Lesson plan

Keywords................................................................................................................................................. 1
6.1 Roofs ................................................................................................................................................. 1
6.1.1 Functional requirements of a roof ............................................................................................. 2
6.1.2 Common components in a roof include .................................................................................... 3
6.1.3 Factors that affect the choice of roofs....................................................................................... 3
6.1.4 Typical roof construction process .............................................................................................. 4
6.2 Types of roofs.................................................................................................................................... 4
6.2.1 Pitched or sloping roofs ............................................................................................................. 4
6.2.3 Flat roof or terraced roof ......................................................................................................... 16
6.2.4 Curved roof .............................................................................................................................. 18
6.3 Roof coverings................................................................................................................................. 20
6.3.1 Factors to consider when choosing coverings ......................................................................... 21
6.4 Waterproofing................................................................................................................................. 21
Important laws and regulations ............................................................................................................ 22
Case studies .......................................................................................................................................... 23
Quiz ....................................................................................................................................................... 24

Keywords
Roof structure, design, materials, loading, trusses, rafters, roof decking, roof covering, roof
ventilation, roof drainage, building codes, construction safety, roof maintenance.

6.1 Roofs
A roof is the uppermost part of a building that covers the interior space and provides protection from
the elements, such as rain, snow, wind, and sunlight. It is typically comprised of several components,
including roof framework (rafters, ridges, fascia boards), gutters, drainage, etc., and is covered by a
layer of roofing material. The design and materials used for a roof can greatly impact its durability,
energy efficiency, and appearance.

Roofs can be affected by wind pressure, both positive and negative. Positive wind pressure occurs
when wind hits a building and pushes against the roof. This type of pressure can cause damage to the
roof if it is not strong enough to withstand the force. To protect the roof from positive wind pressure,
the building should be designed with proper structural support and the roof should be made from
durable materials. Negative wind pressure can cause the roof to lift or suck up. To prevent this, the
roof covering should either be securely attached to the structure (through wall plates) or be heavy
enough to stay in place.

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  (left) A 60° pitched roof (steep) has more resistance towards the
wind. The wind slows down (low speed), meaning the pressure on
the windward side of the roof is high. Pressure on the windward
side is often a downward roof load and almost never causes
failure.
 (right) A 15° pitched roof (gradual) has little resistance towards
the wind. The wind speeds over the roof (high speed), meaning
the pressure on the windward side of the roof is low. In this case,
the low pressure creates suction. Air flows from high pressure to
low pressure. To fill the vacuum (low pressure), the roof might get
displaced.
 Make reference to the Bernoulli Principle
6.1.1 Functional requirements of a roof
1. Structural Support (strength and stability): To support the weight of the roof and any additional
load from snow, wind, or seismic activity.

2. Durability: To withstand the elements and last for a long time without needing to be replaced.

3. Waterproofing (weatherproof): To protect the building from rain and other precipitation.

4. Drainage: To allow rainwater and melting snow to drain off the roof and away from the building.

5. Insulation: To regulate the temperature inside the building and reduce energy costs.

6. Ventilation: To provide airflow and help prevent moisture build-up and condensation.

7. Aesthetics: To match the style and design of the building and surrounding area.

These functional requirements should be balanced with other considerations such as cost, fire proof,
sound proof, and energy efficiency to determine the best type of roof for a specific building.

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6.1.2 Common components in a roof include
 Roof Deck: The deck provides a continuous support for the roof covering (and insulation) and is
typically made of timber sheets, timber boards, plywood, chipboard, metal decking units, concrete
slabs or reinforced concrete.
 Roof Covering: The roof covering is the top layer of the roof that provides protection from the
elements. Common roof coverings include asphalt shingles, clay or concrete tiles, metal panels,
and thatch.
 Insulation: Insulation is used to reduce heat loss from the building and improve energy efficiency.
Common insulation materials include mineral wool, foam, and fibreglass. Insulation is placed
either above or below the decking.
 Roof Framework: The framework provides structural support to the roof deck and roof covering.
It is typically made of timber and includes ridge beams, rafters, and purlins.
 Flashing: Flashing is used to seal the roof at intersections with walls, chimneys, and skylights. It is
typically made of metal and helps to prevent water from penetrating the roof.
 Gutters and Downspouts: Gutters are used to collect rainwater from the roof and direct it into
downspouts, which discharge the water into the ground or a drainage system.
 Drainage: The roof must have adequate drainage to prevent water from pooling on the roof and
causing damage. This is achieved through the use of roof pitches, roof drains, and scuppers.

6.1.3 Factors that affect the choice of roofs

These are all factors that can impact the choice of roof to build. For example, the type of building and
its intended use will determine the required structural load capacity and insulation needs. The size
and shape of the building, as well as the span it needs to cover, will affect the structural requirements
and determine the type of roofing materials and design that will be needed. The nature and magnitude
of loads such as wind, snow, and rain, will impact the roof's design and construction, as will the lighting
requirements and the need for accommodating services such as HVAC and electrical systems. The
possibility of future alterations or additions to the building should also be considered, as well as the
speed of erection. Others;

1. Climate: The type of roofing material and design must be able to withstand the local weather
conditions, including wind, rain, snow, and heat.

2. Building code requirements: Local building codes specify the minimum requirements for roofing
materials and design, including fire resistance, energy efficiency, and structural integrity.

3. Budget: The cost of materials and installation can affect the choice of roofing materials. Some
options are more expensive than others, but may be more durable or energy efficient in the long
run.

4. Aesthetic preferences: The appearance of the roof can have an impact on the overall appearance
of the building, so personal preference plays a role in the choice of roofing material.

5. Durability: The roof should be able to withstand wear and tear over time and be able to protect
the building and its contents from the elements.

6. Energy efficiency: The roof can play a role in regulating the temperature and energy consumption
of the building, so consideration should be given to its impact on heating and cooling costs.

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7. Maintenance: The maintenance requirements of the roof can also impact the choice of roofing
material. Some options require more maintenance than others, and the cost and frequency of
maintenance can influence the decision.

6.1.4 Typical roof construction process

The construction process of roof structures typically involves the following steps:

1. Design and planning: The first step is to determine the design and specifications of the roof
structure based on the building code requirements, architectural plans, and local climate
conditions.

2. Preparing the site: This includes clearing the area, installing the foundation, and preparing the
sub-structure.

3. Framing: The framing of the roof structure involves the installation of the rafters, joists, and
trusses to create the basic shape of the roof.

4. Roof deck installation: The roof deck is a layer of sheathing, such as plywood or OSB, that is
installed over the framing to provide a solid base for the roofing material.

5. Roofing material installation: The roofing material is installed, such as shingles, tiles, metal
panels, or single-ply membrane, to protect the roof from weather elements.

6. Ventilation and insulation: Ventilation is important for the health of the roof structure, and
insulation helps regulate the temperature inside the building. Both are installed after the roofing
material is in place.

7. Finishing: The final step in the construction process is to install the gutters, flashings, and trim to
complete the roof.

6.2 Types of roofs

1. Pitched or sloping roofs
2. Flat or terraced roofs
3. Curved roofs

6.2.1 Pitched or sloping roofs

When the top surface of a roof is sloping then it is referred to as a pitched or sloping roof. This type of
roof is most common in regions where rainfall or snowfall is heavy. The sloping members transfer the
covering, wind, rain and other loads to the load-bearing walls on which they rest.

Types of pitched roofs

1. Single roofs: in this type, the common rafters are provided to each slope without any intermediate
support.

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2. Double or purlin roofs: when the span exceeds 2.40 m, the required size of rafters becomes
uneconomical. Hence, in order to reduce the size of the rafters, intermediate supports called
purlins are introduced to support the rafters. Each rafter is thus supported at three points;
 At the bottom on the wall through the wall-plate
 At the top by the ridge beam and
 At the centre by a purlin

The effective span of the rafter is thus nearly halved, hence it becomes much lighter than it would be
if spanned the whole length from the eaves to the ridge. This type of roof can be economically adopted
up to a span of 4.80m.

3. Framed or Trussed roofs: when the span exceeds 4.80 m and when there are no supporting walls
or partitions on the inside, the structures, known as the trusses are used. The spacing of trusses
depends on the load on the roof, span and material of the truss. But the spacing is generally 3m
for wooden trusses.

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One type of truss is the steel truss. For spans greater than 12m it becomes economical to use steel
trusses. Mild steel is easily available in rolled sections of standard shapes and sizes. This facilitates roof
construction. For small spans, the steel trusses consist of angles riveted or welded together through
plates known as gusset plates. As steel can resist both stresses, compression and tension, the design
of steel truss is simplified.

Advantages

1. Strength: Trussed roofs are engineered to distribute weight and stresses evenly across the
structure, making them highly durable and resistant to collapse.

2. Lightweight: Trusses are typically made of lightweight materials, such as engineered wood
products or metal, which reduces the overall weight of the roof structure and makes it easier to
install.

3. Flexibility: Trussed roofs can be designed to accommodate a wide range of spans and roof shapes,
making them suitable for a variety of building types and sizes.

4. Cost-effective: Trussed roofs can be more cost-effective than traditional roofing systems, due to
the reduced use of materials and the efficiency of their design and construction.

Disadvantages

1. Limited customization: Trussed roof structures are pre-fabricated, which can limit the ability to
customize the roof to fit the specific requirements of the building.

2. Vulnerability to moisture: Trussed roof structures can be vulnerable to moisture damage, which
can lead to rot and decay.

3. Dependence on specialized contractors: Trussed roof structures require specialized contractors

with specific knowledge and expertise, which can limit the pool of available contractors for the
project.

4. Limited access: Trussed roof structures can limit access to the roof space, which can make it more
difficult to perform maintenance or make repairs.

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Other definitions in pitched roofs

a. Roof- upper exterior surface

b. Fascia board- flat horizontal band around
the roof’s perimeter
c. Boxed-eave- overhang enclosed with a
soffit that runs from the eaves edge to the
side of the building
d. Cornice- decorative section just below the
roofline

 Ridge: this is the spine of a roof and is a pitching plate for the rafters which are nailed to each
other through the ridge board.
 Barge boards: the wooden planks or boards that are fixed on the gable end of a roof. They connect
the ends of ridge, purlins and wall plates.

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 Battens: these are the thin strips of wood that are fixed on the rafters or ceilings. They support
the roof ceiling.

 Cleats: these are small blocks of wood that are fixed on the trusses to prevent purlins from sliding.

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 Dragon beam: the lower end of a hip rafter is generally supported on a diagonal piece of wood
which is laid across the corner of the wall. This piece is known as a dragon beam or dragon tie.

 Ceiling joists: Ceiling joists are horizontal structural members that are used to support the ceiling
of a building. They are typically made of wood or engineered wood products, and are installed
perpendicular to the roof rafters to provide a solid base for the ceiling finish. Ceiling joists help to
distribute the weight of the roof and the ceiling evenly across the structure, and provide a level
surface for the installation of drywall or other ceiling finishes.

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 Eaves: the lower edges of a roof that rest on or project beyond the supporting walls are known as
eaves. Sometimes a thin board of wood is provided at the eaves to cover the ends of the common
rafters. Such a board is known as an eaves board or fascia board. It is usually 25mm thick and 250
mm wide.

 Gable: the triangular upper part of a wall formed at the end of a pitched roof is known as a gable.

 Hip: the external angle formed at the intersection of two roof slopes is known as the hip.

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 Pitch: (also known as slope) is the inclination of the sides of a roof to the horizontal plane is known
as the pitch and can be expressed in degrees.

 Purlins: the wooden pieces placed horizontally on principal rafters to carry the common rafters
are known as the purlins.

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 Rafters: these are pieces of timber that extend from the eaves to the ridge.

Types of rafters

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Common rafters; these are the intermediate rafters that give support to the roof covering. They are
attached to the ridge. They span between a wall plate at eaves level and the ridge.

Hip rafters; these are provided at the junction of two roof slopes that form an external angle. Those
that form internal angles are referred to as valley rafters.

Jack rafters; these are rafters shorter than common rafters

Principal rafter; inclined members of a truss

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 Span; the horizontal distance between internal faces of walls or supports is known as the span.

 Truss: the framework, usually of triangles and designed to support the roof covering or ceiling
over rooms.

 Verge: the edge of a gable, running between the eaves and ridge.

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 Valley: when two roof surfaces meet to form an internal angle.

 Wall plates: the long wooden members that are embedded on top of walls to receive the common
rafters. They connect the walls to the roof. They distribute the loads evenly over the supporting
(load-bearing) walls.

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6.2.3 Flat roof or terraced roof
When a roof’s top surface is flat, it is called a flat roof. These types of roofs are more suitable for a
building to be constructed in plains and hot regions where rainfall and snowfall are not heavy.

A timber flat roof is the simplest form of roof construction. It can be used for spans of up to 4m. Above
this span, reinforced concrete slabs or other methods are utilized.

Flat roofs are prone to leaks. These are not ever completely flat. To prevent pools of water from
collecting on the surface, they are usually built with a minimum slope of 1:20. This slight pitch/slope
provides drainage.

Weatherproof roof finishes are materials that are applied to the roof to protect it from the elements,
such as rain, wind, and snow. Some common weatherproof roof finishes include:

1. Bitumen: Bitumen is a type of asphalt-based material that is applied in multiple layers to

create a waterproof membrane.

2. Rubber: Rubber roofing membranes are made from synthetic rubber and are highly flexible,
making them suitable for flat or low-slope roofs.

3. Metal: Metal roofing materials, such as aluminium, copper, and steel, are highly durable and
weather-resistant.

4. Tiles: Roof tiles made from clay, concrete, or slate are weatherproof and provide a decorative
finish to the roof.

5. Coatings: Elastomeric coatings are waterproof and provide added protection to the roof
surface.

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Advantages

1. Versatility: Timber flat roofs are suitable for a variety of building types and can be used in both
residential and commercial buildings.

2. Insulation: Timber is a good insulator, which can help regulate the temperature inside the
building and reduce energy costs.

3. Eco-friendly: Timber is a renewable resource that is sustainably harvested and has a lower
carbon footprint compared to other building materials.

4. Durability: With proper maintenance and protection, a timber flat roof can last for many years
and provide good protection for the building.

5. Ease of Installation: Timber flat roofs are relatively lightweight, which makes them easy to
install and handle.

6. Cost Effective: Compared to other roofing materials, a timber flat roof can be a cost-effective
option for building owners.

7. Aesthetics: Timber flat roofs can provide an attractive, natural look to a building, which can
enhance its overall appearance.

Disadvantages

1. Maintenance: Timber flat roofs can be prone to rot and decay if not properly maintained, and
regular inspections and treatments may be required to keep the roof in good condition.

2. Cost: Timber flat roofs can be more expensive than other roofing options, due to the cost of
the materials and the labour required to construct and maintain them.

3. Fire risk: Timber is a highly flammable material and can pose a fire risk if not properly treated
or protected.

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 4. Weight: Timber flat roofs can be heavy, and the building structure must be designed to
accommodate the added weight.

5. Vulnerability to moisture: Timber flat roofs can be vulnerable to moisture damage if not
properly sealed and protected, which can lead to rot and decay.

6. Environmental impact: Harvesting and processing timber can have negative environmental
impacts, including deforestation and loss of wildlife habitat.

7. Short lifespan: Timber flat roofs have a shorter lifespan compared to other roofing materials,
and may need to be replaced more frequently.

6.2.4 Curved roof

When the top surface of the roof is curved in shape, then it is called a curved roof. These are used to
give better architectural impressions through the building structures. Cylindrical, parabolic and dome-
like shapes are usually used in curved roofs. These roofs are more suitable for the construction of
buildings such as cinema theatres, libraries, temples, holy places, recreation centres, etc.

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Conoid shell

Hyperbolic paraboloid

Dome

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6.3 Roof coverings
1. Asphalt shingles: Asphalt shingles are a popular roof covering made from asphalt and fibreglass.
They are available in a variety of colours and styles and are relatively inexpensive.

2. Metal roofing: Metal roofing is a durable and long-lasting roof covering that can be made from
materials such as steel, aluminium, or copper. Metal roofing is fire-resistant and energy-efficient,
but can be more expensive than other roof coverings.

3. Clay or concrete tiles: Clay or concrete tiles are a traditional roof covering that provide a classic,
decorative look. They are heavy but are also fire-resistant and long-lasting.

4. Rubber roofing: Rubber roofing is a flexible and waterproof material that is often used on flat or
low-slope roofs. It is durable and easy to install but can be more expensive than other roof
coverings.

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5. Wood shingles or shakes: Wood shingles or shakes are a natural roof covering made from cedar
or other wood species. They are fire-resistant and offer a traditional look, but can be expensive
and require regular maintenance.

6.3.1 Factors to consider when choosing coverings

The roof shape, type of structure and slope determine the types of roofing material that are suitable.
The minimum slope on which a material can be used depends on exposure to the wind, the type of
joint and overlap, porosity and the size of the unit.

1. Resistance to the penetration of rain, snow and dust, and resistance to wind effects (both
pressure suction).
2. Durability under the effects of rain, snow, solar radiation and atmospheric pollution, in order to
minimize maintenance over the lifetime of the roof.
3. Light in weight, but with sufficient strength to imposed loads, so that economically sized
supporting members can be used. 4. Acceptable fire resistance.
4. Reasonable standard of thermal and acoustic insulation.
5. Acceptable appearance.
6. Reasonable cost over the lifetime of the roof.

6.4 Waterproofing
Waterproofing roof structures is an important aspect of building construction, as it helps to protect
the building from water damage. Here are some key points to know about waterproofing roof
structures:

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1. Materials: There are various materials that can be used for waterproofing roof structures,
including bituminous membranes, single-ply membranes, and liquid-applied coatings. The choice
of material will depend on factors such as the climate, the type of roof, and the budget.

2. Surface preparation: Proper surface preparation is crucial for ensuring that the waterproofing
material will adhere properly and provide effective protection. This may involve cleaning the roof
surface, repairing any damage, and applying a primer.

3. Installation: Waterproofing materials must be installed correctly to ensure their effectiveness. This
may involve applying the material in multiple layers, heat-welding seams, and properly sealing
around penetrations such as skylights and vents.

4. Maintenance: Regular maintenance is important to ensure the longevity of the waterproofing

system. This may include cleaning the roof, repairing any damage, and reapplying the
waterproofing material as needed.

5. Code compliance: It is important to ensure that the waterproofing system is in compliance with
local building codes and regulations. This may involve obtaining permits, following specific
installation requirements, and conducting regular inspections.

6. Professional assistance: Waterproofing roof structures is a complex process that requires

specialized knowledge and skills. It is recommended to seek the assistance of a professional
roofing contractor to ensure that the waterproofing system is installed correctly and provides
effective protection.

Important laws and regulations

1. National Building Code of Kenya: This law outlines the design and construction standards for
buildings in Kenya, including roof structures. It covers aspects such as the load capacity of roofs,
fire safety, and accessibility.

2. Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) Act: This act establishes KEBS as the national standards body
in Kenya and requires building products and materials to meet specified standards before being
used in construction.

3. The Physical Planning Act: This act governs the planning and development of physical
infrastructure in Kenya and requires that all buildings, including roof structures, comply with
approved plans and building codes.

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4. The National Construction Authority Act: This act establishes the National Construction
Authority, which regulates and supervises the construction industry in Kenya, including the
design and construction of roof structures.

5. Health and Safety Regulations: The Occupational Safety and Health Act requires all building sites
to meet safety standards, including those related to roof structures, such as fall protection
measures for workers.

6. Environmental Management and Coordination Act: This act requires all building projects,
including roof structures, to comply with environmental standards and regulations, such as
reducing air and water pollution.

7. Building Regulations: The National Government also issues building regulations, which outline
the specific requirements for the design and construction of roof structures, including the use of
building materials, ventilation systems, and fire safety measures.

Case studies
1. The Empire State Building: This iconic building in New York City has a steel framework with a
masonry façade. The roof structure is made up of a central mast, steel beams, and trusses,
which supports the building's weight and helps to resist wind loads.

2. The Burj Khalifa: This skyscraper in Dubai is the tallest building in the world. Its roof structure is
made up of a central concrete core, steel beams, and outrigger trusses, which helps to distribute
the building's weight and resist wind loads.

3. The Taipei 101 Tower: This building in Taiwan is one of the tallest buildings in the world. The
roof structure is made up of a central core, steel beams, and outrigger trusses, which helps to
distribute the weight and resist wind loads. The roof structure is also designed to withstand
earthquakes and typhoons.

4. The Sagrada Familia Cathedral: This unfinished cathedral in Barcelona has a unique roof
structure made up of vaults and arches. The roof structure is made of stone and provides
support for the building's weight, as well as protection from the elements.

5. The Notre-Dame Cathedral: This historic cathedral in Paris has a wooden roof structure made up
of beams and trusses. The roof structure is designed to provide support for the building's weight,
and to resist wind loads. The roof structure also provides protection from the elements and
creates a beautiful interior space.

6. Round Hut Roof Structures in Ethiopia: Ethiopia is known for its round hut roof structures, which
are made of mud, straw, and cow dung. This type of roof structure is energy-efficient and helps
to regulate indoor temperature. In this lesson, students can learn about the construction
techniques used to build round hut roofs and how they are designed to withstand the harsh
Ethiopian climate.

7. Adobe Roof Structures in Morocco: Adobe is a type of mud brick that is commonly used to build
homes in Morocco. These homes often have flat roofs, which are made by laying adobe bricks in
a layer and then covering them with a layer of mud and straw. In this lesson, students can learn
about the properties of adobe bricks and how they are used in roof structures.

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8. Thatch Roof Structures in South Africa: Thatch is a popular roofing material in South Africa,
where it is used to construct homes in rural areas. Thatch roofs are made from dried grasses and
are held together with a network of woven reeds. In this lesson, students can learn about the
advantages of using thatch as a roofing material and how it is harvested and prepared for use in
roof construction.

9. Metal Roof Structures in Kenya: Metal roof structures are becoming increasingly popular in
Kenya, as they are durable, low-maintenance, and energy-efficient. In this lesson, students can
learn about the types of metal roofing materials available and how they are used in roof
construction. The lesson can also explore the benefits and drawbacks of using metal roofing in
different climates and building designs.

10. The Standard Chartered Bank Tower, Nairobi: This iconic building in Nairobi boasts a unique roof
structure that combines both concrete and steel. This design allows for both stability and
flexibility, and provides a great example for students to study the principles of structural
engineering.

11. The Maasai Mara Safari Lodge: This lodge is located in the Maasai Mara National Reserve and
features a unique roof structure that allows for ample ventilation and natural light. This is an
excellent example of how a building can be designed to work with the environment, and
provides a good example for students to study the principles of sustainable design.

12. The KICC (Kenya International Convention Centre): The KICC is a landmark building in Nairobi and
has a large dome-shaped roof that provides a spacious and airy interior. This design is a great
example of how the roof structure can be used to create a distinctive architectural style, and
provides students with a good example of the principles of geometry in building design.

13. The Nairobi National Museum: The museum has a roof structure that is designed to allow for
maximum light to enter the building while also providing shade and protection from the
elements. This is a great example of how a roof structure can be used to create a balance
between form and function, and provides students with a good example of how to design for
specific climatic conditions.

14. The Jamia Mosque, Mombasa: This mosque is an excellent example of traditional African
architecture and has a unique roof structure that is made from bamboo and palm fronds. This
design provides students with a good example of how traditional materials can be used in
contemporary building design, and provides a great opportunity to study the principles of
sustainability and low-cost building construction.

Quiz
1. What is the purpose of a roof structure in a building?

a. To protect the building from the elements

b. To enhance the aesthetic appeal of the building

c. To provide a base for other building materials

d. All of the above

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 2. What are the two main types of roof structures?

a. Flat and pitched

b. Square and round

c. Truss and rafter

d. Concrete and steel

3. What is the function of roof trusses?

a. To distribute the weight of the roof evenly

b. To support the roofing material

c. To prevent the roof from collapsing

d. All of the above

4. What is the difference between a pitched roof and a flat roof?

a. A pitched roof has a slope while a flat roof is flat

b. A pitched roof is made of wood while a flat roof is made of concrete

c. A pitched roof is only found in residential buildings while a flat roof is only found in commercial
buildings

d. None of the above

5. What is the most common type of roofing material used for a pitched roof?

a. Asphalt shingles

b. Metal panels

c. Tile

d. Concrete

6. What is the main factor that determines the weight capacity of a roof structure?

a. The size of the building

b. The design and materials used for the roof structure

c. The location of the building

7. What is the main benefit of using metal roofing for a roof structure?

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a. Metal roofing is more fire resistant than other roofing materials

b. Metal roofing is more cost-effective than other roofing materials

c. Metal roofing has a longer lifespan than other roofing materials

d. All of the above.

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