond the same way the next time one
encounters that stimulus. In the above experiment, the pressing of lever
becomes instrumental as the organism is instrumental in securing its own
reward.

Skinner’s theory is built on the concepts of reinforcement and

punishment. We shall take a look at the two concepts in more detail.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Discuss the main features of operant conditioning theory

4.3.2 Reinforcement versus Punishment

Reinforcement

Skinner in this theory identified the two types of reinforcers, they are
positive and negative reinforcers. He believed that you can control human
behaviour by the use of reinforcers. The stimulus that occurs after a
response is called a reinforcer.

• Example: A teacher gives a pleasant or complimentary remark to

a student for scoring a good mark in an assignment. The pleasant
remark the student receives is a positive reinforcer to reinforce the
behaviour of scoring a good mark. By this action, it is likely that
such a student will want to continue doing his/her assignment
promptly.

There are two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement and negative

reinforcement. Positive reinforcement involves adding something

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pleasant to the person after the desired behavior is exhibited, making the
behavior more likely to happen in the future. Simply put, positive
reinforcement involves adding something positive in order to increase a
behavior. Positive reinforcement includes a wide variety of methods such
as praise, thumps up, nods of approval, smiles, hugs, handshakes, and
social recognition.

Positive reinforcement can be:

• verbal for example saying “good” “well-done” “fantastic” to a

child, commending students for completing their work.
• non-verbal for example smiling or nodding at a student after a
correct response; applauding the child, thumps up, or patting a
child on the back.
• material rewards for example giving a child a book, pencil, crayon,
etc.

In negative reinforcement, an undesirable stimulus is avoided or

removed to increase the desired behaviour.

• Example: A company has a policy that if an employee completes

their assigned work by Friday, they can have Saturday off.

Working Saturday is the negative reinforcer, the employee's productivity

will be increased as they avoid experiencing the negative reinforcer.

• Example: A parent removed restrictions from a child when she

follows the rules.

Something unpleasant (a set of restrictions) is removed to encourage the

child’s good behavior (following the rules).

• Example: A lecturer tells students that if they have perfect

attendance all semester, then they do not have to take the final
comprehensive exam.

By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students will try to

attend class regularly.

• Example: removing furniture in a room so a baby can have space

to learn how to crawl.

Both positive and negative reinforcements serve to increase a desired

behaviour. In fact, if appropriately used negative reinforcement can play
the role of reward

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It is important to note that positive and negative do not mean good and
bad. Instead, positive means you are adding something, and negative
means you are taking something away.

Punishment

Like reinforcement, punishment also comes in two forms: positive

punishment and negative punishment. Positive and negative punishment
serves to decrease a behavior.

In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease or

stop a behavior. That is, positive punishment gives something learners do
not want. One common example of positive punishment is
spanking/beating.

• Example: Spanking a student to get the student to stop texting in

class.

In this case, an unpleasant stimulus (spanking) is added in order to

decrease the undesirable behavior (texting in class).

However, this notion has been revised on the assumption that positive
punishment (or the more familiar term of corporal punishment) does not
decrease a behaviour. You will get to know why? Keep reading!!

In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease/stop

the undesirable behavior. That is, negative punishment takes away
something learners want. Negative punishment might include taking away
recess, taking away time to play, taking away a favourite activity, or
removing the teacher’s positive attention. Here, you identify what the
child likes and deprive him or her of that ‘thing’.

• Example: Taking away a child's electronics privileges for one

week if she misbehaves.
• Example: If your student loves a particular activity (such as
playing football in recess/break time), taking it away in response
to poor grades or bad behaviour may encourage such student to do
better.

Here, the teacher might decide to have the student miss his time in recess
for one week to make him lose the privilege of playing football. Taking
away his favourite activity (playing football) may encourage such student
to behave well in the future. This technique has been shown to be more
effective than using corporal punishment. No amount of beating,
slapping, verbal abuse, and shaming can modify a bad behaviour.
Another example of negative punishment is:

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• Example: When a child misbehaves, a parent can take away the

child’s favorite toy for one week.

A pleasant stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease/stop the

child’s misbehavior. Here, you identify what the child likes and deprive
them of that ‘thing’. You should return the toy when the child starts
behaving well, thereby reinforcing the changed behaviour.

• You and your brother are fighting over the PS4. Your parents take
it away for two weeks.

A pleasant stimulus (the PS4) is removed to decrease/stop the unwanted

behavior (fighting).

Now let’s combine these four terms: positive reinforcement, negative

reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment as shown
in Table 1.

Table 1. Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

Reinforcement Punishment
Positive Something (pleasant) Something
is added to increase the (unpleasant) is added
likelihood of a desired to decrease the
behaviour. likelihood of an
undesired behaviour
Negative Something Something (pleasant)
(unpleasant) is is removed to
removed to increase decrease the
the likelihood of a likelihood of an
desired behaviour undesired behaviour.
Source: Lumen Learning (2020)

Remember, we mentioned that in positive punishment /corporal

punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a bad behavior;
e.g., beating a child for misbehaving in the class. It has been found that
instead of decreasing a behaviour, corporal punishment yields
unpredictable consequences. In other words, there are many problems
associated with the use of corporal punishment. Let’s dwell more on this.

Corporal punishment

Corporal punishment of children is a common practice in many Nigerian

classrooms. It is also widely used in most homes. Some researchers have
identified various forms of corporal punishment used in Nigerian schools
which include:
- Beating

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- Slapping
- Knocking child’s head with the knuckle
- Asking students to kneel down on hard surfaces
- Threatening to beat but did not
- Yelling
- Verbal abuse
- Ridicule
- Name calling, and
- Other forms of punitive practices

According to education experts, corporal punishment has been shown not

to result in the desired outcome of improved behavior and even sometimes
results in escalation of unwanted behaviours (Merrette & Merrette, 2013).
A study by Rahimi and Karkami (2015) found that in classes where
teachers managed disruptive behaviors by using punitive strategies,
students had problems in learning as punitive strategies lowered students’
motivation.

It has been observed that the only positive outcome of corporal

punishment is that it leads to immediate compliance, although temporary;
and that punished behavior is never eliminated, it is suppressed for a short
period of time, meaning that the bad behavior may return when
punishment is no longer present. For this reason, Skinner (1972) argued
that corporal punishment is a very bad technique for controlling
behaviour. He advocated for the frequent use of positive reinforcement.
He believed that positive reinforcement was more effective than corporal
punishment when trying to change and establish behaviours.

Given the above scenario, it is therefore important to be aware of some of

the drawbacks in using corporal punishment on children. Numerous
research studies including Gershoff (2017) and Opeyemi, (2017) have
shown that corporal punishment is an ineffective method of discipline and
has major harmful consequences on children and students. The following
are some of the negative effects of corporal punishment:

• Corporal punishment may cause children to become more

aggressive and prone to antisocial behavior and delinquency. They
learn to use physical violence to bully and control people.
• Corporal punishment may lead to lying, children learn to tell lies
instead of admitting their mistakes in order to avoid punishment.
• Corporal punishment creates hostility and damages the
relationship between the punisher and the child.
• Corporal punishment reinforces the punisher, not the punished.
• Corporal punishment hardens the child instead of correcting them.
May increase the behaviour it seeks to eliminate. Punishment

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suppresses the bad behaviour only for it to find expression in other

problem behaviours.
• Corporal punishment does not guide the child towards the desired
behaviour.
• Corporal punishment causes fear, anxiety, withdrawal and
timidity. Children who are punished by teachers may come to fear
the teacher and try to avoid school.
• Corporal punishment has a negative impact on children’s cognitive
development, it interferes with learning. Punishing a child because
he or she performed poorly in a test or exam is totally wrong; you
are destroying the child’s cognitive development.
• Corporal punishment causes physical injury
• Corporal punishment can cause emotional as well as mental health
problems.

Because of these problems, corporal punishment should be avoided, while

positive reinforcement should be emphasised.

You may find yourself asking “Does giving up corporal punishment

mean giving up discipline”? The answer is capital ‘NO’. There are quite
a number of behaviour modification techniques that teachers can use to
discipline students without using corporal punishment. We will cover this
in more detail in Module 3, where you will learn about techniques for
managing student behaviour, which are found to be safer, non-violent and
more effective than corporal punishment.

Meanwhile, let’s continue with our discussion on Skinner by looking at

the concept of reinforcement schedules.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1) Can you identify the negative reinforcers in each of these

examples?
• You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen to avoid getting
into a fight with your roommate.
• You leave the house early to avoid getting stuck in traffic and
being late for work.
2) Fill in the missing word with the options provided.
• ----------is when you take away a pleasant stimulus to stop a
behavior.
positive reinforcement (b) negative reinforcement (c) positive
punishment (d) negative punishment
3) Discuss any three negative effects of corporal punishment on
students

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4.3.3 Schedules of Reinforcement

Remember, Skinner’s theory focuses on a system of reinforcement. Also,

remember that the best way to teach or modify a behavior is to use positive
reinforcement. Skinner came up with the idea of reinforcement schedule.
Reinforcement schedule is simply a rule that specifies when and how
often a desired behaviour will be reinforced. It is an arrangement to
determine when to reinforce a desired behavior, in terms of the time or
number of responses.

A reinforcement schedule can be divided into two broad categories:

continuous schedules and partial schedules (also called intermittent
schedules). In a continuous schedule every desired behavior is reinforced,
whereas partial schedules only reinforce the desired behavior
occasionally. Both types of schedules are explained below:

A. Continuous reinforcement: In this reinforcement technique,

every correct response or behaviour is rewarded/reinforced. For
example, a student may be rewarded for every correct answer he
gives to the questions asked by their teacher. This reinforcement
schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior, and it is
especially effective in training a new behavior.

B. Partial/Intermittent reinforcement: In this type of

reinforcement, the person does not get reinforced every time they
perform the desired behavior.

There are four types of partial reinforcement schedules:

i. Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule: It is an arrangement of

providing reinforcement after a set (fixed) number of responses has
occurred. For example, a student may be rewarded for every 5
mathematical problems solved.

ii. Fixed interval reinforcement schedule: This is when a behaviour

is rewarded/reinforced at a set amount of time. For example, you
praise your students after every 5 minutes.

iii. Variable ratio reinforcement schedule: It is an arrangement of

providing reinforcement after a varying number of responses has
been made. Here, the number of responses needed to gain the
reinforcement is not consistent. The individual does not know
when they are going to be rewarded and consequently, they remain
motivated throughout the learning process in the wait for
reinforcement. For example, a student may be rewarded after 3, 5,
10 and 15 mathematical problems solved.

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iv. Variable interval reinforcement schedule: This is a kind of

schedule in which reinforcement is provided at a varying amount
of time from the previous reinforcement. i.e., behavior is rewarded
after a varying period of time have passed, which are
unpredictable. In this case, reinforcement is irregular. For example,
when the school principal has to visit classes unexpectedly to
check those teachers that are doing their work in order to reward
them. Here, there is no scheduled time for the visits, therefore the
teachers’ productivity will be increased as they do not know when
the principal will show up to reward them.
.
It is to be noted that different types of reinforcing schedules generate
different results. Among the four partial schedules, variable ratio and
variable interval have been recognised as the most powerful schedule.
They are the most unpredictable of the four types. All students operate on
different schedules of reinforcement. A high achieving student will be
more likely to work effectively for a longer period of time between
reinforcements. In contrast, the student who has had little success in the
past may need reinforcement more often to keep going.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Categorise the four schedules of reinforcement into schedules that deal

with passage of time and those associated with number of responses

4.3.4 Educational Implications of Skinner’s Theory

1. Reinforcement is an essential factor if the students must perform

well in a given task. To this end, the teacher should not neglect the
use of positive reinforcement. This reinforcement will stimulate
the efforts of the students in the classroom.

2. Teacher should reinforce positive behaviours through variety of

incentives such as verbal praise, a smile, social recognition, a pat
on the back, prize or by giving marks.

3. For the desirable behaviour in the learner to be demonstrated and

repeated, it must be immediately reinforced. The time lag between
reinforcing the demonstrated behaviour should not be too long.

4. Provide negative consequences for unacceptable behaviours. Use

appropriate techniques to punish bad behaviour. Do not use
corporal punishment or humiliation to correct bad behaviour, it
will backfire.

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5. If a student engages in a disruptive behaviour, the teacher should

not reinforce such behaviour with corporal punishment. Corporal
punishment can inhibit learning. There are positive approaches for
correcting unwanted behaviours.

6. The whole atmosphere of our school is dominated by fear and

unpleasant experiences because of the frequent use of corporal
punishment. The school can use the principles of operant
conditioning to eliminate the element of fear from school
atmosphere by using positive reinforcement more often.

7. Use an appropriate reinforcement schedule. Teachers must be alert

to their students because all students operate on different schedules
of reinforcement. A student who has achieved success for longer
period of time will be more likely to work effectively for a longer
period of time between rewards. In contrast, the student who has
had little success in the past may need reinforcement more often to
keep going (Basmah, 2004). In other words, highly motivated
students are usually actively and spontaneously involved in
activities and find the process of learning enjoyable without
expecting any external rewards (Skinner & Belmont, 1993). On the
other hand, students who exhibit low levels of motivation to learn
will often depend on the rewards to encourage them to participate
in activities they may not find enjoyable (Yount, 2001).

8. Provide clear informative feedback on student work. Feedback is

most effective when it involves both praise (positive
reinforcement) for correct answers and corrective information for
wrong answers (Yount, 2001).

Self-Assessment Exercises 4

What are the contributions of Skinner’s theory to educational process?

4.4 Summary

This unit has discussed the basic principles of operant conditioning

theory. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning revealed that behaviours
are strengthened or weakened based on the consequences of that behavior.
Reinforcement plays a vital role in the operant conditioning process. The
relevance of reinforcement to students learning was also discussed in this
unit. We discussed the many problems associated with the use of corporal

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punishment and advocated for the use of positive reinforcement. The

schedules of reinforcement were also discussed. Reinforcement may be
either continuous or partial. Partial reinforcement schedules are
determined by whether the reinforcement is presented on the basis of the
time that elapses between reinforcement (interval) or on the basis of the
number of responses that the organism engages in (ratio), and by whether
the reinforcement occurs on a regular (fixed) or unpredictable (variable)
schedule (Stangor, 2012). Also, the implications of the theory to
educational settings were discussed.

4.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Alao, K.O. (2009). Advanced Psychology of Learning (EDU 722), Lagos,

National Open University of Nigeria.

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa:

College of Education.

Basmah, A. (2004). The Implications of Skinner’s Theory for Education

[Link]
theory-for-education

Burns, R. (1995). The Adult Learner at Work. Sydney. Business and

Professional Publishing Ltd.

Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M. (1997). Educational

Psychology: Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and
Benchmark Publishers.

Elliot, S.N., Kratochwill T.R., Cook J.L & Travers J.F. (2000).
Educational Psychology (3rd Ed.). USA: McGraw Hill.

Gershoff, E. T. (2017). School Corporal Punishment in Global

Perspective: Prevalence, Outcomes, and Efforts at Intervention.
Psychology, Health & Medicine, 22, 224-239

Iversen, I.H. (1992). Skinner’s Early Research: From Reflexology to

Operant Conditioning. American Psychologist, 47,1318-1328.

Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved

from [Link]

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EDU321 MODULE 2

McLeod, S. A. (2018). Skinner - operant Conditioning. Simply

Psychology: Psychology.
[Link]

Mmaduakonam, A (1998), Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka:

Erudition Publishers.

Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba:

Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

Oladele, J.O. (2005). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (4th ed.).

Lagos, John-lad Publishers Ltd.

Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka:

Meks-Unique (Nig.) Publishers.

Opeyemi, O. (2017). Corporal punishment: Perceptions and Adoption in

Nigerian Secondary Schools. Education Research Journal 7(8),
200-208.

Santrock, J.W. (2008). Educational Psychology. (3rd ed.) Boston:

McGraw Hill.

Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its Educational

Implications. Teacher Education Support Services.
[Link]
[Link]

Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and

Information Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL

Stangor, D. (2012). Beginning Psychology.

Zhou, M., & Brown, D. (2017). Educational Learning Theories: 2nd

Edition. Education Open Textbooks. 1.
[Link]

4.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Skinner developed the operant conditioning theory. The basic

premise of the theory was that behaviors are strengthened or
weakened based on the consequences of that behaviour i.e., any
response followed by reward is strengthened; any response

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followed by pain is weakened. That is, their future probability of

occurrence is either increased or decreased by the immediate
presence of a reward or punishment. Through operant
conditioning, an individual makes an association between a
particular behavior and a consequence.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. A fight with your roommate and being late for work are the
negative reinforcers that were avoided by performing a specific
behavior.
2. Negative reinforcement is when you take away a pleasant stimulus
to stop a behavior.
3. Three negative effects of corporal punishment on students:
• Corporal punishment may lead to lying, children learn to tell
lies instead of admitting their mistakes in order to avoid
punishment.
• Corporal punishment creates hostility and damages the
relationship between the punisher and the child.
• Corporal punishment causes fear, anxiety, withdrawal and
timidity. Children who are punished by teachers may come
to fear the teacher and try to avoid school.

Answers to SAEs 3

Schedules of reinforcement that deal with the passage of time are fixed
interval reinforcement schedule and variable interval reinforcement
schedule. Those that are associated with the number of responses are fixed
ratio reinforcement schedule and variable ratio reinforcement schedule

Answers to SAEs 4

See sub-section 7.3.4 for the answers

Seminar Topics
Each student is expected to present seminar paper on one of the following
topics:

1. Identify two shortcomings in our educational system which

Skinners theory can help to correct.
2. How is Skinner’s theory relevant to teaching/learning activities?
3. How would you apply operant conditioning in trying to teach or
encourage a child to do her homework

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UNIT 5 APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT

CONDITIONING
Unit Structure

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Learning Outcomes
5.3 Applications of Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life
5.3.1 Aspects of Human Behaviour that Operant Conditioning
Affects
5.3.2 Distinction between Classical Conditioning and Operant
Conditioning
5.3.3 Key Terms and Concepts in Classical Conditioning and
Operant Conditioning
5.4 Summary
5.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
5.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

5.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, we discussed Skinner’s theory of operant

conditioning and the theories to classroom practices. Now you will learn
aspects of human behaviour that operant conditioning affects and the
applications of operant conditioning in everyday life.

5.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• describe aspects of human behaviour that operant conditioning

affects
• state difference between classical conditioning and operant
conditioning
• explain key terms and concepts in classical conditioning and
operant conditioning.

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5.3 Applications of Operant Conditioning in Everyday

Life

5.3.1 Aspects of Human Behaviour that Operant Conditioning

Affects

• Operant conditioning affects many aspects of human behaviour.

We smile, help others, and go to work every morning because we
are reinforced for these behaviours.

• Operant conditioning can be responsible for the development of

abnormal behaviours but can also be systematically used in very
positive ways.

• Let us consider instances of how operant conditioning is used to

(1) modification of abnormal behaviour, (2) modify a variety of
behaviours, (3) enhance the educational process, and (4) develop
new drugs.

(1) Learned Helplessness and Depression

• Martin Seligman has shown how one form of abnormal behaviour,
depression, can be acquired through operant processes.

• He delivered electric shock to two dogs simultaneously. The

Group A dog could turn off the shock by pressing a button and thus
had some control over the situation. The Group B dog received the
same shocks as the Group A dog but had no control, it was
helpless. Both groups were then moved to a shuttle box.

• Each dog was placed in one compartment, where a signal was

followed by shock. Group A dogs soon learned to jump the barrier
when the signal sounded in order to avoid the shock, but Group B
dogs did not. This was so because the Group B dogs had previously
learned that they had no control over the shock thus did not try to
make the avoidance response. Seligman called this phenomenon
learned helplessness.

• Lacking operant control over the environment can produce a state

of helplessness in humans.

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(2) Modifying Human Behaviour

• The application of Skinnerian principles in an effort to alter human
behaviour is called behaviour modification.

• Operant techniques can be helpful in correcting problem behaviour

in children.

• A problem behaviour is behaviour that digresses from what the

majority approves of, or a variation of a normal behaviour.

• Examples of problem behaviours include disobedience, stealing,

fighting, truancy, rioting, drug addiction, destructive tendency,
aggressiveness, restlessness, cheating.

In one study, frustrated parents whose children watched an average of 21

hours of TV per week agreed to a Skinnerian behavioural programme.
The child received 20 tokens per week; each token could be turned over
to mummy or daddy in exchange for 30 minutes of TV viewing time. If
the children watched no more than the 10 allotted hours, they received a
gold token that could be exchanged for some special reinforcer, like a trip
to an amusement park or a party for friends. The children cut their TV
viewing time to 10 hours and kept it there over a period of 8 months after
they stopped receiving the token.

(3) Enhance the educational process

• The application of Skinnerian techniques has been in improving

education in the form of programmed instruction, developed by
Skinner in 1954.

• Programmed instruction is a device for learning that allows a child

to type the answers on a keyboard. The machine reinforced correct
responses by moving on to the next problem. Such reinforcement
is immediate and accurate to a degree that can never be achieved
by a teacher working with many children at once. It is important
for you to note that current computer based instructional systems
are the modern products of Skinner’s genius.

(4) Modification of abnormal behavior

• Skinnerian approaches have also been applied to the modification

of abnormal behaviour. Hospitalised mental patients suffering
from such serious disorders as schizophrenia (mental disorder that
affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves) typically have few
of the social skills needed to obtain reinforcement in the world
outside the institution.
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• Behavioural programmes called token economies teach them

social skills through operant techniques. Specific behaviours (for
example, keeping a neat room and going to meals on time) are
identified. Appropriate reinforcers (for example, candy, movie
attendance, and TV privileges) are determined. When patients
perform the desired behaviours, they receive tokens, such as poker
chips, that can later be exchanged for the reinforcers they want.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

• Explain the concept of “learned helplessness” in humans.

• Briefly describe the application of operant conditioning in the
modification of abnormal behaviour

5.3.2 Differences between Classical Conditioning and Operant

Conditioning

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning

• The organism is passive. It The organism is active. The
must wait for something to behaviour is initiated on its own
happen before it can without any stimulus
respond
• Much emphasis is placed on Much emphasis is placed on the
the stimulus causing the response. It is response-oriented.
response. It is stimulus-
oriented
• Reinforcement comes first Reinforcement comes after
appropriate response is made
• It involves the pairing of There is no pairing
unconditioned stimulus
(food) and conditioned
stimulus (bell)
• The association is between The association is between the
a stimulus and elicited emitted behaviour and the
response reinforcement upon which the
behaviour is contingent
• The essence of learning is The essence of learning is
stimulus substitution behaviour modification

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Self-Assessment Exercises 2

In your own words, list three differences between classical conditioning

and operant conditioning

5.3.3 Key Terms and Concepts in Classical Conditioning and

Operant Conditioning

Discrimination - The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli. In

other words, it is the process by which we learn not to respond to similar
stimuli in the same way

Extinction - The disappearance of a response due to the removal of the

reinforcer that maintained the response. In other words, it is a process by
which conditioned responses are lost.

Generalisation - Responding in the same way to two different stimuli

Neutral stimulus (NS) - a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a

response

Conditional Stimulus (CS) – A stimulus that acquired the ability to

produce the response because it was paired with the unconditioned
stimulus or the once neutral stimulus that became a conditioned stimulus
capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself.

Conditioned response (CR) - Response that is similar to unconditioned

response but is produced by the conditioned stimulus or the learned
response to the previously neutral stimulus

Unconditioned response (UCR) - Unlearned or inborn reaction to the

unconditioned stimulus or a natural reaction to a given stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – A stimulus that can produce response

without any learning or a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an
organism

Classical conditioning - Type of learning in which neutral (conditioned)

stimulus gradually gains the ability to elicit a response because of its
pairing with a natural (unconditioned) stimulus.

Operant conditioning - Form of learning in which the consequences of

behaviour lead to changes in the probability that the behaviour will occur

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Spontaneous recovery - The reappearance of an apparently extinguished

conditioned response (CR) after an interval when conditioned stimulus is
presented again.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. Define the following terms and concepts:

(i) Neutral Stimulus
(ii) Extinction
(iii) Generalisation
(iv) Conditioned Stimulus

5.4 Summary

In this study unit, you have learnt the application of operant conditioning
theory of learning in everyday life. You should also have learned about
learned helplessness and depression. In addition, you have learnt the
differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

5.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Elliot, S.N., Kratochwill T.R., Cook J.L & Travers J.F. (2000).
Educational Psychology (3rd ed.). USA: McGraw Hill.

Mmaduakonam, A (1998). Behavioural Learning Theories. Awka:

Erudition Publishers.

Oladele, J.O. (2005). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (4th ed.).

Lagos: John-lad Publishers Ltd.

Santrock, J.W. (2008). Educational Psychology (3rd ed.). Boston,

McGraw Hill

Sulaiman F.R. & Onabamiro A.A. (2000). Psychology for Child

Development and Human Learning. Ijebu-Ode: Alamsek Press
Ltd.

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5.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. The concept of “learned helplessness” in humans:

• Learned helplessness occurs in humans when they have been

continuously subjected to a negative situation, and feel they have
no operant control over their situation. Eventually, they will stop
trying to avoid the pain of that situation and begin to behave in a
helpless manner. This inaction can lead people to overlook
opportunities for change.
• Such learned helplessness can be a major factor in depression.
For example, the secretary who is repeatedly overruled by her boss
when she tries to be more efficient or by her family when she tries
to improve home life may eventually come to feel helpless more
generally.

2. The application of operant conditioning in the modification of

abnormal behaviour:
Skinnerian approaches have been applied to the modification of
abnormal behaviour. Hospitalised mental patients suffering from
such serious disorders as schizophrenia (mental disorder that
affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves) typically have few
of the social skills needed to obtain reinforcement in the world
outside the institution.

Answers to SAEs 2

Three differences between classical conditioning and operant

conditioning
See the answer on sub-section 8.3.2

Answers to SAEs 3

Definition of terms and concepts:

i. Neutral stimulus – It is a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a

response
ii. Extinction - The disappearance of a response due to the removal of
the reinforcer that maintained the response. In other words, it is a
process by which conditioned responses are lost.
iii. Generalisation - Responding in the same way to two different
stimuli

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iv. Conditioned Stimulus - A stimulus that acquired the ability to

produce the response because it was paired with the unconditioned
stimulus or the once neutral stimulus that became a conditioned
stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself.

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UNIT 6 BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Unit Structure

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Learning Outcomes
6.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom
Implications (4)
6.3.1 Overview of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
6.3.2 Four Basic Processes in Observational Learning
6.3.3 Classroom Implications of Social Learning Theory
6.4 Summary
6.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
6.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

6.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, you studied Thorndike’s theory of connectionism. In

this unit, we are going to discuss Bandura’s social learning theory, which
is also categorised under behaviourist theories. Imagine this scenario. Joy
is 16 years old. Joy’s parents both drink alcohol every night. They tell Joy
that drinking is bad and she shouldn’t do it. Joy goes to a party where beer
is being served. What do you think Joy will do? In this lesson, you will
learn about the principles of social learning theory and the importance of
the social context, and how children learn through observation and
imitation of models in their environment.

6.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• describe the basic principles of social learning theory

• explain the four basic processes involved in observational learning
• describe the role of reinforcement in social learning theory
• discuss the classroom implications of the social learning theory.

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6.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their

Classroom Implications (4)

6.3.1 Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura

Bandura is noted as one of the exponents of social learning theory. He is

quite different from other behavioural theorists who look at learning as a
direct result of conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment. Social
learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous
reciprocal interaction between individuals and their environments, in
which our behaviour, personal factors and the social environmental all
mutually influence each other. This notion means that just as an
individual's behavior is influenced by the environment, the environment
is also influenced by the individual's behavior. The theory suggests that
people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and
modeling; and that is why it is also commonly referred to as observational
learning. This means that we learn by observing the behaviour of others.
Social learning theory draws heavily on the concept of role modeling.
Individuals that are observed are known as models.

Children learn through observation and imitation. They can observe

people around them behaving in various ways and imitate their actions,
this is identified in Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment. In our society,
children are surrounded by many models, such as parents, teachers,
characters on the television, their friends and people they see in the street.
Children pay attention to these models and imitate their behaviours.
Through observational learning, Bandura has shown that children learn
many things both good and bad simply by watching other’s behaviour.
Once children observe a behaviour, they can store it in their memory and
display the imitated behaviour at a later time.

Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding

of aggression among children, particularly children’s modeling of adults’
aggressive behaviours. The theory suggests that children learn to exhibit
aggressive behaviors because they observe others acting aggressively and
can see how these behaviors are reinforced over time (Bandura, 1978).
Through observation, children learn new behaviours that they have
observed from their parents and other models. For instance, psychological
evidence shows that parental use of corporal punishment in child training
often relates to the learning of aggressive behaviour in children (Ofoha,
2015).

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The Bobo doll experiment

Bandura carried out an experiment (Bobo doll experiment) to see if

aggressive behaviours can be acquired by observation and imitation. In
that experiment, he showed young children a short film in which an adult
model was beating up the Bobo doll. Another group of children did not
watch the film. After the film, the children were taken to a room
containing some toys, including a Bobo doll. The children who watched
the film tended to reproduce the model’s aggressive behaviour toward the
doll. The group of children who did not watch the film did not display
aggressive behaviour toward the toy. Through this experiment, Bandura
demonstrated that children could learn aggression by watching the actions
of an adult model. It also shows that children can be influenced by
watching violent films, movies or television programmes.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Briefly describe the basic principles of social learning theory

2. Fill in the missing words
• The person who performs a behavior that serves as an
example is called a ________
• In the Bobo doll experiment, when the children who watched
the aggressive model were placed in a room with the doll
and other toys, they ________

6.3.2 Four Basic Processes in Observational Learning

It has been noted that individuals do not automatically observe the

behavior of a model and imitate it. Bandura described four basic processes
or steps which must be followed for the behavior to be imitated. These
steps include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

1. Attention: For a behavior to be imitated, you must be focused on

what the model is doing—you have to pay attention. Attention is
therefore extremely important in whether a behavior influences
others imitating it.

2. Retention: This is the ability to store in the memory information

received from the environment. You must be able to retain, or
remember, what you observed. If you are to later use what you
have learned, you must store it in memory.

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3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the

model has just demonstrated. You must be able to perform the
behavior that you observed and committed to memory.

4. Motivation: You must have motivation. You will reproduce the

observed behaviour only if you are motivated to do so. You need
to want to copy the behavior, and whether or not you are motivated
depends on what happened to the model. If you saw that the model
was reinforced for her behavior, you will be more motivated to
copy her. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. On the other
hand, if you observed the model being punished, you would be less
motivated to copy her. This is called vicarious punishment.

The Role of Reinforcement in Bandura’s theory

It is important for you to note that observational learning can take place
without reinforcement. Reinforcement which is so essential in classical
and operant conditioning theories as well as in Thorndike’s theory is
totally unnecessary in an observational learning. That is to say, in social
learning theory, reinforcement is not a prerequisite for a learning to occur.
Learning occurs by simply observing a model. However, reinforcement
increases the chance that that what has been learnt will definitely be
performed. This theory is therefore rested on the fact that an action or
behaviour can be performed if the model is pleasantly rewarded. It is also
believed that there is probability that an observer might drop a behaviour
if he finds out that the model has received a negative reinforcement for
practicing such a behaviour.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. List the basic processes involved in observational learning in

the correct order
2. What is the role of reinforcement in social learning theory?

6.3.3 Classroom Implications of Social Learning Theory

1) The teacher is a model for students in his/her classroom, and he/she

has a profound effect on students’ attitudes, beliefs and behaviour.
In this case, the teacher should display socially acceptable
behaviour since they are role models to students.

2) The teacher should always make sure that he/she does not condone
any irrational behaviour from his/her students. Any offending

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student should be appropriately dealt with, so as to serve as a

deterrent to other members of the classroom.

3) The teacher should not forget to give complimentary remarks such

as “well done”, excellent”, “good boy/girl,” “keep it up”, as a way
of encouraging other students to imitate a good behaviour.

4) Teacher/parents should discourage their students/children from

watching violent films or keeping friends of doubtful characters.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Discuss three classroom implications of social learning theory

6.4 Summary

This unit has explained the meaning of social learning theory and factors
that must be present for observational learning to take place. It also
considered the educational implications of the theory. We further learned
that, to imitate an observed behaviour, we must first pay attention to it,
then remember what we observed, then be able to reproduce the action,
and have sufficient motivation to do so. Observation plays a very
powerful role in learning, and it can play a critical role in determining
how and what children learn.

6.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa:

College of Education.

Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of Model’s Reinforcement Contingencies

on the Acquisition of Initiative Response. Journal of Personality &
Social Psychology, 1 (6), 589 - 595.

Bandura, A. (1992). Self-efficacy in Changing Societies Cambridge.

Eng.: Cambridge University Press.

Bandura, A. (1978). Social Learning Theory. New York: General

Learning Press.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social

Cognitive Theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
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Baron, R. (1974). Threatened Retaliation from the Victim as an Inhibitor

of Physical Aggression. In: Journal of Experimental Research in
Personality, 7, 103 - 15.

Geen, S. & Stonner, T. (1973). Social Motivation. Annual Review of

Psychology, 42, 377 - 399.

Johnson, B. (1986). Observational Learning in Gallus gallus domesticus

with and without a specific model. Bulletin of the Psychonomic
Society. 24 (3), 237 - 239.

Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved

from [Link]

McLeod, S. A. (2016). Bandura - social Learning Theory. Simply

Psychology: [Link]

Mannings, S. & Taylor, D. (1985). Effects of Viewed Violence and

Aggression: Stimulation and Catharsis. In: Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 31, 180 – 8.

Ofoha, D. (2015). Relation between Parental Disciplinary Practices and

Youth Violent Behaviour: Implications for Parenting Education.
Nigerian Psychological Research, 3, 294-306.

Ross, T. & Ross, M. (1963). The Classroom, and Observational Learning.

In: Child Development pp. 387 - 399. New York. Wiley.

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6.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. The social learning theory suggests that people learn from one
another through observation, imitation, and modeling; and it is also
commonly referred to as observational learning. This means that
people learn by observing the behaviour of others. For social
learning theory to take place, there must be an observer (learners),
the model, learners’ attention and proximity. The process of
learning is influenced by the extent of identification and imitation
by the learners.

2. The missing words:

• The person who performs a behavior that serves as an
example is called a model
• In the Bobo doll experiment, when the children who
watched the aggressive model were placed in a room with
the doll and other toys, they tended to reproduce the
model’s aggressive behaviour toward the doll

Answers to SAEs 2

1. The correct order of the basic processes in observational learning

are: Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation

2. The role of reinforcement in social learning theory:

In social learning theory, reinforcement is not a prerequisite for a
learning to occur but it increases the chance that that what has been
learnt will definitely be performed. Also, there is probability that
an observer might drop a behaviour if he finds out that the model
has received a negative reinforcement for practicing such a
behaviour.

Answers to SAEs 3

Three classroom implications of social learning theory:

• The teacher is a model for students in his/her classroom, and he/she

has a profound effect on students’ attitudes, beliefs and behaviour.
In this case, the teacher should be a good model.
• The teacher should not forget to give complimentary remarks such
as “well done”, excellent”, “good boy/girl,” “keep it up”, as a way
of encouraging other students to imitate a good behaviour.

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• Teachers/parents should discourage their students/children from

watching violent films or keeping friends of doubtful characters.

Seminar Topics
Each student is expected to present seminar paper on one of the following
topics:

1. Joy is 16 years old. Joy’s parents both drink alcohol every night.
They tell Joy that drinking is bad and she shouldn’t do it. Joy
goes to a party where beer is being served. What do you think
Joy will do? Why?
2. Explain how you will apply social learning principles to the
classroom situations
3. From your understanding of our discussion, what type of movies
and television programmes would you recommend for children
and adolescents in your community or neighbourhood?

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UNIT 7 COGNITIVE-FIELD THEORIES OF LEARNING

AND THEIR CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS

Unit Structure

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Learning Outcomes
7.3 Cognitive Field Theories of Learning and their Classroom
Implications
7.3.1 Underlying Principles of Cognitive-field theories of
learning
7.3.2 Learning by Insight and Features of Insightful Learning
7.3.3 Classroom Implications of Cognitive Field Theory of
Learning
7.4 Summary
7.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
7.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

7.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, we discussed Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.

With that we have completed all four of the behaviourist theories of
learning. Now we are turning our attention to the second group of learning
theories known as Cognitive-field theory of learning. Recall that we said
Cognitive field theories pay more attention to what goes on in the learner's
mind and focus on mental processes rather than observable behaviours.
The theory emphasises insight learning. In this lesson, we are going to be
looking at the principles of this theory, the main ideas of insight learning
and the classroom implications of the theory. Here also, you will learn
how learning takes place through the application of insight.

7.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• describe the underlying principles of cognitive field theory of

learning
• explain insight learning and its main features
• explain Gestalt Laws of Perception
• analyse differences between Behaviourist and Cognitive field
theories of learning
• discuss the classroom implication of cognitive field theory of
learning.

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7.3 Cognitive-Field Theory of Learning and their Classroom

Implications

7.3.1 Cognitive-Field Theory of Learning

Cognitive Field theory or Gestalt theory was formulated by a group of

German Psychologists, notable among them were Max Wertheimer, Kurt
Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler, all of who belong to Gestalt school of
psychology. Gestalt psychologists emphasise the importance of wholes
over parts and believe that the whole of anything is greater than the sum
of its parts. According to Gestalt theory, perception of a situation as a
‘whole’ gives better understanding than the sum of its parts. This theory
is in contrast with the behaviourist (S-R) learning which places emphasis
on the formation of S-R connections. Gestalt is a German word which
means pattern, shape, form or configuration, we learn by seeing new
patterns and by organising them into a meaningful whole in the total
situation. Therefore, the theory lays emphasis on cognitive structure and
on perception of the total field by the individual. This could be illustrated
with a car, if the whole is dismantled, though the components are there,
it’s not a car. They believe that parts are configured or organised to make
complete or meaningful experiences or impressions. This theory rejected
the views that consider the learning process in an isolated form rather than
in a total or holistic form. The Gestalt theory/ cognitive field theories
focus on insight and perceptual processes. The Gestalt theory of learning
is also named as Learning by Insight.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Describe the underlying principles of cognitive fields (Gestalt) theory

of learning

7.3.2 Learning by Insight

The Gestalt psychologists believe that learning occurs by insight. For

instance, when we are faced with a problem, we try to get some clues in
the ways we should proceed to solve the problem; we think through it by
having a complete picture of the problem in mind, without making any
progress. Then all of a sudden, there will be a flash of understanding in
which we arrive at a solution to our problem. This sudden understanding
of the components of a problem that makes the solution apparent is known
as Insight learning. The joyful remark is known as the “aha” phenomenon,
that is, the flash of understanding which comes to us when we suddenly
realise what the answer to our difficulties is. We have all experienced the
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sensation of the ‘aha’ moment at one time or another. Can you recall any
one of such experiences? Insight occurs when the individual sees in a flash
the solution to his problem.

In a problematic situation, the learner tries to solve the problem and this
attempt involves the understanding of the components of a problem. As
already noted, the sudden occurrence at arrival to the solution of the
problem is known as Insight learning. Insight is also expressed as the
“Aha” moment, that is, the flash of understanding which comes to us
when we hit suddenly upon the solution to a problem. The Gestalts define
learning as occurring through gaining of insight by understanding the
relationships of various parts of a problem. They therefore placed more
credence on insightful learning rather than trial and error like that of
Thorndike or mechanical conditioning as performed by Pavlov in his
classical conditioning theory. In other words, learning comes as a result
of mental activity. This theory is of the opinion that parts are configured
or organised to make complete or meaningful experiences or impressions.
The emphasis here is on the importance of experience, meaning, problem
solving and the development of insights (Burns 1995). It is believed that
meaningful learning can only take place through a sequence of problem-
solving approach.

It may be said that insightful theory of learning concerns itself with higher
thinking skills. Complex problems would require higher learning and
solutions are reached only by application of insight. All new ideas and
concepts, inventions and discoveries are the result of insightful learning.
Learning by conditioning is common to all animals and human beings and
useful for early education. But learning by insight is suitable only for
intelligent creatures both human and animals and useful for higher
learning.

Insightful learning is hinged on the fact that animals undergo a series of

problem-solving approach following a sequence of principles and
previous experience before arriving at a solution. In this theory, the
cognitive or mental processes of the animals are regarded as
the yardstick in the development of insightful learning. Learning by
insight requires full comprehension of the situation as a whole.

Kohler’s Experiment

To show the importance of learning by insight, Gestalt Psychologists

performed several experiments using chimpanzees as subjects. In one of
the experiments, a chimpanzee called Sultan was put in a cage. In the cage
was a stool and banana, hung on the top of the cage. Initially, several
unsuccessful attempts were made by Sultan to get the banana.
Suddenly, sultan decided to pull out the stool and climbed it to get the

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banana from where it was hung. This type of learning is called

insightful, because it involves problem-solving approach.

Another experiment was performed whereby Sultan was put in the cage
with a banana and a stick lying outside the cage. It made a few attempts
with its hands to get the banana but could not. Then it noticed a stick lying
outside the cage. Picking up the stick, it successfully reached out and
pulled in the banana.

The last experiment performed by Kohler on this insightful learning, was

an extension of the second experiment. In this case, the chimpanzee
(Sultan) was put in the cage, and a bunch of bananas was placed at
some distance outside the cage. This time, two sticks were provided,
which could be fitted together to reach the banana. The hungry Sultan first
attempted with its hands to get the banana. Then he took one of the sticks
and tried to pull the banana nearer, then tried with other stick, but failed
to reach it. By this effort, the chimpanzee became tired and left the
attempts to reach banana and started playing with the sticks. While
playing so, one of the sticks got fitted into the other and the stick became
lengthier. Immediately an idea came to Sultan, it pulled the banana with
this long stick. This ‘sudden flash of idea’ to reach the banana with a
longer stick was called as ‘Insight’, by Kohler. All these experiments
indicated that learning cannot take place in a segregated way but in a
complete form.

The main features of insightful learning

Insight depends upon the following factors:

i) Arrangement of the problem situation: Learning through insight

depends upon the arrangement of the problem situation. Insight
will come easily if the essentials for solution are arranged so that
relationships can be perceived.

ii) Learning situation: The nature of the situation is very important

for insight learning. With insight, the organism tends to perceive a
pattern or organisation that helps in learning.

iii) From whole to parts: The organism reacts to the whole situation
not to component parts

iv) Sudden awareness: The solution comes all of a sudden i.e., insight
is sudden.
v) Intelligence: Basic intelligence of the learner is an important
factor in insightful learning. Insight is related with higher form of
learning. Therefore, complex problems can be tackled through

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insight. It involves many higher order processes such as thinking,

reasoning, intellinge

vi) Past experience: Insightful learning draws on past experience;

past experiences assist in the insight of the problems. Learning
gained in one situation helps the learner to react insightfully in
other identical situations The experiences and perceptions of
learners have a significant impact on the way that they learn.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. What is insight learning?

2. Explain three main features of insight learning

7.3.3 Classroom Implications of Gestalt Theory

1. Complex problems require higher learning and solutions are

reached only by application of insight. Teaching and learning of
some subjects such as physics, chemistry and mathematics as well
as other science subjects demand higher mental exercises.

2. The whole is greater than its parts. On this, the teacher should
present the subject matter as a whole to facilitate insight learning.
Learners must be assisted to see the learning material as a whole
and not as disjointed pieces. For instance, while teaching the topic
‘Parts of a plant, the plant should be presented before the students
and thereafter the parts should be taken up. Doing so would enable
learners to develop understanding about the subject matter.

3. Insight is related with higher form of learning and the foundation

stone of insight learning is intelligence. Therefore, the teacher
should make use of problem-solving approach for better learning
by encouraging their students to discover the relationship of the
elements that make up a problem in order that the learner will be
able to solve problems by insight.

4. Learners should discover concepts, meanings and relationships on

their own. Therefore, the teacher can foster the use of discovery
learning, which will make students become active participants in
their own learning. Knowledge that is self-discovered is more
significant to the learner and is remembered better.

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5. As insight depends upon the previous experience of the learner, the

teacher should be able to relate the previous experience of the
learner to the new learning. By so doing, students will be able to
learn better.

6. The teacher should organise the learning situations in a manner

that makes insight possible so that significant relations emerge and
understanding of the material results, i.e. the learning experiences
should be so arranged that the learner discovers the relationship
between the elements of the problematic situation. Clues should be
provided to facilitate the application of insight e.g., the two sticks
for Sultan.

7. Age influences insight learning. Insight, like other learning,

depends upon the capacity/experience/age of the learner. Older
children, for example, can learn things more easily than younger
children.

7.4 Summary

In this unit, you have learnt the cognitive field theories of learning
(Gestalt theory) and how insight learning takes place. You have also
learnt about the gestalt laws of perception. Gestalt theory is very
important in learning. It advocates that learners learn best when they are
provided with the opportunity to explore or find the solutions to the
problems being discussed. The teachers are advised to make constant use
of this theory in their teaching/learning activities.

7.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology. Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company Ltd.

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa:

College of Education.

Becker, E. (1993). Growing up Rugged: Fritz Perls and Gestalt therapy.

In: Gestalt Journal, 16 (2), 27 - 44.

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Chauhan, S. S. (1978). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi:

Vikas Publishing House.

Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M., (1997). Educational

Psychology: Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and
Benchmark Publishers.

Gautam, S. (n.d.).
[Link]
theory/gestalt-theory-of-learning-with-objections-
psychology/13473

Kimble, G. & Garmezy, M. (1968). Conditioning and Learning. New

York: Appleton.

Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved

from [Link]

Merrett, A., & Merrette, L. (2013). The use of reward systems to improve
behavior and attainment in schools. British Psychological
Association.
[Link]
Vivo_rewards_and_behaviour_literature_review_V3_4_.pdf

Mukherjee, M. (1978). Educational Psychology Calcutta. India: K. P.

Bask Pub. Coy.

Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba:

Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka:

Meks-Unique (Nig.) Publishers

Owoyele, J. W. (2014). Psychological Foundations of Education, Human

Development & Learning. Ijebu – Ode: Top Best Books.

Perls, F.S. (1967). Group vs. Individual Therapy. ETC: A Review of

General Semantics, 34, 306 - 312.

Perls, F.S. (1969). Gestalt Therapy Verbatim. Highland, NY: Gestalt

Journal.

Polster, E. & Poster, M. (1993). Frederick Perls: Legacy and invitation.

Gestalt Journal, 16 (2), 23 - 25.

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EDU321 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Rothenberg, A. (1979). The Emerging goddess. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

Sperling, A. (1979). Psychology Made Simple London: Heinemann.

Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its Educational
Implications. Teacher Education Support Services.
[Link]
[Link]

Rahimi, M., & Karkami, F. H. (2015). The Role of Teachers’ classroom

Discipline in their Teaching Effectiveness and Students’ Language
Learning Motivation and Achievement: A Path Method. Iranian
Journal of Language Teaching Research, 3 (1), 57-82.

Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and

Information Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL

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7.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

The underlying principles of cognitive field theory (Gestalt theory) of

learning:

Cognitive Field theory or Gestalt theory emphasises the importance of

wholes over parts and that the whole of anything is greater than the sum
of its parts. According to the theory, perception of a situation as a ‘whole’
gives better understanding than the sum of its parts. The theory lays
emphasis on cognitive structure and on perception of the total field by the
individual. The Gestalt psychologists believe that learning occurs by
insight. The Gestalt theory of learning is also named as Learning by
Insight.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. What is insight learning? Any one of the following definitions:

Insight learning is the flash of understanding which comes to us
when we suddenly realise what the answer to our difficulties is.
Or Insight learning is the sudden understanding of the components
of a problem that makes the solution apparent.
Or The flash of understanding which comes to us when we hit
suddenly upon the solution to a problem. The joyful remark is
known as the “aha” phenomenon.
2. Four features of insight learning: (these are four out of the ones
listed under sub-section 7.3.2)
i) According to Gestalt theory, learning occurs by insight.
Learning through insight depends upon the arrangement of
the problem situation. Insight will come easily if the
essentials for solution are arranged so that relationships can
be perceived.
ii) Insight learning draws on past experience. Past experiences
assist in the insight of the problems. Learning gained in one
situation helps the learner to react insightfully in other
identical situations. Gestalt psychology proposes education
to be an integration of affective and cognitive domains of
learning.
iii) Basic intelligence of the learner is an important factor in
insightful learning. Insight is related with higher form of
learning. Therefore, complex problems can be tackled
through insight.

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iv) The insightful solution comes all of a sudden i.e., insight is

sudden

Answers to SAEs 3

The implications of Gestalt theory on learning:

Choose any three of the classroom implications of the theory provided
under sub-section 10.3.3

Seminar Topic

Each student is expected to present seminar paper on one of the following

topics:

Explain the importance of insightful learning in education

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MODULE 3 PERMANENCY IN LEARNING

Having completed our discussion on theories of Learning and their

educational implication in the units of the previous module, we are now
turning our attention on different areas of psychology. The Module 3
discusses the relevance of permanency in learning. It has been noted that
the essence of education is to provide meaningful learning experiences
that will foster a permanent change in students’ behaviour. How much a
student has been able to retain knowledge, the application of that
knowledge to real life situations and the various motivational strategies
the teacher used to sustain the interest of the students in the classroom
would contribute in promoting the permanency of learning. The topics
under this module are organised into four study units as follows:

Module Structure

Unit 1 Motivation in Learning

Unit 2 Theories of Motivation in Learning
Unit 3 Transfer of Learning
Unit 4 Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering and Forgetting

UNIT 1 MOTIVATION IN LEARNING

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Motivation in Learning and its Implication in Classroom
Situations
1.3.1 What is Motivation?
1.3.2 Types of Motivation
1.3.3 Bruner’s Model of Motivated behaviour
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.1 Introduction

In this unit we are looking at the topic of Motivation in Learning. What

is it that motivates your behaviour? What motivated you to enroll in
NOUN for a postgraduate degree programme? There are many different
reasons why people behave the way they. No doubt, motivation drives
many behaviours and it is important to understand the importance of
motivation in a classroom environment. This unit therefore provides the
learners the opportunity to understand the concept of motivation and
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how it is influenced, and how the teacher can foster motivation in their
students.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define the concept of motivation

• describe and distinguish between the two types of motivation
• explain Bruner’s model of motivated behaviour.

1.3 Motivation in Learning

1.3.1 What is Motivation?

Motivation can be defined as an inspiration that propels someone into an

action. It is an internal state or condition that activates and gives
direction to our thoughts, feelings, and actions (Lahey, 1995). In the
opinion of Oladele (1998), motivation is a process by which the
learner’s internal energies are directed toward various goal objects in
his/her environment. These energies or arousals push an individual in
achieving his goals. It can also be defined as the eagerness and
willingness to do something. It is the reason why an individual would
want to do something. An individual may be highly motivated to
perform well in a task and completely unmotivated in another.
Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a
goal (Lumen Learning, 2020). This means that when people are
motivated, they will work tirelessly to achieve their aspirations. In a
classroom situation, motivation drives learners in reaching learning
goals.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

What is motivation?

1.3.2 Types of Motivation

There are two types of motivation namely, intrinsic motivation (arising

from internal factors) and extrinsic motivation (arising from external
factors). Hence, motivation to engage in a given behavior can come
from internal and/or external factors. The desire for food or water arises

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from within us (intrinsic), while the yearning to obtain recognition or

approval is influenced by conditions in our environment (extrinsic).
Let’s look at the two types of motivations in more detail.

1. Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation

that arises from within the individual. We are motivated
intrinsically when we do something because we experience
internal compelling force to do it or because of the sense of
personal satisfaction that it brings. It is an internal force or
motive within the individual which propels him/her into emitting
certain behaviour. Intrinsic motivation is something within the
person that energises behavior e.g., interest, curiosity, personal
challenge, and improvement. An example of an intrinsically
motivated student is one who reads simply because he sees value
in reading. It is the act of doing something without any obvious
external rewards. You do it because it's enjoyable and interesting,
rather than because of an outside incentive or pressure to do it. A
student who is intrinsically motivated may carry out a task
because of the enjoyment he/she derives from such a task. In
another way, a dog that sees a bone and runs for it did that
because of the satisfaction it derives from eating bone. This type
of behaviour does not require any prior learning. Sighting the
bone charges the behaviour of the dog and propels it to act.

Here, you are motivated to perform a task for reasons such as

interest, enjoyment, pleasure and satisfaction

2. Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation

that arises from sources outside the individual. It is the
incentive/reinforcer that drives an individual’s behaviour towards
a goal. Extrinsic motivation is something outside the person that
energises behavior e.g., money, fame, power. A student that is
extrinsically motivated will execute an action in order to obtain
some reward or avoid some sanctions. For example, a student
who reads hard for the examination did so because of the desire
to obtain better grade. The case also goes for a runner who wants
to win a prize, he/she will need constant practice than a person
who wants to run for the fun of it. Extrinsic rewards should be
used with caution because they have the potential for decreasing
existing intrinsic motivation. For example, extrinsic incentive
may spur a student to actively participate in the task for which the
student has no interest, but may undermine intrinsic motivation in
him/her (Deci et al, 1985). Therefore, students’ motivation
automatically has to do with the students’ desire to participate in
the learning process. It also concerns the reasons or goals that

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underlie their involvement or non-involvement in academic

activities.

Here, you are motivated to perform a task for reasons such as to

gain a reward or avoid a punishment

Think about why you are currently in NOUN. Are you here because you
enjoy learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more
well-rounded individual? If so, then you are intrinsically motivated.
However, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to
make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the
demands of your parents or spouse, then your motivation is more
extrinsic in nature.

Extrinsic rewards should be used with caution because they have the
potential for decreasing existing intrinsic motivation that students might
have. For example, extrinsic incentive may spur a student to actively
participate in the task for which the student has no interest, but may
undermine intrinsic motivation in him/her. First and foremost, students’
motivation automatically has to do with the students’ desire to
participate in the learning process.

Intrinsically motivated learning vs. Extrinsically motivated learning

Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation have been shown to play a

significant role in learning. However, research has shown that
intrinsically motivated learning is more effective and leads to the most
positive outcomes among students. Others have suggested that extrinsic
motivators help students feel more competent in the classroom, which in
turn enhances their intrinsic motivation (Oudeyer & Kaplan, 2007).
Whatever the case may be, it is important for teachers to put an emphasis on
intrinsic motivation so as to keep students interested in their own learning
goals. Therefore, finding ways to develop intrinsic motivation in
students should be an important part of every teacher's instructional
practices. The teacher can promote intrinsic motivation in students using
the following strategies:

• By arousing a sense of curiosity in students and presenting their

learning materials in a more meaningful way in order to facilitate
students’ active engagement and motivation.
• By creating a positive learning environment in the classroom and
developing meaningful and respectful relationships with their
students.
• Students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to
learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the
classroom.

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Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1) Differentiate between the two types of motivation you know

2) Indicate the motivation type in these sentences
• I will study for this exam because I really enjoy the content
and reading makes me feel relaxed.
• I will study for this exam because if I don’t, I will receive a
bad grade
3) How would you promote intrinsic motivation in students?

1.3.3 Bruner’s Model of Motivated Behaviour

Relevant to the theory of intrinsic motivation is Bruner’s (1966) model

explaining motivated behaviour. Bruner believes that our intrinsic
motivation to learn consists of three main underlying driving forces.
These are: curiosity drive, the drive to achiever competence, and the
drive for reciprocity. According to him, these three drives are the
intrinsic motivators for learning, which may make a child willing to
learn. Now, let’s discuss these innate drives in more detail:

i. Curiosity Drive: Bruner believes that children come into the

world equipped with a natural curiosity to learn and a will to
know. According to Bruner, the curiosity drive was basic to
learning and as such had to be fulfilled if proper intellectual
development was to occur. He feels that curiosity drive is of
biological relevance, that is, curiosity is necessary to the survival
of the species. Bruner suggests that young children are too often
curious, that they are unable to stick with anyone activity. Their
curiosity leads them to turn from one activity to another in rapid
succession, and it must therefore be channeled into a more
powerful intellectual pursuit. Since children are driven by a
natural curiosity that makes them want to learn, the teacher can
nurture the child’s curiosity in the following ways:

• By asking questions or posing problem that are relevant to their

needs and by providing them with opportunities to explore.
• By using explanations, demonstrations and pictures to help
students understand concepts.
• By using a variety of materials and providing a variety of
learning experiences. Mechanical learning and rote learning will
kill curiosity and the desire to understand.
• By creating a learning environment free from fear, punishment,
harsh discipline, and intimidation - a learning environment that

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allows children to feel safe, respected, and valued; so, they can
learn.

ii. Drive to Achieve Competence: Bruner was convinced that all

children have an innate desire to achieve competence. Children
become interested in what they are good at, and it is virtually
impossible to motivate them to engage in activities in which they
have no degree of competence. This drive can be aroused as
follows:

• Plan and prepare appropriate materials for instruction

according to the difficulty that matches learners' level. The
satisfaction learners get when they solve a problem or
finish a task is a kind of self-rewarding and this will
enhance their drive to achieve competence.

iii. Drive for Reciprocity: The drive for reciprocity is of the idea
that children have a desire to work cooperatively with others to
share their new learning and to work with others to discover
information (Kaufhold, 2002). Children have the desire to be an
indispensable part of the learning community. Bruner believes
that society itself developed as a result of this basic motivation.

This drive can be aroused as follows:

• By creating a collaborative problem-solving environment where

students become active participants in their own learning.
Corporative learning gives students the opportunity to learn from
their peers. Teachers should use group projects and collaborative
activities to encourage teamwork in the classroom.

In conclusion, we have seen that Bruner's model has direct implications

for teaching practices. If the learning is planned in a way that enables
the student to achieve one or more of the three motives above, it will
help the student feel an inner motivation to learn (Bruner 1966). Clearly,
it is worth paying attention to motivational drives when creating
learning activities. The teacher’s responsibility is to ensure that these
natural motivators are not impaired by irrelevant and dry presentations,
frustrating expectations and unwholesome competition among students
(Yount, 2001).

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Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Using Bruner’s model of motivated behaviour, explain three ways by

which school pupils can be motivated to learn.

1.4 Summary

In this unit, you have learnt the concept of motivation, types of

motivation and how the teacher can nurture the motivational drives in
students. You can now see that motivation is a very important factor in
the learning process. The fundamental aim of motivation is to stimulate
and to facilitate learning activity. Brunner believes intrinsic motivation
comes from the students’ own curiosity, their drive to achieve
competence and the desire to work cooperatively with others
(reciprocity). These are rewarding in themselves and thus self-
sustaining. If our students are motivated, they learn better and retain
more of what they learned. Learning is an active process that needs to be
motivated and guided toward desirable ends; hence this unit has
prepared the teachers for the various strategies they can employ to keep
the students motivated. If our students are motivated, they learn better
and retain more of what they learned.

1.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa:

College of Education.

Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-
Determination in Human Behaviour. New York: Plenum.

Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M. (1997). Educational

Psychology Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and
Benchmark Publishers.

Kaufhold, J. A. (2002). The Psychology of Learning and the Art of

Teaching. NY: Writers Club Press.

Lahey, B.B. (1995). Psychology: An Introduction, Madison, WI: Brown

and Benchmark.

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Maslow, A.H. (1970). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper

and Row.

Murray, H.A. (1938). Explorations in Personality: A Clinical and

Experimental Study of Fifty Men of College Age. New: Oxford
University Press.

Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba:

Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka:

Meks-Unique (Nig.) Publishers.

Oudeyer, P. Y,, & Kaplan, F. (2007). What is Intrinsic Motivation? A

Typology of Computational Approaches. Front Neurorobot, 1(6).
doi:10.3389/neuro.12.006.2007

Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and

Information Centers. Champaign, IL: Windsor & Downs Press.

Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its Educational

Implications. Teacher Education Support Services.
[Link]
[Link]

Yount, W. (2001). Learning Theory for Christian Teachers. Pp100-110,

Anthony, M. J. (2001) (Ed.) Introducing Christian Education:
Foundation for the Twenty-First Century. Baker Academy. USA.

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1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. What is motivation?
Motivation can be defined as an inspiration that propels someone
into an action. It is an internal state or condition that activates and
gives direction to our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Motivation
is a process by which the learner’s internal energies are directed
toward various goal objects in his/her environment. These
energies or arousals push an individual in achieving his goals. It
can also be defined as the eagerness and willingness to do
something. It is the reason why an individual would want to do
something.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. The distinction between the two types of motivation:

Intrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation is something within the person that energises

behavior i.e. intrinsic motivation comes from within.
• When you are intrinsically motivated, you engage in an activity
because you enjoy it and get personal satisfaction from doing it.
• An example of intrinsic motivation is a student carrying out a
task because of the enjoyment/pleasure/interest/satisfaction he or
she derives from such a task.

Extrinsic motivation

• Extrinsic motivation is something outside the person that

energizes behaviour i.e., extrinsic motivation refers to motivation
that arises from sources outside the individual.
• When you are extrinsically motivated, you do something in order
to gain an external reward e.g., money, fame, power/better grade
or to avoid a punishment.
• An example of extrinsic motivation is a student reading hard for
the examination because of the desire to obtain better grade, or a
student who is studying hard so that their parents will not punish
them for poor grades.

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2. Indicate the motivation type in these sentences

• I will study for this exam because I really enjoy the content
and reading makes me feel relaxed - Intrinsic motivation
• I will study for this exam because if I don’t, I will receive
a fail grade - Extrinsic motivation

3. I can promote intrinsic motivation in students by arousing a sense

of curiosity in students and presenting their learning materials in
a more meaningful way in order to facilitate students’ active
engagement and motivation. Students are more likely to
experience intrinsic motivation to learn when they feel a sense of
belonging and respect in the classroom. By creating a positive
learning environment in the classroom and developing
meaningful and respectful relationships with their students.

Answers to SAEs 2

Using Bruner’s model of motivated behaviour, three ways by which

school pupils can be motivated to learn by arousing the three
motivational drives which are curiosity drive, the drive to achiever
competence, and the drive for reciprocity.

a. Curiosity Drive: Bruner believes that children come into the

world equipped with a natural curiosity to learn and a will to
know. According to Bruner, the curiosity drive was basic to
learning and as such had to be fulfilled if proper intellectual
development was to occur. Bruner suggests that young children
are too often curious, that they are unable to stick with anyone
activity. Their curiosity leads them to turn from one activity to
another in rapid succession, and it must therefore be channeled
into a more powerful intellectual pursuit. The teacher can nurture
the child’s curiosity in the following ways:

• By asking questions or posing problem that are relevant to

their needs and by providing them with opportunities to
explore.
• By using explanations, demonstrations and pictures to help
students understand concepts.
• By using a variety of materials and providing a variety of
learning experiences. Mechanical learning and rote
learning will kill curiosity and the desire to understand.
• By creating a learning environment free from fear,
punishment, harsh discipline, and intimidation - a learning
environment that allows children to feel safe, respected,
and valued; so, they can learn.

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b. Drive to Achieve Competence: Bruner was convinced that all

children have an innate desire to achieve competence. Children
become interested in what they are good at, and it is virtually
impossible to motivate them to engage in activities in which they
have no degree of competence. This drive can be aroused as
follows:
• Plan and prepare appropriate materials for instruction
according to the difficulty that matches learners' level. The
satisfaction learners get when they solve a problem or
finish a task is a kind of self-rewarding and this will
enhance their drive to achieve competence.

a. Drive for Reciprocity: The drive for reciprocity is of the idea

that children have a need to work with others cooperatively to
share their new learning and to work with others to discover
information (Kaufhold, 2002). Children have the desire to be an
indispensable part of the learning community. This drive can be
aroused as follows:

• By creating a collaborative problem-solving environment where

students become active participants in their own learning.
Corporative learning gives students the opportunity to learn from
their peers. Teachers should use group projects and collaborative
activities to encourage teamwork in the classroom.

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UNIT 2 MOTIVATION THEORIES ON LEARNING

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Motivation Theories in Learning
1.3.1 Theories of Motivation
2.3.2 Classroom Implications of Theories of Motivation
2.4 Summary
2.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

2.1 Introduction

In the previous unit we discussed the topic of motivation in learning. In

this unit we shall discuss major theories of motivation in learning and
describe how teachers can apply these theories to their day-to-day
classroom teaching and learning activities.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• discuss major theories that describe motivation in learning

• discuss classroom implications of motivational theories and some
strategies that can be used to help motivate learners.

2.3 Theories of Motivation on Learning

2.3.1 Theories of Motivation

Several theories on motivation have been developed by different

psychologists to explain what drives humans to think and behave the
way they do. Notable among the theories are as the following:

a) Instinct theory of motivation

b) Drive theory of motivation
c) Arousal theory of motivation
d) McClelland's human motivation theory
e) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

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The first three set of theories (a, b & c) focuses on the innateness of
motivation. These theories emphasise instinctual or biological needs and
drives that influence our behaviour. The last two theories of motivation
(d & e) are need-based and describe motivated behaviour as individual
efforts to meet needs. To them, in order to understand human behaviour
and how an individual could be motivated, one must first understand
their needs.

(a) Instinct Theory of Motivation

This theory suggests that human behaviour is driven by instincts which

aid survival. According to the instinct theory of motivation, all
organisms are born with innate biological tendencies that help them
survive. This theory suggests that instincts drive all behaviors. Instincts
are natural urges or innate tendencies. They are therefore unlearned,
inherited behaviours. Instinct is considered to be a purposive, inherited,
goal-seeking tendency. Some behaviours are driven by instincts E.g.,
infants have an inborn rooting reflex that helps them seek out a nipple
and obtain nourishment. This behavior occurs naturally and
automatically. They do not need to be learned in order to be displayed.
They are inherited behaviours. The instinct theory suggests that
motivation is primarily biologically based. We engage in certain
behaviors because they aid in survival.

In this theory, for every type of human behaviour manifestation, there

was an underlying instinct and an accompanying emotion.

Mc Dougall listed various instincts and their corresponding emotions.

Let us give examples:

Instincts Emotions
Fight Fear
Food seeking Gusto
Curiosity Wonder
Pugnacity Anger
Affiliation Affection
Acquisition Feeling of ownership
Laughter Amusement
Appeal Distress

Self-assertion Positive self-

Self-abasement feeling
Reproduction Negative self-feeling
Gregariousness Lust
Repulsion Companionship
Disgust

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(a) Drive Theory of motivation

According to the drive theory of motivation, deviations from

homeostasis create physiological needs. These needs result in
psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and,
ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis. Homeostasis is the
tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological
system.

The theory is based on the idea that the body actively works to maintain
a certain state of balance or equilibrium. For example, your body
regulates its temperature in order to ensure that you don't become too
hot or too cold. According to the drive theory of motivation, people are
motivated to take certain actions in order to reduce the internal tension
that is caused by unmet needs. When a physiological need is aroused, a
state of tension/drive is created (e.g., hunger) that motivates an organism
to satisfy the need (looking for food). For example, when a person is
hungry or thirsty, he or she feels tension and is motivated to reduce this
state of discomfort by eating or drinking. Drive theories typically
hypothesise that a set of physiological survival drives motivate
behaviour.

(b) Arousal Theory of Motivation

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are driven to

perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level of arousal. That is
to say behaviour is motivated by arousal levels. According to the theory,
each person has a unique arousal level that is right for them. When our
arousal levels drop below these personalised optimal levels, we seek
some sort of activities to elevate them. When we become overly
aroused, we seek soothing activities that help calm and relax us. If we
become bored, we head in search of more invigorating activities that
will energise and arouse us. It's all about striking the right balance, but
that balance is unique to each individual.

For example, if our levels drop too low, we might engage in certain
activities like going out to a nightclub with friends. If these levels
become too elevated and we become overstimulated, we might be
motivated to select a relaxing activity such as going for a walk or taking
a nap. One of the key assumptions of the arousal theory is that we are
motivated to pursue actions that help us maintain an ideal balance.

The person with low arousal needs might be motivated to pursue simple
activities such as crocheting or watching a movie in order to maintain
their arousal levels. The individual with high arousal needs, on the other

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hand, might be motivated to seek risky or thrilling activities such as

motorcycle racing or skydiving in order to maintain his or her ideal
levels.

So, what is the optimal level of arousal? What level leads to the best
performance? Research shows that moderate arousal is generally best;
when arousal is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer.
Think of your arousal level regarding taking an exam for this class. If
your level is very low, such as boredom and apathy, your performance
will likely suffer. Similarly, a very high level, such as extreme anxiety,
can be paralysing and hinder performance. Consider the example of a
softball team facing a tournament. They are favored to win their first
game by a large margin, so they go into the game with a lower level of
arousal and get beaten by a less skilled team.

In the classroom, when the lesson is too easy, the children will get bored
and restless, and when the lesson is too difficult, they will feel frustrated
and disinterested. The optimal level of difficulty, therefore, should be
half way between the extremes of ease and difficulty for all the children
to exhibit their maximum tendency to achieve success in their learning
undertaking.

(c) McClelland's Human Motivation Theory/ McClelland's

Acquired Needs Theory

According to this theory, individuals acquire three types of needs as a

result of their life experiences. These needs are the need for
achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power. One
motivator is dominant, and can describe what mostly drives the
individual towards reaching their goals. These motivators are not
inherent; we develop them through our culture and life experiences.
People will have different characteristics depending on their dominant
motivator. For instance, individuals who have high need for
achievement like to solve problems and achieve goals. They are said to
have a strong need to be successful. They Like to receive regular
feedback on their progress and achievements and often like to work
alone.

Consider the cases of two young business executives, Tata and Sapa.
Tata arrives at work promptly at 8.00 a.m. and seldom leaves before
4.00 p.m., always taking a loaded briefcase home with him. He works at
least one day each weekend, always arrives at meetings on time, and
often completes assigned work early. Sapa works the minimum hours
from 9 to 4 and takes long lunches. He is often late for meetings and
frequently requests extensions to complete assignments. David
McClelland might suggest that the principal difference between these

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two people is in their levels of achievement motivation or need for

achievement. A uniquely human drive, achievement motivation is a
striving to overcome challenges, improve oneself, attain excellence, and
accomplish more than others.

Individuals who have a high need for affiliation want to be liked and
accepted by others. They prefer to interact with others and be with
friends. They want to belong to the group and they will conform to the
group’s behaviour and wishes. They favour collaboration over
competition.

Those with a high need for power want to control and influence others,
like to win arguments, they enjoy competition and winning, and they
attach great value to status and recognition.

McClelland's theory can help you to identify the dominant motivators of

students in your classroom. You can then use this information to
influence how you set goals, provide feedback, and motivate and reward
students.

(e) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow was a foremost Psychologist who explained

motivation through the satisfaction of needs arranged in a hierarchical
order. The basis of his theory is that human beings are motivated by
unsatisfied needs. Maslow argues that humans have seven levels of
needs that can be arranged in a hierarchy from the lowest (physiological
needs) to the highest (self-actualisation needs). According to Maslow,
these needs can create internal pressures that can motivate a person's
behavior. He sees man as a wanting being who is motivated by the needs
he wants to satisfy. He proposed that motivation is the result of a
person's attempt at fulfilling these needs, and that need satisfaction is the
most important sole factor underlying motivation. Maslow further
explained that man is perpetually in needs and that the resources to
satisfy those needs are limited. In view of this, humans place their wants
on the scale of preference, and that they select the most pressing needs.
After these needs have been satisfied, they become less important and
no longer serve as motivators, paving way for the next on the hierarchy.

It is important to note that this 7-level hierarchy of needs constitute the

expanded hierarchy from the original 5-level of needs.

The hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with

the largest and lowest levels at the bottom (see Figure). These needs
according to Maslow are:

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1. Physiological Needs
2. Security and Safety Needs
3. Love and Belongingness Needs
4. Self-esteem Needs
5. Cognitive needs
6. Aesthetic Needs
7. Self-Actualisation Needs

Fig. 2: Maslow’s 7-Stage Hierarchy of Needs

Source: [Link]

Let us now explain in more detail the seven Maslow’s hierarchy of

needs:

1. Physiological Needs: These are the biological or survival needs

of man. They are the most basic needs, that is, the needs for
water, air, food, and sleep. Maslow considered physiological
needs the most important of all the needs. Until these needs are
fulfilled or satisfied, you will not be able to go to the next level.
When you are very hungry, for example, all your behavior may
be motivated by the need to find food. Once you eat, the search
for food ceases, and the need for food no longer motivates you.
They become less important and one moves to the next on the
hierarchy which is the desire for security and safety.

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Educational implication: The teacher must realise that effective

learning is possible only when the physiological needs of pupils
have been met; for example, a tired and hungry student will find
it difficult to focus on learning. Teachers can aid students in the
satisfaction of this need by helping them feel safe in the
classroom and by not using coercion to control behaviour.

2. Safety and Security Needs: Once physiological needs are

satisfied, people tend to become concerned about safety and
security needs. It includes the need to have safe, secure and
conducive life. At this stage the individual will be motivated to
direct their behavior toward obtaining shelter and protection in
order to satisfy this need. Today in Nigeria, both child and adult
safety needs are often threatened by societal violence, communal
violence, and armed robbery incidence.

Educational implication: Students need to feel emotionally and

physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and
reach their full potential.

3. Love and Belongingness Needs (Social Needs): This involves

the aspiration of man to establish a cordial relationship with
others. Once the safety needs have been met, social needs for
love and belongingness become important. This can include the
need to bond with other human beings, the need to love and be
loved and to have a sense of belonging. At this level of need,
people will like to extend their hands of fellowship or
comradeship to their friends, mates, co-workers or neighbours.
They equally will expect that such gestures be reciprocated by
others. If these needs are not met, the person will start feeling
isolated, lonely and depressed.

Educational implication: A typical classroom consists of

learners from different cultural, religious and socioeconomic
backgrounds. Teachers can aid students in the satisfaction of this
need by ensuring acceptance for all students in the classroom and
by building a classroom environment where positive interactions
are the norm and that no one experiences social rejection.

4. Self-Esteem Needs: These are the things we desire in order that

our ego will be boosted. Once love and belonging needs have
been satisfied, esteem needs become more important. Self-esteem
needs refer to the desire to be respected by one’s peers, to feel
important, and to be appreciated. People will often look for ways
to enjoy considerable influence from others and gain recognition,
and they may seek validation and praise from others in order to

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fulfill these needs. The ability of someone to fulfill this need

makes them feel superior and self-confident. Inability to fulfill
these needs make a person feel dejected or inferior.

Educational implication: Students must be shown that they are

valued and respected in the classroom and the teacher should
create a supportive environment. Students with a low self-esteem
will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-
esteem is strengthened.

5. Cognitive Needs: The needs for knowledge and understanding,

for curiosity, exploration. If you are driven by these needs, you
may spend most of your time watching documentaries, reading
books, researching into things and doing course works that is not
required from school -just for the sake of having more
knowledge.

6. Aesthetic Needs: The aesthetic needs are the needs in which one
finally comes to a deep understanding of the world and the
purpose of life and feel a part of the cosmos. These needs include
the desire of people to pursue or admire beautiful things; e.g., the
desire for beautiful and expensive cars, houses, materials,
gorgeous and expensive dresses and beautiful surroundings.

7. Self-Actualisation Needs: This is the highest level of the

hierarchy and refer to the realisation of a person’s potential, the
desire to accomplish everything that one can. If the previous
needs are sufficiently met, a person now has the opportunity to
become self-actualised. At this point the person is said to have
reached the peak of his potentials. A person who reaches this
stage strives for growth and self-improvement. Maslow believed
that a person’s position on the hierarchy is likely to rise with age,
but estimated that less than 1 percent of the population ever
achieve self-actualisation.

In general terms, the physiological needs, safety needs, love/belonginess

needs and self-esteem needs (i.e., Nos. 1-4) are referred to as Deficiency
needs - needs that must be satisfied for survival. The needs at the very
top i.e., cognitive needs, aesthetic needs and self-actualisation needs
(Nos 5-7) are referred to as Growth needs - needs that enhance the
person’s psychological functioning (see Figure 3).

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Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1) Mention three theories of motivation that focus on the biological needs

and drives that influence our behaviour
2) In relation to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, write short
notes on the following:
i. Physiological Needs
ii. Safety Needs
iii. Aesthetic Needs

2.3.2 Classroom Implications of Theory of Motivation i.e

Strategies that can be used in the Classroom to help
Motivate Students

1. It is important for the teacher to know the basic needs of his/her

students and cater for these according to level of their
importance. For example, the teacher needs to think first of
students’ food, rest or health before thinking of teaching them. A
tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning.

2. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and

accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full
potential

3. When the teacher praises his/her students for doing well in their
study or assignment, they will be spurred to sustain that effort.
This would boost the self-confidence of the student.

4. A classroom which is well decorated or adorned with beautiful

charts and learning materials will be student-friendly. The
students’ minds will always be attracted to the activities in a
beautifully adorned classroom.

5. In the classroom, students must be shown that they are valued

and respected, and the teacher should create a supportive
environment. When their views are recognised or respected, this
would boost their confidence. Students with a low self-esteem
will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-
esteem is strengthened.

6. From the beginning of the lesson, the teacher should endeavour to

make his/her students know possible outcome of the lesson. It is
when the students know what they are likely to achieve from the
lesson that they want to be involved and feel belonged.

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7. Feedback is necessary if the interest of the students must be

sustained in the classroom. So, the teacher should always strive to
let them know how they are performing in the teaching-learning
activities as this will boost their self-esteem needs.

8. The teacher should also provide/plan for extra-curricular

activities for his/her students. When the teacher does this, the
students will have opportunity of establishing a genuine
interaction among them. Besides, they will be able to showcase
their hidden talents.

9. When dealing with the students in the classroom, the teacher

should take into consideration, the developmental changes and
differences in the students before deciding on the particular
motivation pattern to be employed.

10. The teacher should know how to motivate their students to learn.
They should be versatile with various strategies that can enhance
active participation of the students in the teaching-learning
activities.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

Discuss three strategies that teachers can use to motivate their students
to learn

2.4 Summary

In this unit, you have learnt major theories of motivation, and how you
can apply these theories to your day-to-day classroom teaching/learning
activities Learning is an active process that needs to be motivated and
guided toward desirable ends; hence this unit has prepared the teachers
for the various strategies they can employ to keep the students motivated
to learn and participate meaningfully in classroom.

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2.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology. Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company.

Atkinson, J. (1964). An Introduction to Motivation. Princeton, New

Jersey: Van Mostrand.

Boldyrev, A.A. (1993). Functional activity of Nasupt, ksupt - pump in

normal and pathological tissues. In: Molecular and Chemical
Neuropathology 19(1 - 2), 83 - 94.

Cannon, W. (1932). An Explanation of Hunger Cambridge. MA: The

University Press.

Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-
Determination in Human Behaviour. New York: Plenum.

Hadley, J.L. (1992). The Instincts Revisited. In: Psychoanalytic Inquiry,

12 (3), 396 - 418.

Maslow, A. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. In: Psychological

Review, 50, 370 - 96.

Maslow, A.H. (1970). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper

and Row.

Oladele J.O.(2005) Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. (5th ed.).

Lagos: Johns – Lad Publishers Ltd.

Onyehalu, A.S. (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka:

Meks-Unique (Nig.) Publishers.

Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and

Information Centers. Champaign, IL: Windsor & Downs Press.

Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its Educational

Implications.

Teacher Education Support Services.

[Link]
[Link]

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2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Three theories of motivation that focus on the biological needs

and drives that influence our behaviour include the instinct theory
of motivation, drive theory of motivation, and arousal theory of
motivation.

2. Short notes:

i. Physiological needs are the biological or survival needs of man.

They are the most basic needs, such as the need for water, air,
food, and sleep. Until these needs are fulfilled or satisfied, you
will not be able to go to the next level of the hierarchy.
ii. Safety needs are the needs for shelter, employment, health, and
safe environment. Once this need is triggered, one will be
motivated to direct their behavior toward obtaining shelter and
protection in order to satisfy this need. Human beings require
safety and protection from danger or external aggressors.
iii. Aesthetic needs are the needs that make people to pursue or
admire beautiful things. For instance, the desire for beautiful and
expensive cars, houses, materials, gorgeous and expensive
dresses and beautiful surroundings.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. Strategies that teachers can use to motivate students to learn.

Mention any three strategies out of those listed under sub-section
12.3.2

Seminar Topic
Each student is expected to present seminar paper on one of the
following topics:

1. Which motivation theory have you found to be most useful in

explaining why people behave in a certain way? Why?
2. Sometimes, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic
and extrinsic factors; is this true? Discuss.

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UNIT 3 RETENTION IN LEARNING: MEMORY,

REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING
Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Outcomes
3.3 Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering and Forgetting
3.3.1 What is Memory?
3.3.2 Types of Memory
3.3.3 Strategies for Enhancing Memory in Students
3.3.4 Remembering and Forgetting
3.3.5 How a Teacher can Promote Retention in the Classroom
3.4 Summary
3.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
3.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1 Introduction

In the previous unit we discussed the motivational theories and based on

these theories we learnt the strategies that can be used to help motivate
students. In this unit we are covering the topic of Retention in Learning:
Memory, Remembering and Forgetting, which is another important area
of psychology. If you learn a body of knowledge in the past and fail to
remember it, it means you have forgotten. What do you think is
responsible for this? In this unit, you are going to learn reasons why
learners sometimes forget what we have taught them and also discuss
how we can help learners remember what they have learnt. Here, you
will learn the concepts of memory, types of memory and the
mechanisms operating in them, strategies for enhancing memory and
how a teacher can promote retention in the classroom.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define memory
• discuss types of memory
• discuss different strategies of enhancing memory in students
• explain the causes of forgetting
• explain how a teacher can promote retention in the classroom.

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3.3 Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering

and Forgetting

3.3.1 What is Memory?

Retention is the ability to store in the memory information received from

the environment.

Memory is the evidence that meaningful learning has taken place. It is

the ability of someone to recall what has been previously learnt. It is the
ability to acquire and retain information and recall it when needed.
Without good memory, one will not be able to retain previous learning.
Memory is fundamental for remembering and forgetting. It is the life
wire on which the study of remembering and forgetting rests.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Define the term ‘memory’

3.3.2 Types of Memory

Memory has been categorised into various kinds but here we shall be
considering only two major types of memory and the mechanisms that
operate in them. They are short-term memory and long-term memory.

a) Short-Term Memory (STM)

Human beings have limited attention and typically can only attend to
just one input channel at a time; and when this piece of input
(information) is received, it is placed in the short-term memory (STM),
which is the working memory where an individual does
his/her thinking (Crowl, Kaminsky and Podell, 1997). Crowl and his
associates explain that when a piece of information is acquired
it must be properly processed, otherwise, such information dies off,
and thus it becomes increasingly difficult for an individual to remember
or recall such an idea. This therefore implies that a piece of information
must be learnt repeatedly, and must not be too large at a time; otherwise,
the STM may throw away some parts of the information.

Short-term memory is limited in both the length and the amount of

information it can hold. It stores information temporarily for 20 seconds,
and unless the receiver of the information acts on it, the information is

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forgotten. Similarly, the storage capacity of STM can hold is limited. It

can only hold a small amount of information at a time (9 items). Any
item above this capacity is thrown away. Therefore, for pieces of
information to be stored in the STM at one time or the other, it must not
be too large.

The retention of information in the short-term memory can be disturbed

by other events that take place shortly after the learned materials. For
instance, name of a person you just met remains in STM only
momentarily. Unless a conscious effort is made to pay proper attention
to the name, it is quickly lost. To help make sure information is kept in
short-term memory, you can use memory-enhancing strategies (Lumen
Learning, 2020).

One way to keep information in short-term memory is to use what we

call maintenance rehearsal. Rehearsal is a process by which we exercise
the repeat of a piece of information so that such information does not
elope from STM after the 20 seconds capacity of the STM. Rehearsal is
also defined as the conscious repetition of information to be
remembered (Craik & Watkins, cited in Lumen Learning, 2020). Think
about how you learned your multiplication tables as a child. You may
recall that 3 x 3 = 9, 3 x 4 = 12, and 3 x 8 = 24. Memorising these facts
is rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating
information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory.
We engage in maintenance rehearsal to keep a something that we want
to remember (e.g., a person’s name, e-mail address, or phone number) in
mind long enough to write it down, use it, or potentially transfer it to
long-term memory. One example of maintenance rehearsal would be
repeating a phone number mentally, or aloud until the number is entered
into the phone to make the call. The number is held in short term
memory long enough to make the call, but never transferred to long term
memory. An hour, or even five minutes after the call, the phone number
will no longer be remembered ([Link]). So, maintenance
rehearsal is just temporarily maintaining the piece of information in the
short-term memory.

All the while, we have been discussing about short-term memory and
how we can keep information in short-term memory. Now, let’s
consider the nature of long-term memory.

(b) Long-Term Memory (LTM)

It is an aspect of memory that can hold information over a long period of

time. Unlike short-term memory, the storage capacity of long-term
memory is large and has no limits. Example is remembering our

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identifying data like our name, father’s name, date of birth, date of
marriage, and remembering the materials for our various courses.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1) Compare and contrast short term memory and long-term memory

in terms of the length and the amount of information they can
hold

3.3.3 Strategies for Enhancing Memory in Students

Some of the methods by which information is stored in long term

memory are:

a. Elaborative rehearsal: It involves repetition of information and

linking it with information already stored in the long-term
memory in order to retain the newly learned information, so that
it can be retrieved for use when needed. In elaborative rehearsal,
effort is made to pass on a piece of information from short term
memory into long-term memory by relating new information to
prior knowledge. Each person has his or her unique way of
elaborating on information; the important thing is to try to
develop unique and meaningful associations among the material
(Stangor, 2012). Material is better remembered if it is processed
more fully.

b. Sentence creation: This is otherwise called verbal elaboration. It

is a process by which a sentence is made with a learned concept
as a component. For example, when a child is taught the
alphabets, the teacher often associates the letters with an object as
“B” for Ball, “E” for Elephant. The sentences that could be made
are “B” for Ball”, “kick the ball”, “E” for Elephant, an elephant is
big. When this is repeatedly done, the child easily recalls the
concept being passed.

c. Creation of mental picture: When a concept is associated with

an object as shown above, the child will recall quickly. E.g., letter
B as in Ball. Whenever the child comes across letter B, she/he
can also visualise a ball.

d. Use of mnemonic devices: A mnemonic is any learning

technique that aids information retention or retrieval in the human
memory. Here a learner could use acronyms i.e., first letter of
each of the points being mastered, or an arrangement that makes
the points meaningful to pronounce. Thus, when the individual

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wants to recall, it will be very easy to retrieve it from memory. A

typical example is the arrangement of the characteristics of living
things as MR NIGER-D i.e., M=Movement, R=Respiration,
N=Nutrition, I=Irritability G=Growth, E= Excretion, and
R=Reproduction, D=Death.

e. Meaningfulness and organisation of subject matter. One of the

ways to improve retention is the method of making the subject
matter meaningful. Meaningful material is easy to retain because
it is better learned.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Explain two ways in which a teacher can enhance the long-term memory
in students.

3.3.4 Remembering and Forgetting

It is clear that two things happen to what we learnt; we either remember

it or forget it.

Remembering is the ability to recall stored ideas or materials in the brain

to the mind.

Forgetting means failure to retain what has been acquired or learnt. If an

individual fails to remember what he/she has learnt in the past, it means
the individual has forgotten. Forgetting therefore means the failure at
any time to recall an experience, when attempting to do so. Forgetting is
the opposite side of remembering.

Causes of Forgetting

There are many reasons why and how people forget what they have
learnt. This is better understood with the aid of some theories of
forgetting.

1. Trace Decay Theory: This explanation of forgetting assumes

that memories follow a certain pathway or trace in the brain.
Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a result of the
automatic decay or fading of the trace of memory. After a
relatively longer period of time, a piece of acquired information
dies off the memory and an individual find it difficult to
remember it again. Examples of this are the experiences acquired

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in the earlier part of one’s life; and as the body systems grow, in
addition to several experiences acquired, the earlier learned facts
tend to go into extinction.

2. Interference Theory: This theory maintains that one may fail to

remember a piece of information because other pieces of
information are blocking or interfering with it. There are two
ways in which interference can cause forgetting:

(a) Retroactive Inhibition: It occurs when you forget a previously

learnt task due to the learning of a new task. When a person has
just acquired a piece of information, the tendency is that the
earlier acquired information becomes increasingly difficult to be
remembered or even get lost. For example, when a person
relocates to a new area of the city, there is the tendency for him to
forget addresses of his earlier location in the city.

(b) Proactive Inhibition: This is typically the opposite of the

retroactive inhibition. Here the old learning retained in the
memory works forward to interfere with the retention of
something currently learnt. In the above example, the inability of
the individual to remember the present address but remembering
the previous address is as a result of interference of the first
experience.

1. Cue-dependence: This is the failure to recall information due to

missing cues that were present at the time the information was
encoded. Sometimes we want to recall a piece of information but
we cannot due to non-availability of appropriate cues that were
present at the time the information was encoded. In other words,
when cues that were present at the time of learning are not
available at the time of recall, retention suffers. Therefore, in
order to remember a learned idea, an individual needs some cues
that will aid it. For instance, you might want to try to study for an
exam in a situation that is similar to the one in which you are
going to take the exam. Without this, the possibility for a piece of
information to go into extinction is there.

Self-Assessment Exercises 4

1. What is Remembering?
2. What is Forgetting?
3. Discuss three reasons why students forget what they have
learnt

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3.3.5 How a Teacher Can Promote Retention in the Classroom

In order for learners to benefit from school activities, and to also apply
classroom learning into future use, they have to have good memory of
classroom activities and learned subject-matter. It is therefore the role of
the teacher to assist the learners, train them in various rehearsal skills.

Among such activities are:

1. Always associate a current learning with practical examples.

2. Use concrete objects to demonstrate objects learned in the
classroom
3. Teach the use of mnemonic devices, in order to aid recall.
4. Field trips and excursion: seeing things practically and drawing
personal conclusion and discovery enhance retention and
information gathered tend to remain permanent.

Self-Assessment Exercises 5

Explain how a teacher can promote retention in the classroom

3.4 Summary

In this unit you have learnt the concept of memory and types of
memory, why people usually forget what they have learnt in the past and
how they can remember or recall earlier learning. The unit will therefore
assist the learners and teachers alike on how to improve the status of
their memory and void forgetting.

3.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Adesemowo, P.O, Sotonade, O.A.T & Okubanjo, A.O.(1998). The

Psychology of Meaningful Learning, Lagos, Elegant Publishing
Co. Ltd.

Eggen, P., and Kauchak, D. (2001). Educational Psychology: Windows

on Classrooms. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice-Hall.

Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved from

[Link]

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Oladele J.O. (2005). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology, Fifth

Edition, Lagos Johns – Lad Publishers Ltd.

Owoyele , J.W. (2014). Psychology Foundations of Education, Human

Development & Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Top best Books.

Mmaduakonam, A (1998). Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka,

Erudition Publishers.

Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka:

Meks-Unique (Nig.) Publishers

Wikipedia. Memory rehearsal

[Link]

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3.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

Memory is the ability of someone to recall what has been previously

learnt. It is the ability to acquire and retain information and recall it
when needed. Without good memory, one will not be able to retain
previous learning.

Answers to SAEs 2

1) Comparing short term memory and long-term memory in terms

of the length and amount of information they can hold.

Short term memory

• Short-term memory stores information temporarily for 20

seconds, and unless the receiver of the information acts on
it, the information is forgotten.
• Similarly, the storage capacity of short-term memory is
limited. It can only hold a small amount of information at
a time (9 items). Any item above this capacity is thrown
away.

Long term memory

• Long-term memory (LTM) can hold information over a

long period of time
• The storage capacity of LTM is large and has no limits.
Example is remembering the materials for our various
courses.

Answers to SAEs 3

Two ways in which a teacher can enhance the long-term memory in

students: Choose any two of the methods described under sub-section
12.3.3

Answers to SAEs 4

1. Remembering is the ability to recall stored ideas or materials in

the brain to the mind.
2. Forgetting means failure to retain what has been acquired or
learnt.

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3. Three reasons why students forget what they have learnt

Choose any three of the reasons described under sub-section
12.3.4

Answers to SAEs 5

A teacher can promote retention in the classroom through the following

ways:
• By associating a current learning with practical examples.
• By using concrete objects to demonstrate objects learned in the
classroom
• By teaching the use of mnemonic devices.
• By encouraging the use of field trips and excursion

Seminar Topic

Each student is expected to present seminar paper on one of the

following topics:

Why did your students forget what you taught them last week?

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UNIT 4 TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Unit Structure

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Learning Outcomes
4.3 Transfer of Learning
4.3.1 What is Transfer of Learning?
4.3.2 Types of Transfer of Learning
4.3.3 Theories of Transfer of Learning
4.3.4 How to Foster Positive Transfer of Learning among
Learners
4.4 Summary
4.5 References/Further Reading/Web Sources
4.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

4.1 Introduction

The previous unit took you through the topic of Retention in learning:
Memory, Remembering and Forgetting; and the various strategies to use
in fostering retention among learners. In this unit we are focusing on the
subject of Transfer of Learning. The ability of the individual to apply the
previous experiences, skills and information they have learnt to a new
situation or context is what we call transfer of learning. Except students
are able to transfer prior skills and knowledge on new ones, the
continuity of learning will be difficult. This unit will explain how old
learning can be transferred to a new one. You will know what the
classroom teacher needs to do in order to facilitate positive transfer of
learning among their students.

4.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define transfer of learning

• state different types of transfer of learning
• explain how transfer of learning occurs from the lens of major
theories of transfer of learning
• discuss ways in which a teacher can foster positive transfer of
learning among learners.

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4.3 Transfer of Learning

4.3.1 What is Transfer of Learning?

The essence of learning is that a previously learnt fact should be linked

with a present experience. This is because human being must be
dynamic and that the prior experience will make them to develop the
new skills and knowledge. The influence the past experience has on the
succeeding experience is called transfer of learning. Cormier and
Hagman, (1987) define transfer of learning as the application of skills
and knowledge learned in one context being applied in another context.
Oladele (1998) defines transfer of learning as the effect of prior learning
on the present. In other words, when experiences which have been
acquired in one learning situation can be used to solve problems in a
new situation, we can say transfer of learning has taken place.

In the school, the teachers teach different subjects in order that the
experience gained in those subjects could be transferred into another.
Charham (1987) affirms that human and animal learning is normally
affected by the past experience, and that the various subjects are
included in the school curriculum because of their utility and wide
application to real life situations. For instance, the teacher who has
taught his/her students some skills in Mathematics would believe that
such skills be transferred to related subjects like Physics or Accounting.
If the students fail to apply these skills in their subsequent learning, it
means that the students have not been successful in transferring the
learning.

The above example gives us clues into the different types of transfer of
learning that we have. These are explained under sub-section 4.3.2:

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

What is transfer of learning?

4.3.2 Types of Transfer of Learning

There are three types of transfer of learning namely:

(a) Positive Transfer

(b) Negative Transfer
(c) Zero Transfer

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(a) Positive Transfer: This is a situation whereby previous learning

aids in the understanding of a new learning. Aside from aiding
the learners in their subsequent learning, it also helps the learners
to learn better and effectively the new task. Positive transfer is
one of the most important goals of teachers as every teacher
thrives to ensure than students learn to apply what they have
learned to new situations, in and out of school. For instance,
driving a car could facilitate learning to drive a bus. Skills in
playing violin could facilitate learning to play piano. Another
example of positive transfer of learning is that a student who has
learnt about anatomical parts of human being in a biology lesson,
should be able to do well when he/she is asked to name
anatomical parts of a goat during Agriculture lesson.

Positive transfer is one of the most important goals of teachers as

every teacher thrives to ensure that students learn to apply what
they have learned to new situations, in and out of school.

(b) Negative Transfer: Negative transfer occurs when something

we've learned previously hinders or interferes with present
learning that is similar to the first. In other words, the
understanding of past skills inhibits the mastering of new ones.
For instance, a child that has learnt to pronounce BUT correctly
now finds it difficult to pronounce PUT correctly. Right hand
drive vehicles hindering the learning of left-hand drive.

(c) Zero Transfer: Zero transfer occurs when previous learning has
no effect on new learning. It means that previous skills or
knowledge have no effect on learning new skills or knowledge.
For instance, learning how to cook has no effect on learning how
to sing or drive.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. Write short notes on:

i. Positive Transfer
ii. Negative Transfer
iii. Zero Transfer

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4.3.3 Theories of Transfer of Learning

These are theories that attempt to explain how transfer of learning

occurs

a. Theory of Mental Faculties: This theory was propounded by the

Greek Philosophers, notable among them was Aristotle. The
basic tenet of the theory is that human mind is sub-divided into
different powers of faculties like memory, judgment, reasoning or
thinking. These faculties were likened to the muscles of the body
which can be strengthened by physical exercise. It was felt that
those mental faculties could be strengthened in the same way that
exercise strengthens the body; the more difficult the mental
exercise, the more impact it would have on the faculties. The
essential requirement of the theory was to provide hard
intellectual work to the learner to train his mental faculties. This
theory believes that exercises and regular practice will strengthen
the mental faculties. Subjects like Mathematics, Latin and Greek
were regarded as best subjects to train the various mental
faculties of students. Transfer occurs because of mental exercise
gained from studying specific topics

b. Theory of Identical Elements: The theory which was developed

by Thorndike indicates that it is possible for an individual to
transfer the prior skills and knowledge to the new learning
provided both experiences are identical (share things in
common). This theory maintained that transfer takes place from
one learning situation to another if the two different learning
situations are identical. This theory suggests that a successful or
effective transfer of learning will happen if there are connections
or interrelatedness between the old and the new learning. For
example, it is expected that a student who has learnt about
anatomical parts of human being in a biology lesson, should be
able to do well when he/she is asked to name anatomical parts of
a goat during agriculture lesson.

Few examples are given below which show the transfer from one
situation to the other:

Training in: Transferred to:

Piano → Typing/Computer
Latin → English
Car Driving → Bus Driving
A person who knows to drive a car can easily learn to drive a bus

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c. Theory of Generalisation: This theory was advocated by a

Psychologist named Charles Judd. The assumption of the theory
is that general principles aid transfer of learning better than
segregated facts. According to him, one way of facilitating
transfer is by teaching learners’ general principles rather than
specific facts. He was of the opinion that teaching should proceed
from general to specifics. This theory believes in Gestalt, an
assertion which views learning from a whole or complete form
rather than in isolated form. The theory contends that transfer
occurs as a result of general principles which one learns in a
situation. As a result, one is able to apply those generalisations to
a new situation. For example, the theory of generalisation
indicates that a learnt experience should be useful in other day-to-
day related activities.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Briefly describe the theory of identical element in attempt to explain

how transfer of learning occurs

4.3.4 How a Teacher can Foster Positive Transfer of Learning

Among Learners

1. The teacher should know that transfer of learning will not take
place when both the old and new are unrelated. Hence, the
teacher should endeavour to teach his/her subject-matter in a
more meaningful and detailed way rather than by rote.

2. Active participation of the students in the teaching-learning

activities.
The teacher should provide the opportunity for his/her students to
practice a subject-matter being discussed along with him/her.
When the learners are allowed to take active part in
teaching/learning activities, they will be able to repeat the task at
another time.

3. For a transfer of learning to take place, the teacher should always

emphasise the relationship that exists between one subject-matter
and another.

4. The teacher should endeavour to develop positive attitudes

towards a learning task so that the students can be motivated to
like the task rather than it.

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5. It is believed that what students see, touch, feel or manipulate

will be better remembered than the one they are not familiar with.
Hence, for meaningful transfer of learning to take place, the
teacher should incorporate exercises that task the various senses
of learners in the learning process.

6. Make sure that general principles are understood. The teacher

must ensure that general principles have been thoroughly
understood by the students in order to maximise the amount of
classroom learning experiences to life situations.

7. The teacher should make students see relationships between what

you teach and life situations (relate theory to practice).

Self-Assessment Exercises 4

List five ways in which a teacher can foster positive transfer of learning
among learners

4.4 Summary

The relevance of transfer of learning has been stressed in this unit.

Transfer of learning is an important aspect of teaching-learning since the
ultimate goal of schooling is to help students to transfer what they have
learnt in school to real-life situations. The knowledge gained in this
lesson will help the teachers on the action programmes that can facilitate
learning transfer.

4.5 References /Further Reading/Web Sources

Alao, K.O. (2009). Advanced Psychology of Learning (EDU 722),

Lagos, National Open University of Nigeria.

Adesemowo, P.O, Sotonade, O.A.T & Okubanjo, A.O.(1998) The

Psychology of Meaningful Learning, Lagos, Elegant Publishing
Co. Ltd.

Owoyele , J.W. (2014). Psychology Foundations of Education, Human

Development & Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Top best Books.

Mmaduakonam, A (1998). Behavioural Learning Theories. Awka:

Erudition Publishers.

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Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and

Information Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL

Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its Educational

Implications. Teacher Education Support Services.
[Link]
[Link]

Sulaiman, F.R & Onabamiro, A.A. (2009) Psychology, Child

Development & Human Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Alamsek Press
Ltd.

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4.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

What is transfer of learning? - Any one of the following definitions:

Transfer of learning is the application of skills and knowledge learned in
one context being applied in another context.

Or

Transfer of learning as the effect of prior learning on the present. In

other words, when experiences which have been acquired in one
learning situation can be used to solve problems in a new situation, we
can say transfer of learning has taken place

Answers to SAEs 2

i. Positive Transfer: Transfer is said to be positive when something

previously learned aids in the understanding of a new learning.
For instance, driving a car could facilitate learning to drive a bus.
ii. Negative Transfer: Transfer is said to be negative when prior
learning hinders or interferes with new learning. For instance, a
child that has learnt to pronounce BUT correctly now finds it
difficult to pronounce PUT correctly. In this case, the
understanding of past skills inhibits the mastering of new ones.
iii. Zero Transfer: This type of learning reveals no link between the
previously learnt task and the recent one. For instance, learning
how to cook has no effect on learning how to sing or drive.

Answers to SAEs 3

The theory of identical element maintained that transfer takes place from
one learning situation to another if the two different learning situations
are identical. Transfer takes place because of the common elements in
both situations. This theory suggests that a successful or effective
learning will happen if there are connections or interrelatedness between
the old and the new learning. For example, it is expected that a student
who has learnt about anatomical parts of human being in biology lesson,
should be able to do well when he/she is asked to name anatomical parts
of a goat during agriculture lesson.

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Answers to SAEs 4

Five ways in which a teacher can enhance positive transfer of learning

among learners: - Any five of the following points:

➢ By making the subject-matter meaningful.

➢ By providing the opportunity for students to practice a subject-
matter being discussed.
➢ By emphasising the relationship that exists between one subject-
matter and another.
➢ The teacher should endeavour to develop positive attitudes
towards a learning task so that the students can be motivated to
like the task rather than it.
➢ By creating a conducive learning environment where students
become active participants in their own learning.
➢ By incorporating exercises that task the various senses of learners
in the learning process.
➢ By ensuring that general principles are thoroughly understood by
the students in order to maximise the amount of classroom
learning experiences to life situations
➢ By making students see relationships between what you teach and
life situations (relate theory to practice).

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