Engineering Science Journal 2019
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plamadeala.vasile.tudorEngineering Science Journal 2019
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plamadeala.vasile.tudorTECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MOLDOVA
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING
SCIENCE
Technical and applied scientific publication founded on February 9, 1995
Alternative title: Meridian ingineresc
2019
Vol. XXVI (1)
ISSN 2587-3474
eISSN 2587-3482
PUBLISHING HOUSE „TEHNICA UTM”
Main subjects areas of the Journal of Engineering Science:
A. Industrial Engineering
Mechanical Engineering and Technologies
Applied Engineering Sciences and Management
Materials Science and New Technologies
Electrical Engineering and Power Electronics
Energy systems
Light Industry, New Technologies and Design
Industrial and Applied Mathematics
Vehicle and Transport Engineering
B. Electronics and Computer Science
Electronics and Communication
Microelectronics and Nanotechnologies
Biomedical Engineering
Computers and Information Technology
Automation
C. Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering
Architecture, Urbanism and Cadaster
Civil Engineering and Management
Energy Efficiency and New Building Materials
Environmental Engineering
D. Food Engineering
Food Technologies and Food Processes
Food Industry and Management
Biotechnologies, Food Chemistry and Food Safety
Equipment for Food Industries
The structure of the journal corresponds to the classification of scientific publications:
Engineering, Multidisciplinary.
How to publish a paper:
1. Send the manuscript and information about the author to the Editorial Board address:
[email protected]
2. Manuscripts are accepted only in English, by e-mail, in template file (www.jes.utm.md)
3. After a review, you will be notified of the editorial board's decision.
4. After the Journal has been published, we will send it to you immediately by mail.
Editor-in-Chief
Dr. hab., univ. prof. Viorel BOSTAN
Technical University of Moldova
[email protected]
Editorial Board
Abdelkrim Azzouz, Dr. Ing., Professor, Quebec University of Montreal, Canada
Adrian Gheorghe, PhD, Professor Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, 23529, USA
Adrian Graur, PhD, Professor University „Ștefan cel Mare”, Suceava, Romania
Cornel Ciupan, PhD, Professor Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Romania
Cristoph Ruland, PhD, Professor, University of SIEGEN, Germany
Dimitr P. Karaivanov, Dr.Sc., PhD, Professor University of Chemical Technology and
Metallurgy, Sofia, Bulgaria
Dumitru Mnerie, PhD, Professor „Politehnica”University of Timișoara, Romania
Dumitru Olaru, PhD, Professor Technical University „Gh. Asachi”, Iași, Romania
Florin Ionescu, PhD, Professor University Steinbes, Berlin, Germania
Frank Wang Professor of Future Computing, University of Kent, U.K.
Gabriel Neagu Profesor Institutul Naţional de Cercetare-Dezvoltare în Informatică Bucureşti,
George S. Dulikravich, PhD, Florida International University, U.S.A.
Gheorghe Badea, Ph.Dr. in Engineering, Professor, Technical University of Civil Engineering
Bucharest, Romania
Gheorghe Manolea, PhD, Professor University of Craiova, Romania
Grigore Marian, Dr.Sc., PhD, Professor Agrarian State University of Moldova, Chișinău,
Republic of Moldova
Hai Jiang, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Computer Science, Arkansas State University, U.S.A.
Heinz Frank, PhD, Professor Reinhold Würth University. Germany
Hidenori Mimura, Professor, Research Institute of Electronics, Shizuoka University, Japan
Ion Bostan, Dr.hab., Acad. Academy of Science, Republic of Moldova
Ion Paraschivoiu, PhD, Professor Universite Technologique de Montreal, Canada
Ion Rusu, Dr. hab. Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Ion Tighineanu, Dr.hab., Acad. Academy of Science, Moldova
Ion Vișa, PhD, Professor University Transilvania of Brașov, Romania
Jorj. Ciumac, Dr., Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Laurenţiu Slătineanu, PhD, Professor Technical University „Gh. Asachi”, Iași, Romania
Lee Chow, PhD, Professor, University of Central Florida, USA
Leonid Culiuc, Dr.hab., Acad. ASM, Institute of Applied Physic
Livia Nistor-Lopatenco, Ph.Dr. in Engineering, Associate Professor, Technical University of
Moldova
Mardar Maryna, Doctor of Technical Science, Professor, Odessa National Academy of Food
Technologies, Odessa, Ukraine
Mircea Bernic, Dr. hab., Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Mitrofan Ciobanu, academic MAS, Dr.Sc.,PhD, Professor Tiraspol State University, Chișinău,
Republic of Moldova
Natalia Tislinschi, Dr., Ass. Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Oleg Lupan Dr.hab. Professor, Technical University of Moldova
4
Pavel Tatarov, Dr. hab., Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Pavel Topală, Dr.Sc., PhD, Professor, State University „Aleco Russo” from Bălţi, Republic of
Moldova
Peter Lorenz, PhD, Professor University of Applied Science Saar, Saarbrucken, Germania
Petru Cașcaval, PhD, Professor, ”Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Romania
Petru Stoicev, Dr.Sc., PhD, Professor, Technical University of Moldova, Chișinău, Republic of
Moldova
Polidor Bratu, PhD, academic RATS, president ICECON S.A. București, Romania
Radu Munteanu, PhD, Professor Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Romania
Radu Sorin Văcăreanu, Dr. hab. Professor, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest,
Romania
Sergiu Zaporojan Dr., Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Spiridon Creţu, PhD, Professor Technical University „Gh. Asachi”, Iași, Romania
Eden Mamut, PhD, Professor University „Ovidius” Constanţa, România
Stanislav Legutko, PhD, Professor Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Rafał Gołębski, Dr., Ass. Professor, Częstochowa University of Technology, Poland
Stefan Tvetanov, Dr., Professor, University of Food Technologies, Bulgaria
Ștefan-Gheorghe Pentiuc, Dr., Professor, University “Stefan cel Mare” of Suceava, Romania
Svetlana Albu, Dr. hab. Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Thomas Luhmann, Dr-Ing. habil. Dr. h.c. Professor, Jade University of Applied Sciences,
Germany
Tudor Ambros, Dr.Sc., PhD, Professor, Technical University of Moldova, Chișinău, Republic of
Moldova
Valentin Arion, Dr.Sc., PhD, Professor, Technical University of Moldova, Chișinău, Republic of
Moldova
Valentina Bulgaru, PhD, Assoc. professor, Technical University of Moldova, Chișinău, Republic
of Moldova
Valeriu Dulgheru, Dr.Sc., PhD, Professor, Technical University of Moldova, Chișinău, Republic
of Moldova
Vasile Tronciu Dr.hab. Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Victor Ababii, Dr. Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Victor Șontea Dr. Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Vilhelm Kappel, PhD, Institute of Research INCDIE ICPE-CA, Bucharest, Romania
Vladimir Zavialov, Dr. hab., Professor, National University of Food Technology, Ucraine
Vladislav Resitca, Dr., Ass. Professor, Technical University of Moldova
Yogendra Kumar Mishra, Dr. habil., Kiel University, Germany
Yuri Dekhtyar, Professor, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia
Responsible Editor:
Dr. hab.,univ.prof. Rodica STURZA
Technical University of Moldova
[email protected]
Editorial Production:
Dr. Nicolae Trifan
Dr. Svetlana Caterenciuc
CONTENT
Abstracts ...................................................................................................................... 6
Industrial Engineering
V. Bostan, I. Bostan, Mathematical modelling of teeth contact in precessional
M. Vaculenco, M. Ţopa transmission ............................................................................................ 21
Classical and modern kinematic analysis applied for
I. Malcoci, M. Guţu
mechanism study ................................................................................... 41
V. Plămădeală Modern road safety elements of the pedestrians........................... 47
V. Danila Developing tailored clothing for children with special needs ... 61
Electronics and Computer Science
T. – M. I. Băjenescu Mems manufacturing and reliability ................................................ 65
Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering
V. Plămădeală, Negative impact of railway transport on the ambient
S. Slobodeaniuc environment ............................................................................................. 83
A. V. Mishutin,
M. V. Zavoloka, Management of cement-concrete road pavement structure ..... 91
L. Kintia
Food Engineering
M. Mardar, R. Znachek, Changes in consumer properties of new grain crisp breads
A. Macari based on spelt during storage ............................................................. 96
A. Sclifos, E. Covaci, Wine production from local varieties of grapes in
106
A. Stratan microwinery conditions ........................................................................
D. Cojocari, R. Sturza,
E. Sandulachi,
Inhibiting of accidental pathogenic microbiota in meat
A. Macari, 114
products with berry powders ...............................................................
G. Balan,
A. Ghendov-Moșanu
History of engineering
Ştefan-Ioan Georgescu-Gorjean – “The constructor” of
Gh. Manolea the endless column .................................................................................... 123
6 Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640031
CZU 621.833:519.8
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF TEETH CONTACT IN PRECESSIONAL
TRANSMISSION
Viorel Bostan1, Ion Bostan2, Maxim Vaculenco3*, Mihail Ţopa4
Technical University of Moldova (TUM), Department of “Soft Engineering and Applied Mathematics”,
1
2
TUM, Department of “Machine Projecting Basics”, Republic of Moldova
3
TUM, Department of “Industrial and Product Design”, Republic of Moldova
4
TUM, Department of “Physics”, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding Author: Maxim Vaculenco, [email protected]
Received: 09.03.2019
Accepted: 23.03.2019
Abstract. The article deals with the development of the 2K-H precessional toothed gear with
convex-concave contact of the teeth. The teeth flanks of the satellite are described in the circular
arc as well as the central wheels - with convex / concave profiles.
The article addresses issues of increasing the convex-concave contact load bearing capacity by
identifying the conjugated profiles with the small difference in the curvature radius. The design of
the contact takes into account the decrease of the friction sliding between the conjugated flanks in
view of the increase of the mechanical efficiency of the transmission.
The synthesis of the toothed precessional gear is based on the study of the kinematics of the
contact point and of the rational co-ration of the conjugated flanks curvature radii. The geometry of
the teeth contact is analyzed according to the parametric configuration [Zg‒θ;±1] and is modified by
concrete technical solutions aiming at increasing the load bearing capacity and energy efficiency of
the contact.
The paper describes: the new processes basic principles of teeth generation by spatial rotation and
rolling, which allow the manufacture of conical toothed wheels with varying convex/concave
profile of the teeth.
Keywords: precessional transmissions, convex-concave contact, kinematics of the contact
point, generation of teeth with varying convex/concave profile.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019 7
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640031
CZU 621.833:519.8
MODELAREA MATEMATICĂ A CONTACTULUI DINŢILOR ÎN TRANSMISIA
PRECESIONALĂ
Viorel Bostan1, Ion Bostan2, Maxim Vaculenco3*, Mihail Ţopa4
1
Universitatea Tehnică a Moldovei (UTM), Departament “Inginerie Soft și Matematică Aplicată”,
2
UTM, Departament “Bazele Proiectării Mașinilor”, Republica Moldova
3
UTM, Departament “Design Industrial și de Produs”, Republica Moldova
4
UTM, Departament “Fizica”, Republica Moldova
*Autor corespondent: Maxim Vaculenco, [email protected]
Recepţionat: 09.03.2019
Acceptat: 23.03.2019
Rezumat. Articolul se referă la dezvoltarea angrenajului precesional dinţat 2K-H cu contact
convex-concav al dinţilor. Flancurile dinţilor satelitului sunt descrise în arc de cerc, iar a
roţilor centrale cu profiluri convex/concave.
În articol sunt abordate probleme privind majorarea capacităţii portante a contactului
convex-concav prin identificarea profilurilor conjugate cu diferenţa mică a razelor de
curbură. La proiectarea contactului se ţine cont de diminuarea alunecării de frecare între
flancurile conjugate din perspectiva majorării randamentului mecanic al transmisiei.
Sinteza angrenajului precesional dinţat se bazează pe studiul cinematicii punctului de
contact și al coraportului raţional a razelor de curbură a flancurilor conjugate. Geometria
contactului dinţilor este analizată în funcţie de configuraţia parametrică [Zg‒θ;±1] și este
modificată prin soluţii tehnice concrete având ca scop sporirea capacităţii portante și
eficienţei energetice a contactului.
În articol sunt descrise: principiile de bază a procedeelor noi de generare a dinţilor prin
rostogolire-rulare spaţială, care permit fabricarea roţilor dinţate conice cu profil
convex/concav variabil al dinţilor.
Cuvinte cheie: transmisii precesionale, contact convex-concav, cinematica punctului de contact,
generarea dinţilor cu profil convex/concav variabil.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
8 Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640034
CZU 62-23
CLASSICAL AND MODERN KINEMATIC ANALYSIS APPLIED FOR MECHANISM
STUDY
Iulian Malcoci*, Marin Guţu
Technical University of Moldova, 168, Ștefan cel Mare Bd., MD-2004, Chișinău, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding author: Iulian Malcoci, [email protected]
Received: December, 16, 2018
Accepted: February, 05, 2019
Abstract. Mechanism kinematic analysis is usually used for motion study or for simulating
and analyzing the movement of mechanical assemblies and the whole mechanism. In this
paper we will consider kinematical analysis regarding the simplest crank mechanism
without taking into account forces that cause the mechanism motion. The authors have
used a calculation model and a calculation algorithm that allowed the definition of
kinematic parameters of the mechanism, including crank displacements, angular velocities
and acceleration, angular speeds and acceleration. All calculations were performed using a
few grapho-analytical (classical) application methods and the Mathcad mathematical
package. The results of the calculations are reported as numerical values and graphic
presentations.
Keywords: crank mechanism, grapho-analytival method, instant center of rotation, Mathcad
software, velocity distribution.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640034
CZU 62-23
ANALIZA CINEMATICĂ CLASICĂ ȘI MODERNĂ APLICATĂ PENTRU STUDIUL
MECANISMULUI
Iulian Malcoci*, Marin Guţu
Universitatea Tehnică a Moldovei, Bd. Ștefan cel Mare nr. 168, Chișinău, Republica Moldova
* Autor corespondent: Iulian Malcoci, [email protected]
Recepţionat: 16 decembrie 2018
Acceptat: 05 februarie 2019
Rezumat. Analiza cinematică este, de regulă, utilizată pentru studiul mișcării sau pentru
simularea și analizarea mișcării ansamblurilor mecanice sau a întregului mecanism. În
această lucrare analiza cinematică este aplicată mecanismului simplu, fără a lua în
considerare forţele care determină mișcarea mecanismului integru. A fost aplicat un model
de calcul și un algoritm care permite definirea parametrilor cinematici ai mecanismului,
incluzând deplasările manivelei, vitezele unghiulare și acceleraţia. Toate calculele au fost
efectuate folosind metode grafo-analitice clasice și software Mathcad. Rezultatele
calculelor sunt raportate în formă de valori numerice și grafice.
Cuvinte cheie: mecanismul manivelă, metodă grafică-analitică, centrul de rotaţie instantanee,
software Mathcad, distribuţia vitezei.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019 9
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640037
CZU 656.1:614.86
MODERN ROAD SAFETY ELEMENTS OF THE PEDESTRIANS
Vasile Plămădeală
Technical University of Moldova, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Transport,
9/8, Studentilor Str., MD-2045, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
Corresponding author: Vasile Plămădeală, [email protected]
Received: January, 15, 2019
Accepted: March, 15, 2019
Abstract. More than 270000 pedestrians die annually on roads across the world,
accounting for about 22% of the total number of people killed in road accidents. In
addition, millions of pedestrians are traumatized, some of them become disabled for life.
The pedestrian is the most vulnerable road traffic victim. Compared to drivers, they are not
physically protected, and road accidents with their involvement often become a tragedy –
usually the pedestrian gets serious injuries, including incompatible with life. The article
contains a brief description of the pedestrian-driver relationship, the statistics of road
accidents with the involvement of pedestrians in the Republic of Moldova, the modern
practices and technologies applied in some countries regarding the efficient organization
of the pedestrian safety.
Keywords: pedestrian, pedestrian crossing, sidewalk, traffic attendant, road accident, artificial
road roughness, resonant tapes, tactile indicators.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640037
CZU 656.1:614.86
ELEMENTE MODERNE DE SIGURANŢĂ RUTIERĂ A PIETONILOR
Vasile Plămădeală
Universitatea Tehnică a Moldovei, Facultatea Inginerie Mecanică și Transporturi,
str. Studenţilor 9/8, MD-2045, Chișinău, Republica Moldova
Autor corespondent: Vasile Plămădeală, [email protected]
Recepţionat: 15 Ianuarie 2019
Acceptat: 15 Martie 2019
Rezumat. Anual pe drumurile din întreaga lume mor peste 270000 de pietoni, ceea ce
constituie circa 22% din numărul total de persoane decedate în accidentele rutiere. În plus,
milioane de pietoni sunt traumatizaţi, unii dintre ei devenind invalizi pe viaţă. Pietonul
este cel mai vulnerabil participant la trafic privind accidentele rutiere. În comparaţie cu
conducătorii auto, ei fizic nu sunt protejaţi, iar accidentele rutiere cu implicarea lor devin
deseori o tragedie – de regulă pietonul se alege cu răni grave, inclusiv incompatibile cu
viaţa. Articolul cuprinde o descriere succintă a relaţiei conducător-pieton, statistica
accidentelor rutiere cu implicarea pietonilor în Republica Moldova, practicile și
tehnologiile moderne aplicate în unele ţări privind organizarea eficientă a siguranţei
pietonului.
Cuvinte cheie: pieton, trecere de pietoni, trotuar, participant la trafic, accident rutier, denivelare
artificială, benzi rezonatoare, indicatoare tactile.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
10 Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640039
CZU 687.131-056.26
DEVELOPING TAILORED CLOTHING FOR CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Victoria Danila
Technical University of Moldova, 168, Bd. Stefan cel Mare, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
Received: February, 07, 2019
Accepted: March, 15, 2019
Abstract. This article provides an analysis of the development clothing systems
effectiveness that are tailored to preventive interventions for premature babies. An
analysis of the conducted clinical trials has been framed in a contemporary development
model that emphasizes the role of clothing and its requirements for the characteristics of
premature babies. The used suggested that positive outcomes could be understood in
terms of improving the development pathways associated with parental sensitivity and
their participation in intensive care of children. The conceptually described products have
all the features recommended to premature babies depending on the degree of gestation.
Keywords: clothes for baby, preterm birth, intervention effectiveness, developmental
mechanisms.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640039
CZU 687.131-056.26
DEZVOLTAREA ÎMBRĂCĂMINTEI PENTRU COPII CU NEVOI SPECIALE
Victoria Danila
Universitatea Tehnică a Moldovei, Bd. Ștefan cel Mare 168, Chișinău, Republica Moldova
Recepţionat: 7 februarie 2019
Acceptat: 15 martie, 2019
Rezumat. Articolul oferă o analiză a eficacităţii sistemelor de îmbrăcăminte adaptate
intervenţiilor preventive pentru copiii prematuri. O analiză a studiilor clinice efectuate a
fost încadrată într-un model de dezvoltare modernă, care subliniază rolul îmbrăcămintei și
cerinţele acesteia pentru dezvoltarea copiilor prematuri. Produsele utilizate au sugerat, că
rezultate pozitive ar putea fi obţinute prin asociere cu sensibilitatea parentală și
participarea lor la îngrijirea intensivă a copiilor. Produsele descrise conceptual au toate
caracteristicile recomandate copiilor prematuri în funcţie de gradul de gestaţie.
Cuvinte cheie: haine pentru bebeluși, naștere prematură, eficacitate de intervenţie, mecanisme
de dezvoltare.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019 11
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640042
CZU 316.77:004.7
MEMS MANUFACTURING AND RELIABILITY
Titu-Marius I. Băjenescu
Swiss Technology Association, Electronics Group Switzerland
T.-M. Băjenescu, [email protected]
Received: February, 08, 2019
Accepted: March, 15, 2019
Abstract. Today flexibility means to produce reasonably priced customized products
of high quality that can be quickly delivered to customers. The article analyses issues
related to physic, able to generating defects, affecting the reliability limits for MEMS
(Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems). The MEMS industry is currently at a much more
vulnerable position than it appears, regardless of how wonderful its future may look
like. A full understanding of the physics and statistics of the defect generation is
required to investigate the ultimate reliability limitations for nanodevices. Biggest
challenge: cost effective, high volume production.
Key words: Process errors, MEMS, optical MEMS, failure analysis, MEMS switches, package
cracking, failure mechanisms, reliability, creep, lifetime prediction.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640042
CZU 316.77:004.7
MANUFACTURA ȘI FIABILITATEA SISTEMELOR MICROELECTRO-MECANICE
(MEMS)
Titu-Marius I. Băjenescu
Asociaţia de Tehnologie Elveţiană, Electronics Group Elveţia
Recepţionat: 08 Februarie 2019
Acceptat: 15, Marte, 2019
Rezumat. Flexibilitatea actuală a mărfurilor înseamnă a fabrica produse la preţuri
rezonabile, de înaltă calitate, care pot fi livrate rapid clienţilor. Sistemele microelectro-
mecanice (MEMS) constau din elemente mecanice, senzori, dispozitive de acţionare și
dispozitive electrice și electronice pe un substrat comun de siliciu. Senzorii din MEMS
colectează informaţii din mediul prin măsurarea fenomenelor mecanice, termice, biologice,
chimice, optice și magnetice. În articol sunt analizate probleme legate de fizica și a
statistica generării defectelor pentru a investiga limitele finale de fiabilitate pentru
nanodispozitive. Industria MEMS este prezentă într-o poziţie mult mai vulnerabilă decât
pare, indiferent de cât de minunat ar putea să arate viitorul ei. Extinderea cunoștinţelor
despre fizica eșecului va permite îmbunătăţirea fiabilităţii acestora și dezvoltarea
metodelorde testare accelerate. Cea mai mare provocare o constituie producţia eficientă din
punct de vedere al costurilor.
Cuvinte cheie: Erori de proces, MEMS, MEMS optic, analiza defecţiunilor, întrerupătoare MEMS,
defecte ambalare, mecanisme de detectare eșec, fiabilitate, fluaj, predicţie de
viaţă.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
12 Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640044
CZU 504.05:656.2
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF RAILWAY TRANSPORT
ON THE AMBIENT ENVIRONMENT
Vasile Plămădeală*, Stanislav Slobodeaniuc
Technical University of Moldova, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Transport,
9/8, Studentilor Str., MD-2045, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding author: Vasile Plămădeală, [email protected]
Received: January, 15, 2019
Accepted: March, 25, 2019
Abstract. Unfortunately, most of the technologies applied and currently used by mankind,
to a lesser or greater degree, negatively influence and lead to the degradation and
degeneration of the planetary ecosystem, with rail transport being no exception. The
railways, together with the positive influence on the economic development of the regions
in which they were built, have caused irreparable damage to the environment. They
destroyed natural landscapes, led to the death and reduction of wildlife populations,
polluted the air and created an unbearable noise. The pollution of the environment by the
use of railway transport is also present for the Republic of Moldova. The article describes
the main components of the impact of railway transport on the environment: pollutants,
electromagnetic fields and rolling stock noise.
Keywords: transport, railway, electromagnetic field, exhaust gases, environment, toxic
substances, waste water, noise of rolling stock, noise pollution.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019 13
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640044
CZU 504.05:656.2
IMPACTUL NEGATIV AL TRANSPORTULUI FEROVIAR
ASUPRA MEDIULUI AMBIANT
Vasile Plămădeală*, Stanislav Slobodeaniuc
Universitatea Tehnică a Moldovei, Facultatea Inginerie Mecanică și Transporturi,
str. Studenţilor 9/8, MD-2045, Chișinău, Republica Moldova
*Autor corespondent: Vasile Plămădeală, [email protected]
Recepţionat: 15 ianuarie 2019
Acceptat: 25 martie 2019
Rezumat. Din păcate, majoritatea tehnologiilor aplicate și utilizate în prezent de omenire,
într-o măsură mai mică sau mai mare, influenţează negativ și conduc la degradarea și
degenerarea ecosistemului planetar, transportul feroviar nefiind o excepţie. Căile
ferate,împreună cu influenţa pozitivă asupra dezvoltării economice a regiunilor în care au
fost construite, au provocat daune ireparabile mediului. Au distrus peisajele naturale, au
condus la moartea și reducerea populaţiei animalelor sălbatice, au poluat aerul și au creat
un zgomot insuportabil. Poluarea mediului ambiant în urma utilizării transportului feroviar
este actuală și pentru Republica Moldova. În articol sunt descrise componentele principale
ale impactului transportului feroviar asupra mediului ambiant: substanţele poluante,
câmpurile electromagnetice și zgomotul materialului rulant.
Cuvinte cheie: transport feroviar, cale ferată, câmp electromagnetic, gaze de eşapament, mediul
ambiant, substanţe toxice, ape reziduale, zgomotul materialului rulant, poluare
fonică.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
14 Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2649980
CZU 666.972.16
MANAGEMENT OF CEMENT-CONCRETE ROAD PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
A. V. Mishutin*, M. V. Zavoloka, L. Kintia
Odessa State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture
Corresponding Author: A. V. Mishutin, [email protected]
Received: February, 16, 2019
Accepted: March, 25, 2019
Abstract. The aim of the research is to study the effect of operating factors on the pavement
and optimize the composition of the modified additive for controlling the structure of
concrete. The choice of modifiers for concrete mixtures is mainly made empirically and
specifically tied to specific engineering tasks. The specifics of the material work is
associated with the unilateral action on the design of the operational load. There are
significant gradients of humidity and temperature over the cross section and height of
structures. Analysis of the experimental data of the planned experiment made it possible to
optimize the composition of the modified additive in order to control the structure to obtain
durable concrete.
Keywords: Cement concrete road pavement, modified additives, structure of concrete, durability
of concrete.
REGLAREA STRUCTURII BETONULUI PE BAZĂ DE CIMENT PENTRU
ÎNVELIȘUL RUTIER
A. V. Mishutin*, M. V. Zavoloka, L. Kintia
Academia de Stat de Construcţii și Arhitectură din or. Odesa, Ucraina
*Autor corespondent: A. V. Mishutin, [email protected]
Recepţionat: 16 februarie 2019
Acceptat: 25 martie 2019
Rezumat. Scopul cercetărilor realizate a constat în studierea influenţei variaţiilor de
temperatură și a ciclurilor repetate de îngheţ-dezgheţ, umezirii și uscării, acţiunii sărurilor,
presiunii și a acţiunilor dinamice a mijloacelor de transport asupra viabilităţii învelișului
rutier. Obiectivele specifice au constat în optimizarea compoziţiei adaosului pentru a regla
structura betonului destinat pentru învelișul rutier. Cu acest scop a fost îndeplinit un
experiment cu 5 factori. Drept factori pentru îndeplinirea experimentului au fost stabiliţi:
consumul de ciment portland; modificatorii proprietăţilor amestecului de beton (reglarea
prizei amestecului de beton, adaosul antrenator de aer), fibra polimerică, nisip măcinat.
Adaosul complex modificator elaborat (UTB+SP+VV) permite de micșora volumul porilor
deschiși și a regla omogenitatea porilor după dimensiunile lor. Datorită adaosului complex
elaborat cu conţinut de nisip măcinat (suprafaţa specifică 300 m2/kg) devine posibilă
producerea betoanelor cu micropori (λ≤ 0.5) și a betoanelor, armate cu fibră, cu o
omogenitate înaltă a porilor (0.7 < α ≤ 1.0). Cercetările îndeplinite au permis de a optimiza
componenţa adaosului pentru modificarea proprietăţilor amestecului de beton și a
betonului, de a regla structura și de a mări viabilitatea.
Cuvinte cheie: înveliș rutier din beton pe bază de ciment, adaos modificator al proprietăţilor
amestecului de beton și a betonului, structura betonului, viabilitatea betonului.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019 15
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640051
CZU 664.72:633.11
CHANGES IN CONSUMER PROPERTIES OF NEW GRAIN CRISPBREADS BASED
ON SPELT DURING STORAGE
Maryna Mardar1*, Rafaela Znachek1, Artur Macari2
1
Odessa National Academy of Food Technologies, Odessa, Ukraine
2
Technical University of Moldova, Chişinău, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding author: Maryna Mardar, email: [email protected]
Received: January, 18, 2019
Accepted: February, 27, 2019
Abstract. The changes that occur with the organoleptic, physicochemical, and
microbiological performance of new grain crispbreads based on spelt with the inclusion of
enriching supplements in the process of storage. Types of packing, which are used for
packing grain crispbreads have been analyzed. The results of the organoleptic analysis
showed that the use of biaxially oriented polypropylene film (BOPP) kept the organoleptic
performance of grain crispbreads at a high level for six months, in contrast to the samples
that were stored in a polyethylene film (PF). According to the physical and chemical
performance (mass fraction of moisture, acidity, and the acid number of fat), it was found
out that it is advisable to use metalized packages of BOPP for storage of crispbreads,
allowing their storage life extension up to six months with a slight decrease in physical and
chemical performance. Microbiological analysis showed that the inclusion of vegetable
supplements in grain crispbreads reduced the overall insemination of the initial samples
and improved the stability of finished products during storage, due to the antioxidant
properties of enriching supplements. On the basis of the researches carried out, we define
the guaranteed storage term for expanded heifers, which is 6 months in the BOPP package.
Keywords: grain crispbreads, spelt, vegetable supplements, storage, consumer properties,
physicochemical performance.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
16 Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640051
CZU 664.72:633.11
MODIFICĂRI ALE PROPRIETĂŢILOR DE CONSUM A RONDELELOR DIN ALAC
EXPANDAT ÎN TIMPUL PĂSTRĂRII
Maryna Mardar1*, Rafaela Znachek1, Artur Macari2
1
Academia Naţională de Tehnologii Alimentare din Odessa, Odessa, Ucraina
2
Universitatea Tehnică din Moldova, Chișinău, Republica Moldova
* Autor corespondent: Maryna Mardar, email: [email protected]
Recepţionat: 18 ianuarie 2019
Acceptat: 27 februarie 2019
Rezumat. În lucrare au fost examinate modificările în timpul păstrării a caracteristicilor
organoleptice, fizico - chimice și microbiologice a rondelelor din cereale integrale
expandate pe bază de alac îmbogăţite cu suplimente vegetale. Au fost analizate tipurile de
ambalaj, care sunt utilizate pentru ambalarea rondelelor din alac expandat. Rezultatele
analizei organoleptice au arătat că utilizarea filmului din polipropilenă orientat biaxial
(BOPP) a menţinut performanţa organoleptică a rondelelor din alac expandat la un nivel
ridicat timp de șase luni, spre deosebire de probele care au fost păstrate într-un film de
polietilenă (PE). Conform caracteristicilor fizice și chimice (fracţia masică de umiditate,
aciditatea titrabilă și indicele de aciditate al grăsimii), sa constatat că este recomandabil să
se folosească pachete metalizate de BOPP pentru depozitarea rondelelor din alac expandat,
permiţând extinderea duratei de depozitare a acestora până la șase luni cu o ușoară scădere
a caracteristicilor fizice și chimice. Analiza microbiologică a arătat că includerea
suplimentelor vegetale în reţeta rondelelor din alac expandat a redus numărul de
microorganisme al probelor iniţiale și astfel a îmbunătăţit stabilitatea produselor finite în
timpul depozitării, datorită proprietăţilor antioxidante ale suplimentelor. Pe baza
cercetărilor efectuate, se definește termenul garantat de depozitare a rondelelor din alac
expandat, care reprezintă 6 luni în ambalajul BOPP.
Cuvinte cheie: rondele din cereale expandate, alac, suplimente de legume, depozitare,
proprietăţi de consum, caracteristici fizico-chimice.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019 17
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640054
CZU 663.2:634.85(478)
WINE PRODUCTION FROM LOCAL VARIETIES OF GRAPES IN MICROWINERY
CONDITIONS
Aliona Sclifos*, Ecaterina Covaci, Alexandra Stratan
Technical University of Moldova, Faculty of Food Technology,
9/9 Studentilor Street, MD 2045, Chișinău, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding author: Aliona Sclifos, [email protected]
Received: 15 February 2019
Accepted: 23 March 2019
Abstract. In the paper there has been studied the process of wine making from local grape
varieties: Feteasca White, Feteasca, Regala, Feteasca Neagra, Rara Neagra, in conditions of
microvinification. Wine raw materials were obtained with the involvement of a dynamic
process of alcoholic fermentation from the varieties harvested in different regions of the
Republic of Moldova. It has been established that the obtained wine material meets the
requirements of the normative documents. The organoleptic characteristics of the red and
white wines produced from the local varieties in the micro winery of the Technical
University of Moldova are specific to each grape variety and they are of the highest quality.
Keywords: variety, must, white and red wines, physical-chemical indices, alcoholic fermentation,
control, temperature, sugar content.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640054
CZU 663.2:634.85(478)
PRODUCEREA VINULUI DIN SOIURI LOCALE DE STRUGURI ÎN CONDIŢII DE
MICROVINIFICAŢIE
Aliona Sclifos*, Ecaterina Covaci, Alexandra Stratan
Universitatea Tehnică a Moldovei, Facultatea de Tehnologia Alimentară,
Str. Studentilor 9/9, MD 2045, Chișinău, Republica Moldova
* Autor corespondent: Aliona Sclifos, [email protected]
Recepţionat: 15 februarie 2019
Acceptat: 23 Martie 2019
Rezumat. În lucrare a fost cercetat procesul de fabricare a vinurilor din soiuri de struguri
locale: Feteasca albă, Fetească, Regală, Fetească Neagră, Rară Neagră, în condiţii de
microvinificaţie. Din soiurile recoltate în diferite regiuni ale Republicii Moldova s-au obţinut
vinuri materie primă cu implicarea unui proces dinamic al fermentaţiei alcoolice. S-a
constatat, că materialul vinicol obţinut corespunde exigenţelor documentelor normative.
Caracteristicile organoleptice ale vinurilor roșii și albe obţinute din soiurile locale în secţia
de microvinificaţie a Universităţii Tehnice a Moldovei sunt specifice fiecărui soi de struguri,
de cea mai înaltă calitate.
Cuvinte cheie: soiuri, must, vin, indicatori fizico-chimici, fermentaţie alcoolică, control,
temperatură, conţinut de zahăr.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
18 Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640056
CZU 637.5:579.67
INHIBITING OF ACCIDENTAL PATHOGENIC MICROBIOTA IN
MEAT PRODUCTS WITH BERRY POWDERS
Daniela Cojocari 1,2*, Rodica Sturza 1, Elisaveta Sandulachi 1, Artur Macari 1,
Greta Balan 2, Aliona Ghendov-Moșanu 1
1
Technical University of Moldova, 168, Stefan cel Mare Bd., Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
2
State University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Nicolae Testemitanu”, 165,
Stefan cel Mare Bd., Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding author: Cojocari Daniela: [email protected]
Received: February, 01, 2019
Accepted: March, 22, 2019
Abstract. This article presents a case study of antimicrobial properties of berry powders on
pathogenic microorganisms that can accidentally colonize meat and meat products. We
tested the inhibiting properties of rose-hip and hawthorn on the growth of pathogenic and
opportunistic pathogenic microorganisms (S. aureus ATCC 25923, Salmonella Abony ATCC
6017, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883 and E. coli ATCC 25922). We found out that
introducing rose-hip and hawthorn powder in the sausage recipe decreased the
microorganism growth rate on purposely contaminated samples. By studying Lag and
Logaritmic phases of strain growth rate we found that hawthorn has a greater bacteriostatic
effect on S. aureus ATCC 25923 and E. coli ATCC 25922 strains, and rose-hip has a greater
bacteriostatic effect on Salmonella Abony ATCC 6017, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883
strains.
Keywords: pathogenic microorganisms, antimicrobial effect, meat products, rose-hip, hawthorn.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019 19
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640056
CZU 637.5:579.67
INHIBAREA MICROBIOTEI PATOGENICE ACCIDENTALE ÎN
PRODUSE DIN CARNE CU ADAOS DE PULBERI DE FRUCTE DE PADURE
Daniela Cojocari 1,2*, Rodica Sturza 1, Elisaveta Sandulachi 1, Artur Macari 1,
Greta Balan 2, Aliona Ghendov-Moșanu 1
Universitatea Tehnică a Moldovei, Bd. Stefan cel Mare 168, Chișinău, Republica Moldova
Universitatea de Stat de Medicină și Farmacie "Nicolae Testemiţanu",
Bd. Ștefan cel Mare 165, Chișinău, Republica Moldova
* Autor corespondent: Cojocari Daniela: [email protected]
Recepţionat: 01 februarie 2019
Acceptat: 22 martie 2019
Rezumat. Articolul prezintă un studiu de caz privind proprietăţile antimicrobiene ale
pulberilor de fructe de pădure asupra microorganismelor patogene, care pot coloniza în
mod accidental produsele din carne. Au fost testate proprietăţile inhibitoare ale pulberilor
de măceșe și păducel asupra proliferării microorganismelor patogene și potenţial patogene
(S. aureus ATCC 25923, Salmonella Abony ATCC 6017, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883 și
E. coli ATCC 25922). S-a constatat, că includerea pudrei de măceș și de păducel în reţeta de
crenvuști a redus rata de creștere a microorganismelor pe eșantioane contaminate
intenţionat. Prin studierea fazelor Lag și Logaritmică a vitezei de creștere a microbiotei s-a
constatat, că păducelul manifestă efect bacteriostatic mai mare asupra tulpinilor S. aureus
ATCC 25923 și E. coli ATCC 25922, iar măceșul are efect bacteriostatic important asupra
tulpinilor Salmonella Abony ATCC 6017și Klebsiella pneumoniae, ATCC 13883.
Cuvinte cheie: microorganisme patogene, efect antimicrobian, produse din carne, măceș,
păducel.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
20 Journal of Engineering Science, Abstracts, Vol. XXVI (1), 2019
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640404
CZU 929:62(498)
ŞTEFAN-IOAN GEORGESCU-GORJEAN –”THE CONSTRUCTOR” OF THE ENDLESS COLUMN
Gheorghe Manolea
University of Craiova, 13 A. I. Cuza street, Craiova, Romania
Received: February, 2, 2019
Accepted: March, 14, 2019
Abstract. When we talk about the “Endeless Column” or about the “Infinite Sacrifice
Column” from Tg. Jiu, we think of Constantin Brâncuşi. When we talk about the “Endeless
Column” or about the “Infinite Sacrifice Column”, we think that it is a work of art. In
2001,when we celebrated 125 years from C. Brâncuşi’s birth, UNESCO drew up a report in
which it was stated: “The Endless Column is not only a masterpiece of the modern art, but it is
also an extraordinary engineering work.” The one who pointed out the engineering
characteristic of this work of art was Ştefan-Ioan Georgescu-Gorjan.
Keywords: the Endless Column, constructor, Georgescu –Gorjan, Brâncuși.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640404
CZU 929:62(498)
ȘTEFAN-IOAN GEORGESCU-GORJEAN - "CONSTRUCTORUL" COLUMNULUI SFÂNT
Gheorghe Manolea*
Universitatea din Craiova, str. A. I. Cuza nr. 13, Craiova, România
Recepţionat: 2 februarie 2019
Acceptat: 14 martie 2019
Rezumat. Când vorbim despre "Coloana fără sfârșit" sau despre "Coloana de sacrificiu
infinită" de la Tg. Jiu, ne gândim la Constantin Brâncuși. Când vorbim despre "Coloana fără
sfârșit" sau despre "Coloana de sacrificiu infinită", credem că este o operă de artă. În 2001,
când am sărbătorit 125 de ani de la nașterea lui C. Brâncuși, UNESCO a întocmit un raport în
care a fost declarat: "Coloana fără sfârșit nu este doar o capodoperă a artei moderne, ci este
și o lucrare extraordinară de inginerie". Unul care a evidenţiat caracteristica inginerică a
acestei opere de artă a fost Ștefan-Ioan Georgescu-Gorjan.
Cuvinte cheie: Coloana fără sfârșit, constructor, Georgescu-Gorjan, Brâncuși.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 21 - 40
Fascicle Industrial Engineering ISSN 2587-3474
Topic Mechanical Engineering and Technologies eISSN 2587-3482
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640031
CZU 621.833:519.8
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF TEETH CONTACT IN PRECESSIONAL
TRANSMISSION
Viorel Bostan1, Ion Bostan2, Maxim Vaculenco3*, Mihail Ţopa4
1
Technical University of Moldova (TUM), Department of “Soft Engineering and Applied Mathematics”,
2
TUM, Department of “Machine Projecting Basics”, Republic of Moldova
3
TUM, Department of “Industrial and Product Design”, Republic of Moldova
4
TUM, Department of “Physics”, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding Author: Maxim Vaculenco, [email protected]
Received: March, 09, 2019
Accepted: March, 23, 2019
Abstract. The article deals with the development of the 2K-H precessional toothed gear with convex-
concave contact of the teeth. The teeth flanks of the satellite are described in the circular arc, and
the central wheels - with convex / concave profiles.
The article addresses issues of increasing the convex-concave contact load bearing capacity by
identifying the conjugated profiles with the small difference in the curvature radius. The design of
the contact takes into account the decrease of the friction sliding between the conjugated flanks in
view of the increase of the mechanical efficiency of the transmission.
The synthesis of the toothed precessional gear is based on the study of the kinematics of the contact
point and of the rational co-ration of the conjugated flanks curvature radii . The geometry of the
teeth contact is analyzed according to the parametric configuration [Zg‒;±1] and is modified by
concrete technical solutions aiming at increasing the load bearing capacity and energy efficiency of
the contact.
The paper describes: the new processes basic principles of the teeth generation by spatial rotation
and rolling, which allow the manufacture of conical toothed wheels with varying convex/concave
profile of the teeth.
Keywords: precessional transmissions, convex-concave contact, kinematics of the contact
point, generation of teeth with varying convex/concave profile.
1. Introduction
The ever-growing demands of mechanical transmission consumers on increasing the
transmission power, mass and size reduction, etc., can be met on two developmental
directions, namely by creating new types of mechanical transmissions based on new
operating principles and/or by increasing the bearing capacity of the gear teeth contact, for
example of the convex-concave contact researched in the works [1, 2, 3].
Precessional transmissions with multiple gear, invented in 1981, have developed
both in terms of improving the new mechanism of movement transformation as well as the
performance or contact geometry of the gear teeth, which over time have been protected by
over 180 patents.
Figure 1 shows the submersible precessional gearmotor for actuating the robot
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
22 V. Bostan, I. Bostan, M. Vaculenco, M. Țopa
displacement mechanism on the ocean floor of the Robotic Complex1 for the extraction of
ferro-manganese (CFM) concretions from deep depths (4…7 km)2 [4].
The 2K-H type submersible reducer developed based on the precessional
transmission with a gear with bolts (TPB) is made up of four nodes elements: crank shaft 1,
satellite 2 with two teeth of conical bolts, installed floating on the crank shaft 1, between
the fixed 3 and mobile 4 general wheels. The difference in number of teeth and conjugated
bolts is ±1. When rotating the crank shaft 1, the satellite 2 in its spherical-spatial motion
engages its crowns in the bolts with the teeth of the fixed 3 and mobile 4 central wheel,
thus ensuring the reduction of the rotation movement with the transmission ratio in the
range i=±10…±3600. To compensate for hydrostatic pressures P=40÷70 MPa the gearmotor
is equipped with the compensators 7.
Precessional transmissions have also developed in terms of performance of the teeth
contact geometry.
Figure 2 shows the electromechanical module for the operation of the space flight
technique3, developed based on 2K-H type precessional transmission with convex-concave
contact of the gear teeth. The electromodule is characterized by high kinematic precision ̋
= 60 ̋ angular sec., with a relatively small starting moment T=320 gcm with pre-tightening in
the gearing, high torsional stiffness =1.5·105 Nm/rd [4].
Figure 1. Precessional submersible gearmotor with Figure 2. Precessional electromechanical
bolt gear, i=-279. module with toothed gear (i=-279) for the
operation of the space flight technique.
Remark 1: TPB and TPD Precessional Transmissions do not have analogues among the world-
wide known transmissions regarding the broad range of transmission reports, including
kinematic possibilities to operate under reductor, multiplier, and differential regime.
2. Advantages and disadvantages of TPB and TPD
Compared to evolving transmissions, TPB is characterized by disadvantages like:
1. The bearing capacity of the “conical tooth-bolt” contact is limited by the radius of
curvature of the conical bolts.
2. The crowns of the satellite made of conical bolts make it irrational, difficult,
sometimes impossible to manufacture gears with diameters of less than 50 mm, which limits
their extension to kinematic actuators (robots, fine mechanics, technological equipment, etc.).
1
State Secret with the initial “Top Secret”.
2
Only in the Pacific Ocean, more than 1700 billion tons of CFM are located.
3
State Secret with the initial “Top Secret”.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mathematical modelling of teeth contact in precessional transmission 23
3. Considering the condition of the similarity of the shape of the conical bolts in the real
transmission to the teeth generating tool, at their small diameters, the productivity of teeth
generation decreases and the manufacturing costs increase.
4. In order to ensure the cutting speed, the technological process of generating the small
diameter of the tool requires a considerable increase of its rotational speed, and the rigidity of
the system and the precision of execution decrease.
These drawbacks of the precessional transmission with “conical tooth-bolt” gearing (TPB)
can be elucidated by the development of precessional transmissions with toothed gear
(TPD).
A first step in the assertion of precessional transmissions with toothed gear is the
invention patent “Precessional gear transmission” [4] later developed in [5]. The
precessional transmission gear shown in figure 3, (a), (b), (c) is conical consisting of a
satellite-wheel with circular arc-shaped teeth with the origin of the radius of curvature R
located on the normal n-n raised from the point of contact of the teeth conjugated (see
figure 3, (a), (b), (c)). The radius of curvature R of the arc-shaped profile may be increased by
up to 7 radii r of the circumference entered into the thickness of the arc-shaped profile
tooth.
Figure 3 (d), (e), (f) shows the profilograms of the central wheel teeth Z1 described by
=f() correlated with the trajectory of the movement of the origin of the radius of curvature
of the teeth profile of the satellite Z2 in the arc of the circle 1=f(1). The profilograms
obtained for different parametric configurations [Zg‒;±1] of the gear. The load bearing
capacity of the gears with convex-concave contact of the teeth can be increased by
decreasing the difference of the curvature radius of the conjugate profiles.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 3. Geometry of teeth contact in the toothed precessional gear: a, b, c – contact with
the profile of the teeth in the circular arc and convex / concave; d, e, f – convex-concave
contact with small difference of the curvature radii of conjugated profiles for different
parametric configurations [Zg‒;±1].
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
24 V. Bostan, I. Bostan, M. Vaculenco, M. Țopa
The transformation of the movement and the transmission of the load in the
precession gear takes place by rolling with the presence of sliding between the conjugate
flanks. Rolling is a function of the angle of the nutation and the sliding between the flanks
depends on the parametric configuration [Zg‒;±1] of the gear. The presence of sliding leads
to a reduction in the mechanical efficiency of the gear, to tightening restrictions on the
physical and mechanical properties of the wheel material, to imposing costly constructive
and exploitation solutions.
Remark 2: The load-bearing capacity and the mechanical efficiency of the TPD are still two
important objectives for research and development of precessional transmissions, which will be
addressed in terms of transforming the geometry of the teeth contact.
3. Synthesis of the precessional toothed gear with convex-concave contact
To create the convex-concave contact of the teeth engaged in spherical-space
movement we admit that the profile of the teeth of the satellite (see figure 4) are
designated by the curve LEM of radius r. In the figure 4, 1=f(1) shows the trajectory of the
movement of the origin of the radius r in the sphero-spatial movement of the satellite, and
the function =f() represents the profile of the teeth of the central wheels described by the
flank wrap of the satellite teeth with the arbitrary profile LEM.
From the Euler kinematic equations, taking into account the kinematic relation
between the angles φ and ψ expressed by Z1 Z 2 , we get the trajectory of the
movement LEM 1=f(1) of the origin G of the radius of the circular arcs expressed by the
coordinates XG, YG, ZG depending on the crank shaft rotation angle :
X G R cos cos sin Z 1 Z 2 sin cos Z 1 Z 2 cos R sin sin sin ,
YG R cos sin sin Z 1 Z 2 cos cos Z 1 Z 2 cos R sin cos sin , 1
Z G R cos cos Z 1 Z 2 sin R sin cos .
where is the angle of the nutation;
– the angle of the conical axoid.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Active contact of the teeth in in the pressional gear with frontal reference
multiplicity = 100% (a) and = 66.6% (b).
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mathematical modelling of teeth contact in precessional transmission 25
We determine the equation of the wrap of the circular arcs family LEM on the sphere
of the radius R by jointly solving the equations describing the surfaces of the satellite teeth
flanks with circular arc profile [5]
X , Y , Z , XX G YYG ZZ G Rr cos 0
d
d
X ,Y , Z , 0 2
and the equation of the sphere surface
X 2 Y 2 Z 2 R2 0 3
For this, from the equations (2) and (3) we write
d X G Y G Z G
X Y Z ,
d
X G XG X Y Y
cos 3 G sin 3 G sin 3 G cos 3 ,
u u
Y G X X Y Y
G sin 3 G cos 3 G cos 3 G sin 3 ,
u u
Z G ZG
.
X G
R cos 1 cos cos2 R sin sin cos ,
YG
R cos 1 cos sin2 R sin sin sin , 4
ZG
R cos sin sin .
where 3= /u is the angle of rotation of the blank, u – the transmission ratio of the
kinematic chain main axis - blank, X G ,Y G , Z G – the coordinates of the G origin of the radius
of curvature of the tool in the coordinate mobile system OX 1Y 1 Z 1 , ZG ,YG , ZG – the
coordinates of the G origin of the radius of curvature of the tool in the fixed coordinate
system OXYZ [4];
After replacing (4) in (2) and (3) we obtain
XO
ab de ab de
2
1 a 2 d 2 R 2 b2 e 2 ,
2 2
1a d
YO aX O b, 5
ZO dX O e.
where,
Z X YG Z
a XG G ZG G ZG YG G ,
Z YG Z
b R2 cos G ZG YG G ,
d
X G aY G , e
R2 cos bY G
.
ZG ZG
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
26 V. Bostan, I. Bostan, M. Vaculenco, M. Țopa
Equations (5) describe the wrap of the circular arcs family on the sphere and
represent the teeth profile of the central wheels. In order to represent the teeth profile of
the central wheels in the normal section we project the wrap on the sphere on a P1 plane
and after a series of transformations we obtain the projection into the plane of the profile
of the central wheel teeth defined by the Cartesian coordinates:
Y Y Z Z
2 2 2 2
X X2 Z Z2
2 2
( E1E2 ) X X 1 Y Y2
1 1
,
2E1E2 2E1E 6
X X Y Y Z Z
2 2 2
1 1 1
2.
Remark 3: Based on the formation principle of the wrap of the circular arcs family (5) with the
origins located on the curve 1=f(1) there was developed the generation model through spatial
rotation and rolling of the teeth of the central wheel, which reproduces the geometry and
kinematics of the teeth interaction in the real precessional transmission.
4. Precessional convex-concave contact with transformable geometry
Position of the origins of the circular arcs G2 located on the curve 1=f(1) presented
in figure 4 by p. 1,2,3 … i correspond to the precession angles ψ of the crank shaft rising
from one pair of teeth to the other with the angular step 2 Z 2 Z 12 .
Depending on the precession phase of the satellite, each pair of teeth of the
conjugated wheels “satellite - central wheel” passes through three geometrical shapes of
contact. In the points k0, k1 and k2 located in the foot area of the teeth of the central wheel
the contact is convex-concave, in the points k3 and k4 – convex-rectilinear, and in the
contacts k5… k14 (figure 4, (a)) and k5… k8 (figure 4, (b)) the contact is convex-convex.
The radius of curvature at a certain point i of the teeth profile of the central wheel is
calculated according to the formula
X i X ci Yi Yci Z i Z ci
2 2 2
i 7
in which Xci, Yci, Zci are the coordinates of the center of curvature ci
1i 2i 3i
X ci , Yci , Z ci . 8
i i i
where i , 1i , 2i and 3i are the determinants of the equation system
i X i ci Yi 1 bi Z i 1
Yi ai Z i 1 ci X i 1 9
Z i bi X i 1 ai Yi 1 ,
1i di Yi Zi 1 Yi 1 Zi , 10
2i di Zi Xi 1 Zi 1 Xi , 11
3i di Xi Yi 1 Xi 1 Yi . 12
Figure 5 shows the variation of the difference of the curvature radius (ki – r) of the
teeth profile of the central wheel ki and of the teeth of the satellite with the radius r in the
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mathematical modelling of teeth contact in precessional transmission 27
contacts ki of the conjugated flanks, depending on the precession angle for the toothed
gears with different parametric configuration [Zg‒;±1].
The profiles of the teeth flanks of the central wheel are described by the function
=f() built according to the parametric equations of the wrapping 6 of the circular arcs
family of the radius r with the origin located on the trajectory of its movement 1=f(1). The
profile of the satellite teeth is prescribed by a curve in circular arc with the origin of the
curvature radii located on the same curve 1=f(1).
It is obvious that the bearing capacity of the gear increases if the geometry of the
teeth contact has the convex-concave shape, and based on the classical theory of teeth
contact as deformable bodies, the difference in radii of curvature of the conjugated flank
profiles tends to be minimal. This criterion in precessional transmissions with toothed gear
is achievable by two interdependent solutions:
1. By varying the configuration parameters [Zg‒;±1], which determines the shape of
the teeth profile of the central wheel;
2. By excluding from the gear the pair of teeth with convex-convex and/or convex-
rectilinear geometric contact, thus extending the contact area of the teeth with convex-
concave geometry.
Figure 5. The difference of the curvature radii (ki-r) of the teeth profiles of the central
wheel and of the satellite r in the contact ki depending on for Z1=Z2-1 and =22.5º
(Z1=24, Z2=25, =3.5º, =22.5º, r=6.27 mm, R=75 mm).
By multifactorial analysis of equations (2) - (6) and according to the condition of the
fundamental law of the gearing to ensure the constant transmission ratio, the modification
of the shape of the implicit teeth profiles and the performance characteristics of the
convex-concave contact of the conjugated flanks was argued.
5. Precessional convex-concave contact with low friction sliding between the flanks
Another important criterion for designing the geometry of the precessional toothed
contact is to minimize or exclude the relative friction sliding between the conjugated
flanks, which leads to an increase in the mechanical efficiency of the transmission
Based on these considerations there are determined the linear speeds of the teeth
contact point E separate for the point E1 which belongs to the tooth profile of the central
wheel and for E2 which belongs to the tooth profile of the satellite.
The position vector of the contact point of the conjugated teeth, which belongs to
the tooth profile of the central wheel E1 is identified by the following vector equation.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
28 V. Bostan, I. Bostan, M. Vaculenco, M. Țopa
rE1 rG2 G2E1 rG2 r 13
vG2 rG2
in which, G2E1 r R sin and rG2 rG cos , where: r – the position vector of
vG2 rG2
the point E1 against point G2 has the module equal to the curvature radius of the satellite
teeth profile with circular arc profile;
rG and rG - are the position vectors of the origin of the curvature radius of the satellite
2
teeth, respectively, both located on the directrix GO (see figure 6).
Figure 6. Vector diagram of vector positioning of contact point speeds VE 1 and VE2 on the
tooth profile of the central wheel and the satellite.
The position vector of the origin of the curvature radius rG can be expressed by the
2
coordinates X G2 , YG 2 , Z G2 , thus
rE1 rG2 G2E1 rG2 r ,
rG2 xG2 i y G2 j zG2 k, 14
rG2 xG2 i yG2 j zG2 k.
The motion trajectory on the radius sphere R of the origin of the curvature radius r of
the teeth profile G (XG, YG, ZG) of the satellite depending on the angle , in the fixed
coordinates system OXYZ is determined from relations:
XG R cos ( cos sin sin cos cos ) R sin sin sin ,
XG R cos ( cos sin sin cos cos ) R sin sin sin , 15
ZG R cos cos sin R sin cos .
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mathematical modelling of teeth contact in precessional transmission 29
The projections of the vector V E1 on the axes X, Y, Z is determined by the
expressions:
R sin
VE1 X x G2
a 2 a 2 a 2 a a a a a a a a ;
3 x y z x x x y y z z x
a 2x a 2y a z2
R sin 16
VE1Y y G2
a 2 a 2 a 2 a a a a a a a a ;
3 x y z y x x y y z z y
a 2x a 2y a z2
R sin
VE1 Z zG2
a 2 a 2 a 2 a a a a a a a a .
3 x y z z x x y y z z z
a 2x a 2y a z2
and the module of the contact point speed E1 depending on the precession angle is
determined by the relation
VE1 VE21X VE21Y VE21Z 17
The positioning of the speed vector of the contact point E2, which belongs to the
tooth profile of the satellite wheel according to the vectorial diagram figure 6, can be
represented by:
rE OE1 OE2 rE , 1 2
where,
OE1 xE1 i y E1 j zE1 k ,
18
OE2 x1E2 i1 y1E2 j1 z1E2 k1 .
To determine the coordinates of the contact point E2 we express the position of the
satellite through the versors i1 , j1 , k1 depending on the versors i , j , k and Euler angles , ,
:
x1E2 xE1 i y E1 j zE1 k i1 ,
y1E2 xE1 i y E1 j zE1 k j1 ,
z1E2 xE1 i y E1 j zE1 k k1 .
Analogously to p. E1 to calculate the speed of the contact point E2 we determine the
module of the contact point speed E2 on the satellite tooth profile according to the relation
VE2 x 12E2 y12E2 z12E2 19
where,
x 1 E 2 VE 2 x 1 VG 2 X 1
R sin
a 2
a 2y a z2 a x a x a x a y a y a z a z a x ;
3 x
a 2x a 2y a z2
y 1 E 2 VE 2Y1 VG 2Y1
R sin
a 2
a 2y a z2 a y a x a x a y a y a z a z a y ; 20
3 x
a 2x a 2y a z2
z1 E 2 VE 2 Z 1 VG 2 Z 1
R sin
a 2
a 2y a z2 a z a x a x a y a y a z a z a z .
3 x
a 2x a 2y a z2
Knowing the variation of the linear speeds of the contact points E1 and E2, it is
determined the variation of the relative sliding speed between the teeth flanks depending
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
30 V. Bostan, I. Bostan, M. Vaculenco, M. Țopa
on the angle , VE VE VE , presented in figure 9 for the precessional gear with
al 1 2
the co-ratio of the number of teeth Z1=Z2-1 (see figure 3, (d)).
Figure 7. The relative sliding speed Val between the teeth flanks depending on the angle ,
for Z1=Z2-1 (precessional gear Z1=24, Z2=25, =3.5º, =22.5º, =4.78º, r=6.27 mm, R=75 mm).
Also, there were analyzed the variations in linear speeds at the contact point of the
teeth VE and VE and their difference Val VE VE for the gears:
1 2 1 2
• figure 3, (e) with the co-ratio of the number of teeth Z1=Z2+1 and the angle of the
conical axoid =22.5º;
• figure 3, (f) with the co-ratio of the number of teeth Z1=Z2+1 and the angle of the
conical axoid =0º.
6. Kinematics and geometry of the convex-concave precession contact
The kinematics of the contact point of the teeth in precessional gear and the
geometrical shape of the conjugated flanks represent two determinant characteristics of
mechanical efficiency and bearing capacity of the contact.
The mechanical efficiency of the gear is the expression of the energy losses
generated by the frictional forces with sliding between the conjugated flanks and the
bearing capacity of the convex-concave contact depends on the difference in size of the
radii of curvature thereof.
For these reasons, contact kinematics and geometry are examined for gears with
parametric configurations [Zg‒;±1] that are different among them only through the co-
ration of the teeth number Z1=Z2±1 and the angle of the conical axoid ≥0º. Taking the
above into account, the generalized parametric configuration can be expressed by
Z1=24(25), Z2=25(24), =3,5º, =22,5º(0º), r=6,27 mm and R=75 mm.
The kinematics of the contact points k0, k1, k2 …ki corresponding to the crank shaft
positioning angles 0, 1, 2…i is characterized by varying the linear speeds VE 1 and VE2
and the relative sliding speed between the flanks Val . The geometry of the teeth contact in
ki
the points k0, k1, k2 …ki is characterized by the radii of curvature ki and r of the conjugated
profiles and their difference (ki-r). Tha analysis of the kinetics of the teeth contact is
performed for the frequency of the revolutions of the crank shaft n1=3000 min-1.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mathematical modelling of teeth contact in precessional transmission 31
Thus, for the gearing corresponding to the configuration [Zg‒;-1] with the co-ration
of the teeth numbers Z1=Z2-1 and the angle of the conical axoid =22.5º presented in figure
8, (a) the linear speed in the teeth contact k0 VE 9.83m / s , Valk 0.14m / s , and the
1 0
curvature radius of the teeth profile of the central wheel k 6.43mm of the satellite
0
wheel r=6.27 mm and their difference k r 0.16 mm (see figure 8, (b)).
0
Figure 8. The linear speeds at the contact point, VE , VE (a) and the difference in curvature
2 3
radii ( k r ) (b) of the conjugated profiles in the contact ki depending on for Z1=Z2-1 and
i
=22,5º (Z1=24, Z2=25, =3,5º, =22.5º, r=6.27 mm, R=75 mm).
With the increase of the angular coordinate from one conjugated pair to the other
with the step 2 iZ 2 / Z 12 for example: from the angular coordinate k 0 up to
0
k1 15.6 attributed to contact k1 the linear speeds VE 1 and VE2 decreases k1 registering in
contact k1 the difference Val VE k VE k 0.34 m / s and the difference of the curvature
k1 1 1 2 1
radii of the conjugated flanks in k1 k1 r 1.17mm ; in contact k2 corresponding to
k2 31.2 , Valk 2 0.67m / s and the difference of the curvature radii k2 r 9.55mm ; in
contact k3, corresponding to k 46.8 Val 0.99m / s , and the geometry of the teeth
3 k3
contact passes from convex-concave to convex-convex with the external curvature radius of
the teeth profile of the central wheel k3 57.66 mm .
The analysis of the gearing with parametric configuration [Zg‒;+1], the co-ratio of
the number of teeth Z1=Z2+1 (recommended for multipliers) and the angle of the conical
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
32 V. Bostan, I. Bostan, M. Vaculenco, M. Țopa
axoid =22.5º showed that in the contact of the teeth flank k0 the relative sliding speed
Valk 0 1.57 m / s and the difference of the curvature radii k0 r 4.53mm ; in k1
corresponding to k1 13.8 Valk 1 1.59m / s m/s and k1 r 4.91mm ; in k2
corresponding to k2 27.6 Valk 2 1.65m / s and k2 r 5.96 mm and in k3
corresponding to k3 41.4 Valk 3 1.71m / s and VE k3 r 7.73mm .
1
From the perspective of the research on the wear of the convex-concave contact of
the teeth it is necessary to analyze in complex the relative sliding speed Val between the
teeth flanks and the distances S1() and S2() made by the contact points E1 and E2,
respectively, on the teeth profiles of the central wheel and of the satellite depending on the
precession angle . The distances traveled by the contact point on the teeth profiles of the
central wheel S1 and satellite wheel S2 are considered equal to the distance traveled
between the positions determined by the angles k 0 and k 360 i Z2 Z12 , where
0 i
i=1,2,3… - the order number of the conjugated teeth pairs (see figure 4).
Taking into account the above, the distance traveled by the contact point E1 on the
teeth flank of the central wheel is determined by the formula
Z2
2 2 2
Z1 dxE1 dy E1 dzE1 t
2 2 2
S1 ( ) d x E1 y E1 zE1 dt 21
0 d d d 0
where, X E1 ,YE1 and ZE1 are the projections of the speed vector of the point E1 VE1 on the
axes X, Y and Z.
The distance traveled by the contact point in E2 on the profile of the teeth flank of
the satellite wheel in circular arc for the same values of the precession angle is
determined by the formula:
Z2
2 2 2
dx1E2 dy1E2 dz1E2
Z1 t
2 2
S2 ( ) d x1E2 y1E2 z1E2 dt 22
d d d
0 0
where, x 1E2 , y 1E2 , z1E2 are the projections of the speed vector of the point E2 on the
coordinate axes x1, y1, z1.
The distance S1() and S2() traveled, respectively, by the point E1 on the tooth flank
of the central wheel (21) and by the point E2 on the tooth flank of the satellite wheel (22) in
t
relation to time (or the precession angle ) are defined by the integral VE dt and can be
0
calculated according to Simpson’s formula
b
ba
f ( x )dx 3n [ y 0 ( y 1 y 3 y 5 ... y n1 )4 ( y 2 y 4 y 6 ... y n2 )2 y n ] 23
a
where, n – even number, y 0 f ( x 0 ) f ( a ) ; y i f ( x i ) ; y n f ( x n ) f ( b )
For example, the distance traveled by point E1 on the tooth flank of the central
wheel S1 in relation to time or the precession angle will be:
2 2 2
t t dxE1
dy E1 dzE1
S1 (t ) v E1 dt ( x E1 )2 ( y E1 )2 ( zE1 )2 dt d ( )d 24
0 d
0 0 d d 0
or in accordance with Simpson’s formula S1() it is
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mathematical modelling of teeth contact in precessional transmission 33
0
S1 ( ) [ 0 1 3 5 ...i 1 4 ( 2 4 6 ... i 2 )2 i ] 25
3i
Analogously, substituting in the formula (24) VE with VE we obtain the distance S2(i)
1 2
traveled by the point E2 on the tooth flank of the satellite wheel depending on the
precession angle .
The difference in the distances covered by the points E1 and E2 between their
common contact, for instance, in k0, corresponding to the precession angle =0 and their
position when =i represents the relative sliding between the teeth flanks of the
conjugated wheels, thus
Val S S 1 S 2 .
In figure 9 it is presented the variation of distances S1 and S2 traveled by the points
E1 and E2 between the positions defined with the angles k and k corresponding to the
0 i
contacts k0…ki of pairs of simultaneously engaged teeth and their difference S for the
toothed precessional gearing with the parameters Z1=24, Z2=25, =3.5º, =22.5º, r=6.27 mm
and R=75 mm.
In figure 9, (a) there are presented the distances traveled S1 and S2 and their
difference S from the teeth contact k0 ( =0) and up to each teeth contacts k1 … k4, only
for the first four pairs of bearing teeth conjugated as a result of the modification of the
shape of the teeth profile of the central wheel (that transmits the load), and in figure 9, (b)
it is presented the location topology on the teeth profiles of the central and satellite wheel
of the contact points Ei(1) and E i(2) for the same values of the precession angle .
From the analysis in figure 9, (a) it can be observed that between the teeth contacts
2 iZ 2
k0 and k1 corresponding to the angles =0 and k1 2
15,6 the difference in the
Z1
distances S1-S2 made by the contact points E1 and E2 is only 0.17 mm, between the contacts
k0 and k2 the difference in the distances covered is ΔS=0.57 mm, between the contacts k0
and k3 ΔS=1.25 mm, between k0 and k4 – ΔS=2.17 mm, between k0 and k5 ΔS=3.29 mm,
between k0 and k6 ΔS=4.57 mm, between k0 and k7 ΔS=5.94, and between k0 and k8
ΔS=7.35 mm.
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Distances S1 and S2 traveled by the contact points E1 and E2 between positions
with k0 and k8 and their difference S for the gear with the modified shape of the teeth
(a) and the location topology on the profiles of the similar contact points Ei(1) and E i(2) (b)
(precessional gear Z1=24, Z2=25, =3.5º, =22.5º, =4.78º, r=6.27, R=75 mm).
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
34 V. Bostan, I. Bostan, M. Vaculenco, M. Țopa
In order to diminish the relative sliding in the contact and, respectively, to increase
the mechanical efficiency of the gear, the teeth geometry of the central wheel and satellite
S is modified so that the difference in distances traveled ΔS by the contact points E1 and E2
is decreased. The difference in the distances traveled by the contact points E1 and E2 is an
important kinematic feature for the development of the tribological model of the teeth
contact.
For these reasons, by changing the shape of the central wheel teeth, we exclude the
teeth contacts from the gear (k5…k8) with a big difference ΔS in the distances covered by the
contact points E1 and E2. Thus, in the gear, we keep only the contacts k0 …k4 with a small
difference in the distances covered ΔS, to mention, with convex-concave geometry
favorable to the increase of the contact carrier (see figure 9).
Remark 4: The analysis of the gear kinematics and of the geometry of the conjugated flanks
contact in the same angular coordinates of the precession phase , allows the overall estimation
of the mechanical efficiency and the bearing capacity of the contact, also allows the
identification of favorable contact geometry for ensuring the optimum lubrication and of the
criteria for developing the tribological model of the contact.
7. Teeth generation by spatial rotation and rolling with convex-concave profiles and
in circular arc
The generation process of the teeth of central wheels in precessional gears basically
is based on the reproduction of the interaction of the teeth of the satellite wheel with the
profile in circular arc with the teeth of the central wheel, and on respecting the kinematics
in real precessional transmission.
To generate the teeth of the central wheel with convex / concave profile, there have
been developed three technological processes, distinguished by the geometry of the tool
and the shape of the contour generating it.
In the elaborated procedures [10], the tool in the shape of a truncated cone, a
peripheral profiled disk or cylindrical, performs sphero-spatial motion with the trajectory of
the movement of the center of the generator contour described in the OXYZ immobile
coordinate system with the equations:
X D Ru cos (1 cos )cos sin Ru sin sin sin;
YD Ru cos (sin2 cos cos ) Ru sin sin cos ; 26
Z D Ru cos sin cos Ru sin cos .
The profile of the teeth flanks of the central wheel is materialized by the wrap of the
contours generating family of the tool, determined by the equations of the generating
surface, for example of the tool in the shape of a truncated cone and by its relative
movement parameters of the tooth in the winding.
To simplify the determination of the wrap of the contours generating family it is
passed to the coordinates of the center D of the tool in the mobile coordinate system,
linked to the blank:
X D X D cos 3 YD sin 3;
YD X D sin 3 YD cos 3 ; 27
ZD ZD .
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mathematical modelling of teeth contact in precessional transmission 35
where X D , YD , Z D are the coordinates of the tool center in the mobile system of coordinates;
3 i is the rotation angle of the blank; i the transmission ratio of the kinematic chain
main axis blank. The equations (27) determine the movement trajectory of the center of
the tool, deployed on the sphere.
The teeth profile of the central wheel (blank) generated by spatial rotation and
rolling basically represents the positioning wrap depending on ψ of the generating contours
of the tool of the radius r projected on the sphere of the radius R described by the
equations (2)…(5). The generation procedure by spatial rotation and rolling with
precessional tool in the shape of a “truncated cone”. According to the procedure the tool
performs the sphero-spatial movement round the fixed point O, has the geometrical shape
of a truncated cone and reproduces the geometry and sizes of the bolt in the real
precessional transmission with bolts [10].
Figure 10, (a) shows the tooth profile shaping scheme of the central wheel through
the generation procedure with spatial rotation and rolling. To describe the evolving
formation of the imaginary tooth profile we analyze the interaction of the generating
contour of the tool with the processed tooth, in different phases of formation, respecting
the condition b = const., where , and b are the angular speeds, respectively the main
axis H of the machine-tool and the blank b. Thus, when rotating the main axis H with the
angle H = 360/16, the processed tooth moves from position 1 to position 2. The peripheral
part of the tool processes the tooth profile in the point 2'' when its center is in the point 2".
The process is then repeated. At a rotation of the main axis, the peripheral part of the tool
carries out the continuous processing of a tooth while the center of the tool will describe
the trajectory 1", 2", 3"...16".
(a) (b)
Figure 10. The position scheme of generation by spatial rotation and rolling of the teeth of
conical wheels, with the precessional tool in the shape of truncated cone (a) and samples of
manufactured toothed wheels (b, c).
Figure 17 (b) present the immobile central wheels with convex/concave profile of
the teeth generated by spatial rotation and rolling with the tool in the shape of truncated
cone.
To achieve the generation procedure by spatial rotation and rolling of the teeth with
convex-concave and variable profile, the construction of the tool holder device for teeth
generation has been developed according to the positioning scheme of the tool-blank in
figure 10, (a). The process summarizes the following: the tool (milling cutter or grinding
stone in the geometrical shape of a truncated cone) is communicated with a series of
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
36 V. Bostan, I. Bostan, M. Vaculenco, M. Țopa
coordinated movements with respect to the rotating blank. The kinematic connection of the
blank with the tool ensures the rotation of the blank with a tooth at a closed cycle of the
spatial movement communicated to the tool. The tool is assigned the kinematic link
between the „tool-frame of the machine-tool” respecting the function between the position
rotation angle of the tool and the rotation angle of the main axis , = ‒ arctg(costg).
In this case, through the process there may be generated a variety of convex /
concave profiles, including with longitudinal and profile modification.
Using the rolling kinematic chain of the tool-machine to grind the tool and the blank
are brought into a coordinated movement of spatial rotation-rolling, which reproduces the
engagement of the imaginary wheel with the blank. With each elementary change of the
tool’s position in space with respect to the blank, a part of the metal is removed. As a result,
the shape of the teeth flanks of the processed wheel, it is obtained the wrap of the family of
the consecutive positions of the profile generator contour of the rotating tool relative to the
blank.
The tool holder device shown in figure 11, (a) is adjusted to the grinding machines of
the models: 5K32P53, 5330P, 53A50, 5A60, 5342.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 11. Machine-tool with teeth generation device with the tool in the shape of a
truncated cone for generating the gear teeth by milling (a), rectification (b) and samples of
manufactured toothed wheels by rectification for transmissions with reducer (c), (d), (e) and
multiplier (f) regime.
8. Recommendations and constraints on TPD design
The TPD design with pre-set gear performance is achieved in the following
succession:
1. According to the transmission report i stipulated in the design specification, the
kinematic structure of the transmission 2K-H, K-H-V is identified or combined and the co-
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mathematical modelling of teeth contact in precessional transmission 37
ratio of the number of teeth for the gears Z1-Z2, and where appropriate Z3-Z4, is preventively
chosen.
2. Depending on the constructive, kinematic and dynamic requirements, including
load bearing capacity, compaction, mass and gauge, the configuration parameters [Zg‒;±1]
are preventively chosen.
3. According to the parametric equations of analytical description of the convex-
concave profile of the teeth (6), the profilograms of the teeth in contact are designed.
4. Based on the analysis of the teeth profilograms and the parametric configuration
[Zg‒;±1] there are calculated:
the reference gear multiplicity , %;
the difference in curvature of the teeth flank profiles of the central wheel i
according to (7) and of the satellite r in the contact points (i-r);
the relative sliding of the teeth flanks conjugated in the contact points Val
according to (16) and (20);
effective contact tension H considering the sliding in the contact.
5. Based on the analysis of load bearing capacity characteristics of the contact
calculated in p. 4 (, R-r, SE, H) the configuration parameters are changed [Zg‒;±1] and
according to p. 3 a new contact geometry is reprojected to pursue the goal of obtaining:
the minimum difference in curvature of the conjugate profiles (i-r);
minimal sliding of the teeth flanks in contact (SE) according to (21 and 22);
the minimum profile angle of the teeth of the central wheel (αw) (to reduce the
load of the crank shaft bearings and the satellite wheel), etc.
Taking into account the conditions for minimizing the relative sliding in the contact
of the flanks of the teeth SE, of the difference in the teeth flank curves in contact (ρ-r) mm
and of the profile angle of the teeth w:
the configuration of the geometric parameters of the gears (, , and Z) is
identified, which would ensure optimal reference multiplicity (2-3 pairs of teeth);
the configuration of the geometric parameters (, , and Z) of the gear is
identified, which would ensure w˂30º;
the height of the teeth of the satellite wheel and the central wheel is modified
(through shortening) so that we obtain the minimum allowable ratio of the relative sliding
in the contact of the gear teeth.
In order to diminish (exclude) the relative sliding SE between the active flanks of the
conjugated teeth with convex-concave contact, the gear teeth are executed at an angle of
inclination, so that by reducing the multiplicity of the reference gear ε to ensure optimal co-
ration between the front and the longitudinal teeth covering.
Figure 12, (a) shows the precession node with complementary assembly with the
electric motor. The overall design of the precessional gearmotor with toothed wheels of the
2K-H type with circular arc – concave contact of the teeth. The satellite wheel 1 has two
lateral crowns with the teeth 2 and 3 with circular arc profile and forms a whole in the
shape of a conical cupola with the crank shaft 4. The teeth of the crown 2 of the satellite
wheel 1 engage with the teeth of the immobile central wheel 5 mounted in the casing 6,
and the teeth of the crown 3 engage with the teeth of the mobile central wheel 7 mounted
on the drive shaft 8. The teeth of the central wheels 5 and 7 have concave profile described
with the parametric equations (6).
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
38 V. Bostan, I. Bostan, M. Vaculenco, M. Țopa
(a)
(b)
Figure 12. Precessional gearmotors with convex-concave gear of the teeth
with the crank shaft in the shape of a conical cupola, i=-124 (a)
and with the crank shaft in the tubular form, i=-90 (b).
(a) (b)
Figure 13. A series of kinematic precessional reducers with gears with convex-concave
contact of the teeth (a) and submersible precessional power-reducer (b).
The satellite wheel 1 is installed on the spherical ball bearing 9 located in the crank
shaft cavity 4 in the precession center area O and supported on the end of the driven shaft
8. At the other end, the crank shaft 4 is installed in the bearing 10 mounted on the shaft 11
of the electric motor 12 via the eccentric 13.
When rotating the shaft 11 of the electromotor 12, the rotation movement by means
of the eccentric 13 and the bearing 10 turns into the sphero-spatial movement of the
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mathematical modelling of teeth contact in precessional transmission 39
satellite wheel 1, thereby requiring the teeth of the conjugated wheels to engage and
achieve the reduction of rotation with the transmission ratio.
Z2Z 4
i 28
Z1 Z3 Z 2 Z 4
In the precessional gearmotor presented in figure 12, (b), the rotation movement of
the shaft 11 of the electric motor 12 is transformed into the sphero-spatial motion of the
satellite 1 by means of the bearing 14 mounted in the extension cavity of tubular form of
the satellite 1 which fulfills the function of the crank shaft. The bearing 14 is mounted on
the end of the eccentric 15 located at an angle to the axis of the shaft 11 of the electric
motor 12. The eccentric 15 is in turn mounted on the bearings 16 and 17 in the housing 18
of the reducer.
In the gearmotor in figure 12, (a), the electric motor and the precessional reducer
form an interdependent complementary structure, but in the gearmotor in figure 12, (b), the
precessional reducer is an independent individual structure that can be coupled to different
electric motors, modifying only the coupling cap.
Figure 13, (a) shows a series of kinematic precessional reducers with gears with
convex-concave contact of the teeth. Figure 13, (b) shows the precessional power reducer
with gears with convex / concave profile of the teeth of the central wheels designed for
submersible special technique with the following feature:
Power, kW 6;
Torque, Nm 2950;
Gear ratio - 144;
Efficiency 0.82;
Specific consumption of materials, kg/Nm 0.049;
Acoustic power level, dBa 60...75.
Remark 5: The geometry of teeth contact in the precessional gear is optimized by selective
design from the perspective of gaining concrete advantages. The analysis of the projected
profilogram looks like the profile angle of the teeth w =42º, w > 30º which results in increased
reactions in the bearings of the crank shaft 4 and the satellite wheel 1. At the same time, from
the analysis of the configuration parameters influence [Zg‒;±1] it is found that the angle θ has
the greatest influence on the profile angle αw.
Remark 6: Based on the analysis of the defining characteristics of the load bearing capacity of
the contact, namely the multiplicity of the reference gear %, of the difference in curvature of
the conjugated profiles (R – r) mm, of the relative sliding of the profiles in the contact SE mm and
effective contact tensions HE by repeatedly designing the profilograms of the conjugated teeth
the value configuration of the parameters , , r and z is identified for which we get minimum
values for %, (R – r) mm; SE, w and HE..
References
1. E. Wildhaber. Helical gearing. U.S. Patent nr. 1.601.750. (1926)
2. M. L. Novikov. Tooth gearings and also cam mechanisms with the dot system of gearing. Author's
certificates of the USSR Nr. 109113. (1956) (in Russian)
3. S. P. Radzevich. High-conformal gearing: A new look at the concept of Novikov gearing. In: Proceedings of
International Conference on Gears, October 5-7, 2015, Technical University of Munich. Garching, Germany,
pp. 1303-1314. (2015)
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
40 V. Bostan, I. Bostan, M. Vaculenco, M. Țopa
4. I. A. Bostan. Establishment of planetary precessional transmissions with multi-pair gearing. Doctoral
dissertation (Dr. Hab.), Moscow State Technical University of N. Bauman. Moscow. Volume 1, 511 p.,
Volume 2 (Annexes) 236 p. (1989) (in Russian)
5. I. A. Bostan. Precessional transmissions with multi-pair gearing. Chisinau, Stiinta, 356 p. ISBN: 5-376-
01005-08. (1991) (in Russian)
6. I. A. Bostan. Precession tooth gearing. SU 1455094 A1. MKI F 16 H 1/32. B.I. Nr. 4. (1989) (in Russian)
7. I. A. Bostan. Gearing for precessional transmissions. Chisinau, Stiinta, 146 p. ISBN: 5-376-004848. (1988) (in
Russian)
8. I. Bostan, V. Dulgheru, C. Gluşco, S. Mazuru, M. Vaculenco. Anthology of Inventions. Vol. 2. Precessional
Planetary Transmissions: The theory of generating of precession gears, dimensional control, computer
aided design, industrial applications, descriptions of the invention. (Monography). Chisinau, Bons Offices.
542 p. ISBN 978-9975-80-283-3. (2011) (in Romanian)
9. V. Bostan. Mathematical models in Engineering. (Monography). Chisinau, Bons Offices, 470 p., ISBN 978,
9975-80-831-6. (2014) (in Romanian)
10. Patent. I. Bostan, I. Babaian. Manufacturing procedure of the profile modified teeth of precessional gears.
S.U. 1663875 A1.MCI B23 F9/06. (1988) (in Russian)
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 41 - 46
Fascicle Industrial Engineering ISSN 2587-3474
Topic Mechanical Engineering and Technologies eISSN 2587-3482
10.5281/zenodo.2640034
CZU 62-23
CLASSICAL AND MODERN KINEMATIC ANALYSIS APPLIED
FOR MECHANISM STUDY
Iulian Malcoci*, Marin Guţu
Technical University of Moldova, 168, Ștefan cel Mare Bd., MD-2004, Chișinău, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding author: Iulian Malcoci, [email protected]
Received: December, 16, 2018
Accepted: February, 05, 2019
Abstract. Mechanism kinematic analysis is usually used for motion study or for simulating
and analyzing the movement of mechanical assemblies and the whole mechanism. In this
paper we will consider kinematical analysis regarding the simplest crank mechanism
without taking into account forces that cause the mechanism motion. The authors have
used a calculation model and a calculation algorithm that allowed the definition of
kinematic parameters of the mechanism, including crank displacements, angular velocities
and acceleration, angular speeds and acceleration. All calculations were performed using a
few grapho-analytical (classical) application methods and the Mathcad mathematical
package. The results of the calculations are reported as numerical values and graphic
presentations.
Keywords: crank mechanism, grapho-analytival method, instant center of rotation, Mathcad
software, velocity distribution.
Introduction
Kinematics study in this paper will be performed regarding crank mechanism (Figure
1) with following initial data:
Figure 1. Studied crank mechanism.
- crank angular speed 1 31,41 [s -1 ] constant;
- the lengths OA r 0,25[m]; AB b 0,5[m]; AC 0,3[m].
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
42 Iu. Malcoci, M. Guţu
To determine velocity distribution we will use several classical methods like rotation
instantaneous center method, the revers method, the projection method, the velocity plan and
the vector equations method at certain mechanism position when 30.
The rotation instantaneous center method
As you can see (Figure 1), point A performs rotational motion around the axis O with
angular speed 1 . In this case we can determine velocity using “Eq.(1)” [2, 4]:
( OA, 1 ) : vA 1 OA [m / s] (1)
v A 31,41[ s 1 ] 0.25 [ m] 7,85 [ m / s ] .
To apply rotation instantaneous center method we draw the mechanism (Figure 2) with
scale factor l 0.01
m
.
mm
Figure 2. The rotation instantaneous center method.
Because the piston performs translational motion along the horizontal axis Ox it
results B //Ox. In order to obtain the instantaneous rotation center I2 we draw
perpendicular line to the speed carrier A and B (Figure 2).
Using “Eq.(1)” for rotational motion we can determine angular velocity 2 around I2:
OA 25 [ mm ]
2 A 1 31,41[ s 1 ] 14 [ s 1 ],
I2 A I2 A 56 [ mm ]
and
I B 41 [ mm ]
B 2 I 2 B 1 OA 2 31,41 [ s 1 ] 0,25 [ m ] 5,75 [ m / s ].
I2 A 56 [ mm ]
Likewise we can obtain the velocity of the C point:
I 2C 41[mm]
vC 2 I 2 C 1 OA 31,41[ s 1 ] 0.25 [m] 5,75[m/s].
I2 A 56 [mm]
The reverse method
Velocity of point A is perpendicular to OA and the module is equal to vA 1 OA,
and point B velocity is parallel to Ox axis. If we reverse (rotate) velocity A with
2
(clockwise) we will obtain point A’ (Figure 3) [2,6]. From point A’ we draw a parallel line
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Classical and modern kinematic analysis applied for mechanism study 43
with AB till point B’. Next we reverse the BB’ segment with counterclockwise and we get
2
the velocity vB at the scale.
To get the velocity of the C point, first we draw the rotation instantaneous center I2
as in the example above and obtain CC’ segment, which also has to be reversed with
2
counterclockwise and we get the velocity vC at the scale (Figure 3).
Figure 3. The reverse method.
The projection method
This method supposes that we know everything about point A velocity (module,
direction, sense). From head vector vA we take a perpendicular and get the projection AA’
(Figure 4) [4,6]. Projections BB’ is equal to projection AA’, from point B’ we draw a
perpendicular line to Ox axis and obtain head of the vector vB . Using the projection and the
collinearity theorem we obtain the head of vector vC .
Figure 4. The projection method.
The velocity plan and the vector equations method
This method is a grafo-analytical method and it is based on Euler's velocities
equations for plane-parallel motion “Eq.(2)” [4, 6]:
v B v A v BA (2)
____
where v BA AB is point B velocity towards point A. If we imagine that point A is
fixed and point B is released by the piston, in this case we get a rotational motion of point
B around A and for rotation motion we know v BA AB .
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
44 Iu. Malcoci, M. Guţu
The different velocities are represented in an arbitrary plan as vectors, with the
modules reduced to the scale coefficient, velocity scale coefficient V . In this plane, called the
velocity plan, the null speed point is called the velocity pole and is marked with p.
In the velocity plans, relationships like “Eq.(2)” are used, which are vector equations
and it is solved graphically by constructing the velocity plan (Figure 5,b). Further using this
method we will determine the velocity distribution for the crank mechanism for a certain
mechanism position 30 (Figure 5, a).
Figure 5. The velocity plan and the vector equations method.
To apply the velocity plan and the vector equations method we draw the mechanism
(Figure 5, a) with scale factor l 0.01
m
.
mm
First of all, like in the rotation instantaneous center method we will determine point
A velocity v A 31,41[ s 1 ] 0.25[m] 7,85[m / s ].
To start constructing velocity plan, firstly we adopt velocity scale coefficient V , so
that velocity vA does not exceed 50[mm] in velocity plane (Figure 5, b):
vA 7,85[ m / s ] m / s
V 0,15 .
50[ mm ] 50[ mm ] mm
The next step, we pass the point A velocity through the chosen scale coefficient V :
vA 7,85[m / s ]
pa 52 [mm ].
V m / s
0,15
mm
Now we can start velocity plan construction from pole p (Figure 5, b). Because
pa v A 52 [ mm ] and we know that v A ( OA , 1 ) , from point p we draw perpendicular
line to OA and deploy 52[mm] regarding 1 direction and obtain point a. Next we can
determine point B velocity using a grafo-analytical method and Euler's velocities equations
for plane-parallel motion “Eq.(2)”, when we consider that point B moves against point A:
B A : (// Ox ) v B v A v BA ( AB ) ,
now we are transposing the vector equation into the velocity plane, from velocity
pole p we draw a parallel line to Ox and from point a perpendicular one to AB, at the
intersection of these lines we obtain point b (Figure 5, b).
To determine point C velocity we will use theory of similarity and and we will write
the similarity report:
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Classical and modern kinematic analysis applied for mechanism study 45
AC ac AC 30[mm]
ac ab 46[mm] 28 [mm].
AB ab AB 50[mm]
After the velocity plan construction (Figure 5, b) you can simply determine velocities:
m / s
v BA ab V 47 [ mm ] 0,15 7,05 [ m / s ].
mm
Velocities distribution using MathCad software
As initial input we will consider the same crank mechanism (Figure 1), with similar
initial data like in Introduction above. In the MathCad environment first we write the
equation with which we will determine the velocities and parameters that interest us [1, 3].
Angle variation over time t:
(t ) : 1 t . (3)
Point A position variation over time t:
YA (t ) : r sin ( (t )). (4)
Angle variation over time t:
YA (t )
(t ) : atan . (5)
b
Poin B motion law over time t (Figure 6) [3, 5]:
X B (t ) : r cos ( (t )) b cos ( (t )), t : 0s, 0.1s, ... 2s. (6)
80
70
XB( t ) 60
50
cm
40
30
20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t
Figure 6. Point B motion graph obtained in MathCad.
Determination of point B velocity (Figure 7) [3,5]:
d
VB (t ) : X B (t ) . (7)
dt
10
5
VB( t )
m
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
s
5
10
Figure 7. Point B velocity graph obtained in MathCad.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
46 Iu. Malcoci, M. Guţu
Determination of point B acceleration (Figure 8) [3, 5 ]:
d
a B (t ) : V B (t ) . (8)
d (t )
200
aB( t)
m
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
2 200
s
400
Figure 8. Point B acceleration graph obtained in MathCad.
Point C trajectory determination (Figure 9) [3, 5]:
b b
X C (t ) : r cos ( (t )) cos ( (t )); YC : sin ( (t )). (9)
2 2
20
10
YC( t)
cm 0 10 20 30 40 50
10
20
XC( t)
cm
Figure 9. Point C trajectory obtained in MathCad.
Conclusions
After we perform kinematic study of crank mechanism with both classical method
and modern one, we can conclude that using MathCad software we obtain more exact and
concluding result, but in this case we have to write the proper and correct equations. For
future work, we intend to demonstrate the veracity of the results obtained in Mathcad with
the results obtained by the grapho-analytical way.
References
1. Hroncová, D., Frankovský, P., Bettes, G. Kinematical Analysis of Crank Slider Mechanism with Graphical
Method and by Computer Simulation. In: American Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 7, 2016,
pp. 329-343.
2. Simón Mata, A., et al., Fundamentals of Machine Theory and Mechanisms. Switzerland: Springer Press, 2016.
Chapter 2: Kinematic Analysis of Mechanism. Relative Velocity and Acceleration. Instant Center of Rotation,
pp. 21-110.
3. Maxfield, B. Essential MATHCAD for engineering, science and Math. Burlington: Elsevier Press, 2009.
4. Macarișin, S., Sochirean, A., Malcoci, Iu. Teoria Mecanismelor și Mașinilor [Theory of Mechanisms and
Machines]. Chișinău: U.T.M. Press, 2009.
5. Balan, V., Marina, V. MATHCAD. Ghid de utilizare. [MATHCAD. User guide]. Chișinău: U.T.M. Press, 2008.
6. Rădoi, M., Deciu, E. Mecanica [Mechanics]. București: Didactical and Pedagogical Press, 1993.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 47 - 60
Fascicle Industrial Engineering ISSN 2587-3474
Topic Applied Engineering Sciences and Management eISSN 2587-3482
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640037
CZU 656.1:614.86
MODERN ROAD SAFETY ELEMENTS OF THE PEDESTRIANS
Vasile Plămădeală
Technical University of Moldova, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Transport,
9/8, Studentilor Str., MD-2045, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
Corresponding author: Vasile Plămădeală, [email protected]
Received: January, 15, 2019
Accepted: March, 15, 2019
Abstract. More than 270000 pedestrians die annually on roads across the world,
accounting for about 22% of the total number of people killed in road accidents. In
addition, millions of pedestrians are traumatized, some of them become disabled for life.
The pedestrian is the most vulnerable road traffic victim. Compared to drivers, they are not
physically protected, and road accidents with their involvement often become a tragedy –
usually the pedestrian gets serious injuries, including incompatible with life. The article
contains a brief description of the pedestrian-driver relationship, the statistics of road
accidents with the involvement of pedestrians in the Republic of Moldova, the modern
practices and technologies applied in some countries regarding the efficient organization
of the pedestrian safety.
Keywords: pedestrian, pedestrian crossing, sidewalk, traffic attendant, road accident, artificial
road roughness, resonant tapes, tactile indicators.
Pedestrian, according to the Road Traffic Regulation, is the person who is on the road
outside the vehicle and does not carry out work. Most pedestrians are walking people,
walking to or from work, school, shop etc., doing physical activity, walking, cycling,
cyclomotoring, motorcycling, snowmobiling, carrying a shopping carriage, baby stallers or
wheelchairs for people with disabilities, so everyone at one point is like a pedestrian, even
if some only for short periods of time.
Among the conflicts that take place in the traffic flow between the various traffic
participants, there is also the „eternal conflict” between the driver and the pedestrian. To
understand the essence of the conflict, perhaps, only the pedestrian who becomes the
driver is able to. Such a person rightly appreciates the fluctuations of life and how
unprotected the pedestrian is, and on the other hand, he understands the impossibility of
stopping the car immediately in the event of unexpected appearance of the pedestrian in
sight. It is very difficult to appreciate the level of danger and to understand the driver's way
of thinking by the pedestrian without the experience of driving the car and without the
essential knowledge of the Road Traffic Regulation. This is the main cause of the driver-
pedestrian conflict issue.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
48 V. Plămădeală
One of the main issues that arise is pedestrian behavior. Usually, when walking,
people choose the shortest way, and if they go with a well-established purpose, they do not
want to consume too much time, so they often follow the rules to the extent they think it is
necessary. The shortest route does not imply the mandatory use of passages or pedestrian
crossings, especially if this means an additional walking distance. It may also fail to observe
the red signal of the traffic light in case of longer waiting. In addition, pedestrians tend to
pay less attention to traffic on familiar routes than in unknown circumstances.
According to the Road code, pedestrians are obliged to travel only on the sidewalk,
footpaths or on the adjacent trails to the public road, and, in the absence of these, on the
left side of the road, or, as close to the left edge of the road as possible, in the direction of
the vehicles’ flow, without disturbing the movement of vehicles, showing greater caution. In
the case of traveling on the road or on the verge at night, or in low visibility conditions,
pedestrians must wear fluorescent-reflective clothing. Pedestrians have priority over
passage to vehicle drivers only when engaged in crossing public roads through specially
arranged, marked and appropriately marked places, or the green pedestrian traffic light. The
crossing of the public road by the pedestrians is done perpendicular to the axis of the road,
only through the specially arranged and appropriately marked places, and in the absence of
these at the intersections, on the sidewalks or moorings lines, only after they have made
sure that they can do it without danger to them and for other road users.
On pedestrian crossings, regardless of their type, pedestrians have priority over
vehicles. For this reason, there are pedestrians who consider that they have absolute rights
on pedestrian crossing and are „thrown” practically from the sidewalk, on the road and
without being insured in the absence of vehicles in the vicinity. In terms of choosing the
shorter route, some of the pedestrians are not able to properly assess their physical
possibilities and the danger, the speed of the cars, when they choose to cross through
unauthorized places, as evidenced by the accidents caused by the surprise of the
pedestrians for the „suddenly appeared” cars.
The mere existence of pedestrian walkways and pedestrian passages is not a
guarantee of their efficiency. Physical measures that would limit the risky behavior of
pedestrians, increase the attention of drivers and appropriate education in this regard are
necessary. Last but not least, sanctions are very important, applied to both pedestrians and
other road users. Many accidents have occurred in recent times on pedestrian crossings due
to both inattentive drivers and unfavorable location for pedestrian crossings.
In this context, building pedestrian crossings in well thought out areas, even if
drivers are being disturbed by them, is essential. Pedestrian crossings must be located in
places that are already used by pedestrians. A good design of these is important for
ensuring road safety.
An undefeated action of the pedestrian becomes a nightmare for the driver, because
in 90% of cases for the pedestrian violations the driver is held accountable. This is because
the law says the following: Even if the pedestrian has broken the rule, the driver must
foresee his actions and refrain from admitting the road accident.
The driver must be prepared for any unexpected actions from the part of the
pedestrians. Particular attention should be paid to children, older people and inebriant
people, other undisciplined pedestrian, that break the traffic rules and intersect the
roadway in places that are not allowed, near the moving vehicles. In such situations, the
driver must show care, patience and goodwill in relation to them.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Modern road safety elements of the pedestrians 49
It should also be noted that:
1. Pedestrians are the largest category of traffic participants, characterized by lack of
organization.
2. Some of the pedestrians do not know the traffic regulations. Other pedestrians know
the Road Traffic Rules insufficiently and consciously violate them.
3. The pedestrian, who crosses the road and suddenly notices the vehicle, is, usually, lost
and tends to turn back.
4. Older people are characterized by reduced mobility, hearing and poor vision, delayed
reaction and inadequate responsiveness to the dynamic features of vehicles.
5. The group of pedestrians, waiting at cross the road, in the case of intense transport,
poses a greater danger over a solitary pedestrian.
6. If at the edge of the road there are children, it must be taken into account that they are
impatient and inattentive.
7. The field of vision for children is one third of the adult field of vision and often
misrepresents the direction and speed of the vehicles.
8. Children can cross the road ahead directly in front of the vehicle, looking only in front
of it.
9. Pedestrian use of umbrellas and the presence of hoods on the head limits visibility, and
the noise of the rain disturbs the noise of vehicles.
10. In winter, the pedestrians worse hear the noise of the vehicles. They can also slip
unexpectedly on the slippery road.
11. Behavior of inebriant pedestrians is unpredictable. They can unexpectedly change their
way direction, or fall.
Road accidents involving pedestrians make up about 40% (during 2000-2018) of the
total number of accidents (table 1). Most of the acccidents take place in localities. They are
created in places of frequent pedestrian use: pedestrian crossings, routing stations,
intersections etc.
Every road accident occurred every year (5357, or 10,75% of the total number of
road accidents).
Table 1.
Frequency of road accidents (years 2000-2018)
Road Road traffic
Road % of the total % of the total
accidents accidents
The year accidents number of number of road
involving involving
in total road accidents accidents
pedestrians children
1 2 3 4 5 6
2000 2580 1269 49,19 491 19,03
2001 2666 1237 46,40 496 18,60
2002 2899 1369 47,22 518 17,87
2003 2670 1289 48,28 440 16,48
2004 2447 1122 45,85 373 15,24
2005 2289 1041 45,48 342 14,94
2006 2298 1006 43,78 316 13,75
2007 2437 1054 43,25 360 14,77
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
50 V. Plămădeală
Table 1. Continuation
1 2 3 4 5 6
2008 2875 1079 37,53 635 22,09
2009 2755 1066 38,69 536 19,46
2010 2930 1071 36,55 544 18,57
2011 2826 1006 35,60 564 19,96
2012 2712 935 34,48 557 20,54
2013 2603 980 37,65 485 18,63
2014 2564 886 34,56 411 16,03
2015 2527 831 32,88 357 14,13
2016 2479 835 33,68 387 15,61
2017 2640 997 37,77 371 14,05
2018 2613 946 36,20 414 15,84
Total 49911 20019 40,19 8597 17,26
Infringements committed by pedestrians who have caused more frequent road
accidents have been:
crossing the street without previously ensuring about the security;
crossing the street in forbidden places;
irregular traffic on the road;
exit unexpectedly after vehicles, obstacles.
Road traffic accidents where children suffered were 8597 or 17,26% of the total
number of road accidents, resulting in a loss of 602 children or 8,11% of the total, and
8757 children or 14,46% (figure 1) were traumatized.
Because of the children's own fault, 1810 road accidents occurred (figure 1), 114
children died and 1682 children were traumatized.
10000
8597 8757
9000
8000
7000
Road accidents
6000 Dead
Traumatized
5000
4000
3000
1810 1682
2000
1000 602
114
0
Figure 1. Children who have suffered road accidents (years 2000 – 2018).
Projects that are adapting the road to pedestrian traffic are multiple, mostly based
on a general principle formulated by russian designer Artemii Lebedev: in order to reduce
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Modern road safety elements of the pedestrians 51
the number of accidents on pedestrian crossings, it is necessary to highlight and illuminate
not the indicator, but the person who crosses the road.
Air zebra (figure 2). According to the project, proposed by Lebedev's studio, a
flashlight system hangs over the pedestrian crossing, which duplicates the road marking.
Thus, the need for indicators is virtually gone, pedestrian and pedestrian crossing are
illuminated and well-seen from afar, even when the road mark is not visible due to snow or
mud on the road. Air zebra makes the crossing visible from afar at night and in other low-
visibility conditions, illuminating pedestrians on the road, thus raising traffic safety.
Figure 2. „Air zebra”. Figure 3. Smart pedestrian crossing.
The Cambrils municipality of Tarragona province is the first city in Spain, where an
„smart” pedestrian crossing has been built. The pressure sensors, directly mounted in
„zebra”, recognize the approach of the pedestrians and illuminate the LEDs, located both on
the road signs installed on both sides of the passage, as well as on the traditional mark on
the road surface (figure 3): the objective consists in warning the leaders about the presence
of pedestrians.
The „Smart pedestrian crossing” is the fruit of the Urban Lab project, where several
solar-powered bus stations appeared in the catalan city, as well as a power station for
electric cars. In addition, traffic lights were equipped with LEDs.
The project is a part of the „iCambrils” plan, which involves the implementation of
new technologies to improve the quality of life for citizens. Thanks to modern technologies,
not only pedestrian and vehicle safety is raised, but a significant saving in energy
consumption and the use of renewable energy sources is achieved.
In 2012, south korean designer Khojon Lim created another concept of „Smart
crossing” – Guardian (figure 4), a little more difficult to build and implement, but quite
visible.
According to Lim's idea, the crossing area for pedestrians is limited by four columns,
each of which is embedded with a laser beam generator. When the road is open for
crossing, the red rays visually „cut off” the cars, serving as a visible but intangible barrier.
When the red light burns for pedestrians, the beam separates people from the road.
Laser rays are also visible in the dark. The idea is not bad because it works at a
psychological level: it is possible for someone not to run the red signal if a red line „hangs”
in front of him at the chest level, thus saving his life.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
52 V. Plămădeală
In fact, there are a lot of other similar concepts – up to the „intelligent” illumination
of each pedestrian, those who cross at green signal – in green, and the ones at the red
signal – in bright red.
Figure 4. Inteligent crossing – Guardian.
Another idea of implementing the „smart” pedestrian crossing (figure 5, a) is to
prevent the pedestrians, through a beep, from being aware of the danger on the road. For
example, if an over-speeding car moves on the way to the pedestrian crossing, the „smart”
pedestrian crossing begins to signal.
The algorithm for this pedestrian crossing takes into account the speed of the car,
the road and climate conditions, the road clothing temperature. The system evaluates the
likelihood of the car stopping in front of the pedestrian crossing, and if it is found that the
car under the given conditions can not stop in front of the mark, the corresponding
signaling is connected.
a) b)
Figure 5. Smart Pedestrian Crossing.
In the case when a man approaches a pedestrian crossing, light signaling is
connected. During the day, only when the sensor records motion, the indicator illuminates
and reaches the traffic light. If, for any reason, the sensor does not fire, it is possible to
connect the illumination and the green signal of the traffic light by pressing a special
doubling button. During the night additional auxiliary lanterns are also connected
disconnecting them after 3,5 minutes after the pedestrian has left the pedestrian crossing.
The project also proposes to illuminate the road mark in the color of the traffic lights
signal (figure 5, b).
Not once we did become witnesses of the situation when an inattentive or very
rushed driver, talking on the phone or engaged in discussions with the passengers etc.,
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Modern road safety elements of the pedestrians 53
without observing the traffic light signal at the pedestrian crossing, endangered the life of
pedestrians crossing the street . Designer Hanyoung Lee proposes the concept of laser
design (figure 6) for pedestrian crossing to prevent the situation described above.
Figure 6. Pedestrian crossing with laser projection systems.
The idea is that laser projection systems are installed on both sides of the road in the
area of the pedestrian crossing. After the traffic light signal is connected to ban cars
passing, the laser system triggers and crosses the road to create an image of a network of
people moving red contours. This image naturally draws the attention of the driver, who is
distracted from the road, creating a kind of barrier between cars and pedestrians.
For non-compliant drivers, such a laser system can act as a sensor to fix the violation
by activating the camera recording the violation and vehicle number. For drivers, however,
who have stopped in front of the „wall” of the laser, images with a character of
entertainment or advertising can be displayed on this wall, thus shortening the waiting
time.
Another laser design concept directed at pedestrian crossings, provides for a red wall
in front of the pedestrian passage, with the inscription „STOP”, which visually restricts the
passage of drivers (figure 7, a). A similar project, but for unruled pedestrians crossings was
created by an inventor from Kazakhstan (figure 7, b). When approaching the pedestrian, the
lasers illuminates the road marks and projects a luminous wall on the road, which visually
blocks the way of the drivers. According to the creators, the walkthrough for laser
pedestrians can work in any weather and time of day, being more useful at night and in low
visibility conditions. The laser is not affected by rain, fog, wind and snow as well as
temperature drops. The electronics work at both -50 °C and +50 °C. The system is powered
by solar and wind power.
a) b)
Figure 7. Pedestrian crossing with laser design systems.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
54 V. Plămădeală
A group of creative architects, designers and creative technologists, collectively
called Umbrellium, have developed a new vision of a pedestrian crossing known to
everyone. The Starling Crossing project aims to create „smart” pedestrian passages (figure 8)
to help people cross the road by drawing a real-time „zebras”, as well as, stopping lines and
signs for drivers, suggesting the moment of slowing down and stopping.
The prototype of this system was temporarily installed in southern London. The
entire passage area is monitored by cameras, where images are stored in a neural network,
capable of recognizing pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles. The network can also determine
the location and speed of each traffic participant, allowing for the anticipation of their next
steps.
Figure 8. Crossing for intelligent pedestrians – The Starling Crossing.
The road surface in the pedestrian crossing area is designed to withstand the weight
of any vehicle, and to prevent slipping, even in heavy rain. LEDs are incorporated in the
road, the light of which is visible from all directions at any time of the day. They trace the
road marks along the way.
The system can only be programmed when it notices the pedestrian, or can increase
the width of the passage to deal with the high traffic of pedestrians. It is noteworthy that
the „zebra” is traced by the system at the last moment, which requires pedestrians to wait
until all the cars stop. For pedestrians looking at smartphones, a separate function is
invented. The system traces (draws) warning signs around them. This leads to the
restoration of the pedestrians' attention and the safe passage of the road.
The developers of this project have noticed that the decision of many pedestrians to
cross the road depends on the other pedestrians decision, who can choose risky ways and
routes of crossing. Using special cameras located at each end of the street, the system's
technological brain monitors the situation on the road section and includes LED panels to
ensure pedestrian safety. The program can count the number of people on the roadside and
can adjust the width of the pedestrian crossing. Cameras also respond to emergency
situations, for example, a child who has gone on the road after the ball: the red arrows
(figure 9) indicate to the driver the place where the child can reach the road.
No one likes to wait, so traffic lights and pedestrian crossings are considered to be
some of the most dangerous places for pedestrians in town. In order to shorten and make
the green signal of the traffic light more pleasant, Smart company has proposed an original
solution to this effect, realizing it in the capital of Portugal – Lisbon, later, being taken over
by other countries. The idea lies in the following: near the traffic light, which drives the
traffic on a busy street, a large cabin is installed, where any one can enter, choose his
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Modern road safety elements of the pedestrians 55
favorite music and starts dancing. All movements of the dancer in the cabin are
immediately transmitted on the signboard and the red figure starts dancing (figure 10). The
dance is broadcasted only at the red traffic light signal. If there is no one in the cabin, the
traffic light works in the usual mode. As a result, instead of pedestrians trying to cross the
road, regardless of the signal of the traffic light, they watch charmed the movements of the
human figure on the traffic light. According to the study, more than 81% pedestrians stop at
the red traffic light signal as usual.
Figure 9. Proiectul The Starling Crossing. Figure 10. Semaphor „dancer”
All the modern innovations and technologies for pedestrian safety described above
require enormous investment. An idea that requires fewer investments would be the use of
simulators, such as resonant bands when approaching pedestrian crossing or artificial road
roughness, replacing the usual pedestrian crossing marking and the one of artificial road
roughness with a with 3D one etc., that would require reducing the speed of traffic due to
illusion.
3D Pedestrian Crossing (figure 11). Road safety has received a new dimension. Road
markings from pedestrian crossing are made as optical illusions that give the impression
that „zebra” is three-dimensional. The innovative design gives pedestrians the feeling of
„floating” as they cross the street. Drivers, however, attract their attention and they reduce
the speed they are moving. The idea is not a new one, being borrowed from India's capital,
New Delhi, where 3D pedestrian crossings have been built to reduce vehicle speeds on the
roads and to reduce the alarming number of accidents at pedestrian crossings. So dyed,
passages give the impression that there are obstacles that can be tamped by cars,
automatically causing speed reduction or even braking.
Figure 11. 3D Pedestrian crossing. Figure 12. 3D artificial road roughness.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
56 V. Plămădeală
An alternate of 3D pedestrian crossings could also 3D artificial road roughness
(figure 12).
Resonant bands are means of lifting road traffic safety. When driving over resonant
bands, the driver feels the significant impact of vibration and noise, which in turn
contributes to increased traffic attention, warning of the proximity to a dangerous sector of
the road, for example, pedestrian crossing.
Unlike artificial bumps, the resonant bands, without significantly affecting the
suspension of the vehicle, generate discomfort for both the driver and the passenger,
signaling an unfavorable traffic situation.
The application of resonant bands is recommended for the dangerous sections of
motorways with increased traffic intensity, which require changing the speed regime or the
direction of movement. On the streets of the city, the resonant bands are seldom used due
to the fact that speed limitation of 50 km/h does not produce the expected noise and
vibration effect.
Artificial road roughness is an element of forced vehicle speed reduction and one of
the measures to alleviate road traffic. With the main purpose of reducing speeds of up to
30 km/h and lower, which is safe for pedestrians, it performs well, but it also has a number
of disadvantages: the creation of traffic jams, especially on high-traffic roads; causing
damage to vehicle suspension; increasing traffic noise; causing discomfort to the driver and
passengers; causing problems for emergency services and road vehicles; distracting drivers'
attention, thus ignoring other hazards, such as pedestrians; increasing air pollution in the
area; increased fuel consumption etc.
To reduce the number of disadvantages listed, Spain's Badennova manufacturer
proposes a new innovation: fluid-based speed limiters (figure 13). When passing vehicles
over the swelling of artificial road roughness at the speed prescribed by the indicator, it
does not show resistance, therefore it does not cause damage to vehicles and discomfort to
drivers and passengers. In the case when the driver exceeds the speed prescribed by the
indicator, the viscous fluid hardens and becomes rough as a bitter asphalt.
Figure 13. Badennova artificial road roughness.
This behavior is due to a non-newtonian fluid, which is the filling material of the
bumping and which manifests itself differently than the water. By crossing artificial bumps
at low speed, the liquid, due to its viscosity, turns into a lubricant and manages to fill its
gaps between the particles, at high speed, due to increased friction force, this fluid rapidly
increases viscosity. The fluid is biodegradable, non-toxic, non-contaminating. Also, this
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Modern road safety elements of the pedestrians 57
material proved to be particularly resistant to adverse meteorological conditions, vandalism
and increased transport flow, said Andaltec, a leader in the plastics industry. Most
importantly, the fluid inside can be chosen depending on the imposed circulation speed and
is not dependent on the ambient temperature.
The swedish company Edeva has developed an artificial road roughness with an
unusual construction (figure 14): it is not elevated from the surface of the road, on the
contrary, it „sinks” into it, but only when necessary.
In order not to pay for overtaking the speed of repairing the car suspension and not
to withstand the unpleasant strokes, it is necessary to reduce the speed of passing over the
artificial abrasion. In addition, artificial distortions cause problems to responsible drivers,
because they have to pass them practically with the speed of the turtle. Besides, when
driving over artificial bumps, the car is thrown up strongly, which can lead to an accident.
The Swedes decided to come up with something more modern and more efficient
than a „primitive” denigration on the road. Their construction, called Actibump, has in itself
an active artificial deformation, which in normal position is at the same level as the road.
However, if an excessive speed car is approaching, an artificial deflection is immediately
formed on the road.
The idea of Actibump is pretty simple. The system recognizes the speed violation due
to sensors installed in the road surface, near the artificial bump. If the vehicle speed
exceeds the established limit, the metal plate, which is at the same level as the road, enters
the asphalt to a depth of six centimeters. As a result, the wheels roll into an artificial pit,
the suspension of the car receives a significant blow, and the careless driver estimates the
cost of future repair. Edeva experts confirm that their system is safer than regular artificial
deflections and does not oblige all drivers to brake and then accelerate again, consuming
extra fuel.
Obviously, local leaders have appreciated the novelty: according to Edeva, the speed
overtaking in these areas has fallen by 95%.
Figure 14. Actibump artificial bump.
Plates and tactile indicators for the blind. The touch pad is itself a tactile indicator for
the blind, designed to indicate the direction of movement or the presence of obstacles.
It is known that a person without visual deficiencies receives over 90% of
environmental information by visual means. Contemporary man must move slightly into
space. These skills have been developing since childhood and require no special talent.
Moving through the city with his parents, the child gradually becomes familiar with his
streets. In time, he himself can find the way to school, then to the institute and to work.
However, what is easy for a healthy person presents a lot of difficulties for those with poor
vision. As a rule, such people are very limited in their capacities, it is very difficult to orient
themselves in space. Many of them are forced to rely on those around or on a guiding dog.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
58 V. Plămădeală
Visual perception of blind people is replaced by hearing and tactile perception, ie,
what a blind person can not see, try to hear or feel by touching the legs, arms by a special
touch stick for the blind. To memorize the route to the desired object, a blind person
carefully explores the path, looking for the smallest features that can become reference
points. Among these features there are: holes, curbs, stairs, characteristic noises, or even
smells in certain places, anything that could become signs of tactile or auditory signs.
To facilitate the movement and orientation in space of the blind, tactile terrestrial
signs in the form of plates, strips, stripes, markers, cones are provided. These tactile signs
indicate the direction of movement of the blind person or warn him about the presence of
danger, obstacle, modification of road character – stairs, roadway etc. The tactile indicators
must be mounted on objects with heavy traffic both inside and outside buildings: hospitals,
educational institutions, cultural and administrative institutions, parks, stadiums, etc. In
order to convey the information, the tactile indicators have a certain type of raised surface:
stripes and cone shaped reefs. The name, geometric shapes and destination of each tactile
indicator are described below.
1. Prohibited crossing. Square board with cones placed in the shape of a chessboard (figure
15, a). Warns about the presence of an obstacle or dangerous areas. These can be pillars,
supports, curbs, fencing, walls, carports near the road etc.
2. Pass carefully. Square plate with cones placed in a linear order (figure 15, b). Warns
about the areas, some have to move carefully. These can be stairs, separate steps,
ramps, escalators etc.
3. Passing the road. Square plate with lines (strips) (figure 15, c). Warns about the exit on
the pedestrian crossing or the roadside part of the road.
4. Take the turn to the passage. Square plate with diagonal lines (figure 15, d). Warns about
the presence of the passage, located on one side of the pedestrian trail.
5. Move forward. Three parallel lines along the path (figure 15, e). Communicates the
possibility of moving forward to the right or left of the indicator.
6. Bifurcation. Square plate with cones placed in linear order (figure 15, f). Communicates
about turning or ramification of the road.
a) b) c) d)
e) f) g) h)
Figure 15. Touchscreens.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Modern road safety elements of the pedestrians 59
7. Significant object. Six parallel lines along the object (figure 15, g). Communicates the
presence of a significant object along the way, for example, a flag installed at the
station of the road vehicles.
8. Obtaining services, information. Nine parallel lines along the object (figure 15, h).
Communicates about the possibility of obtaining the consultation or information: the
counter of the house, the information office, the registry, the store, and the location of
the mnemonic information system.
As can be seen, the presence of tactile plates in public places greatly facilitates the
life of the blind person: to reach the bathroom, to move on stairs, to enter the building, to
cross the street etc.
Conclusions. One of the priorities of any state on road safety is to prevent road
accidents involving pedestrians. Pedestrian passages are currently the most acute problem.
Half of all road accidents in large cities are pedestrian buffers, one third of which takes
place on pedestrian crossings. Of course, in most of these accidents the drivers are accused,
but not everything is so simple – often those who cross the road behave irresponsibly. In
addition, there are also deficiencies on the part of those who are obliged to ensure the
safety of the citizens of the country – the officials, responsible for the maintenance and the
operation of the roads.
The majority of pedestrians, who cross the road to its designated location, feel fully
safe, but in practice this is different. The number of „zebra” road accidents increases each
year, and many of them end up bad for pedestrians. The solution for this acute problem
requires goodwill of all road users. Neither should the Government stand apart. Developing
and upgrading the system of road signs and markers, increasing the number of pedestrian
crossings and safety islands, limiting the speed of driving, etc. can not fully solve this
problem without applying innovative technologies. Implementing intelligent highway
solutions to pedestrian crossings would increase traffic safety, resulting in the salvation of
human lives, but it should not be forgotten that responsibility falls on the shoulders of all
road users.
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Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 61 - 64
Fascicle Industrial Engineering ISSN 2587-3474
Topic Light Industry, New Technologies and Design eISSN 2587-3482
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640039
CZU 687.131-056.26
DEVELOPING TAILORED CLOTHING FOR CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Victoria Danila
Technical University of Moldova, 168, Bd. Stefan cel Mare, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
Received: February, 07, 2019
Accepted: Mars, 15, 2019
Abstract. This article provides an analysis of the development clothing systems
effectiveness that are tailored to preventive interventions for premature babies. An
analysis of the clinical trials conducted has been framed in a contemporary development
model that emphasizes the role of clothing and its requirements for the characteristics of
premature babies. The products used suggested that positive outcomes could be
understood in terms of improving the development pathways associated with parental
sensitivity and their participation in intensive care of children. The conceptually described
products have all the features recommended to premature babies depending on the
degree of gestation.
Keywords: clothes for baby, preterm birth, intervention effectiveness, developmental
mechanisms.
Introduction
In many foreign countries, the notion of adaptive clothing is increasingly used. These
items of clothes help to facilitate the development and growth of children with special
needs, to offer ergonomic and functional products, adaptable and transformable clothing
for children with special needs, especially those born prematurely, can facilitate the process
of medical procedures, education and care, meeting the requirements of a group of
consumers for this type of clothing.
Existing clothing products do not take into account the physiological characteristics
and affect the lives of children, their special needs and the gestation age. The using of
existing clothes every day and in the process of treating a child makes it extremely difficult
to take care of him.
Prematurity is defined as an underdeveloped newborn child with a low birth weight
that is born before 37 weeks of gestation [1,3]. Other terms used to describe prematurity
are: “preterm” and “preemie.” Infants having a gestational age of 35 and 37 weeks are
termed ‘moderately premature’, those born between 29 and 34 weeks of gestation are
termed ‘very premature’, and those born at 28 weeks of gestation or less are termed
‘extremely premature`.
More than 2000 premature babies are born every year in the Republic of Moldova (figure 1).
In Romania, 18,000 children are born prematurely, that is, every 30 minutes, a child is
coming faster in the world. After maternity critical days, a preterm needs permanent visits
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
62 V. Danila
to physicians and specialists at shorter intervals than a child born on time. According to
statistical data recorded over 5 years (Figure 1), there are a large number of premature
births; the data are taken from the National Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Moldova
and Romania.
Figure 1. The number of children born prematurely during 5 years (2012 – 2016).
Products for premature babies should be developed taking into account medical
indications and changes to the child's body, which affects the constructive and functional
structure of the garment. When designing clothes, ergonomic, aesthetic and technological
parameters should be considered. This type of product will help reduce the feeling of
discomfort, increase motor and cognitive activity, improve the quality of life of the child
and their parents (easy of child care, parental moral satisfaction). Designed products will
help prevent traumatization of the child when dressed to reduce the painful effect. Parents
will be able to spend less time on child care, get positive emotions from communication. In
adaptive clothing it is necessary to use such closure systems so that the parent or physician
can easily use the products.
Conceptual development of clothing products
The product concept that has been developed has taken into account the suitability of
the color range used, the assortment of products to ensure ease of use and appearance of
the products developed.
When designing clothes for premature babies, it is necessary to ensure the ergonomics
of clothing:
- to determine the characteristics of the child's body functioning, the nature and
evolution of the developmental state, the age of gestation;
- identification of the working conditions of the garment (the conditions of operation
determine the type of clothing, its parameters and basic elements, the principles of
constructive and technological solutions);
- analyze the daily routine (identifying standard positions and movements);
- carry out anthropometric research and study changes in the body of a child;
- determining, if necessary, lightweight additions for dimensional characteristics;
- determining material requirements by type of prematurity.
The choice of constructive and technological solutions for the given clothing is based
on the identification of the individual factors of the working conditions and the structural
elements of the garment, as well as the search for innovative design solutions that ensure
the necessary functionality of the garment.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Developing tailored clothing for children with special needs 63
To have aesthetic look, it is necessary: - to ensure artistic expression, harmony and
stylistic unity; - perform, if necessary, correcting the proportions of the figure by using
techniques based, for example, on visual illusions; - puts accents correctly in clothes; - use
correctly the possibilities of modeling and aesthetics of materials; - to use soft materials,
100% cotton fiber, - to ensure the accuracy and attention of the technological processing
and finishing of the structural elements accessible to the external perception; - to be a
small number of stitches; - to use methods of smooth technological processing, not to
affect the skin of children.
The constructive and technological features of the products should be developed
taking into account the particularities of the functioning of the child's body. For children
with certain groups of prematurity, it is recommended to use fully removable products
(body, overalls figure 2). Fastening system: shoulder stitch and middle stitch sleeves, front
middle, legs. These products will provide the comfort of parents' clothing and care staff.
Figure 2. Clothes for premature babies in therapy own designs.
Premature babies are very sensitive [4, 5], so they need clothes with a certain type of
technological treatment (the stitches should not cause a child's skin irritation), made of soft
natural fabrics without stiff parts. For this group of children, it is good to develop
waterproof pillows that will be made of modern breathable materials with a 100% cotton
top layer.
For children who have undergone surgery or are connected to medical devices
(figure 3), it is necessary to make a sufficient number of connectors in the garment designed
for easy dressing. At the outlet of the tubes there is provided a removable special
detachable window and detachable part. This will provide easy access to the tube and the
necessary handling as well as aesthetic appearance.
Clothes for premature infants in the intensive care unit [6] should be designed to be
very small, easy to use, 100% cotton. The clothing will serve as psychological help for
parents. An important point is the use of the psychological characteristics of the color,
which can be used according to the state of health to calm or increase the activity of the
child.
At present, in our country, the development of children's clothing with special
destination is strictly individual. Parents adapt to the use of existing products, in some
cases children are not dressed due to the lack of these adapted products.
Methods and materials
The main goal of the study is to develop comfortable neonatal textile products for
premature babies. The design methodology was focused on the use of particular
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
64 V. Danila
anthropomorphic data, and on the overall characteristics of the shape of the finished
product, as well as on technical and compositional requirements for children's clothes. To
achieve this goal, some survey methods and expert assessments have been used, and
anthropometric studies have been carried out for the development of the prototypes. During
the work, a number of tasks were solved, such as: the definition of the conditions for the
use of clothing for premature babies in medical incubators; the study of clothing analogy
for premature infants; the requirements for children's clothing materials; the development
of a draft design that meets the requirements; the constructive design of the functional
clothing models for premature infants in the intensive care unit. The practical importance of
this work lies in a multifaceted theoretical approach based on the study of bibliographic
resources on these specific topics, and in further practical applications of the acquired
knowledge with the goal of creating functional clothing for premature infants in the
intensive care unit [1].
Conclusion
A conceptual approach of adaptive clothing for this category of children with special
needs was developed in collaboration with neonatologists from the Republic of Moldova.
These products have ergonomic, operational and aesthetic properties in combination with
functional, design and technological factors. For the first time, these products [2] were
tested in the reanimation and intensive care units in Chisinau. The results of the project will
ensure the development of a range of adaptive and reusable clothing for the identified
category of children, requirements for materials and structures, as well as the creation of an
information base for clothing design. As the groups of prematurity are different and depend
on several factors, for each child will be able to choose the required clothing range based
on recommendations for a particular type of medical investigation.
In the context of experimental researches there have been designed several types of
products that can be used for the babies placed in the incubator (Figure 2). Some products
designed for premature babies have been defined, which are folded to form holes for head,
arms and legs. These products resemble sacks, involving the attachment of some elements
to form holes for head and arms covering the legs like coveralls. The dimensions of the
products have been designed to ensure hygienic product usage.
Reference
Books:
1. Danila, V.; Curteza, A.; Balan S. & Irovan, M., Desingning confortable neonatal system clothes for
premature babies. 9th INTERNATIONAL TEXTILE, CLOTHING & DESIGN CONFERENCE – Magic World of
Textiles, October 07th to 10th 2018, DUBROVNIK, CROATIA. BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS, p. 179-184.
2. Danila, V.; Irovan, M., Functional clothing products for premature children. In the Official Catalog of the
International Specialized Exhibition "Infonvent 2015", 25-28 November, edited by ©AGEPI, Chisinau, 2015,
p. 221.
3. Sears, W, Sears, R, Sears, J, Sears, M. (2004). The Premature Baby Book: Everything you need to know about
your premature baby from birth to age one. Little, Brown and Company, New York, NY.
4. Perinatal society of Malaysia. Clinical practice guideline in perinatology. 1st edition 1998; 11-15.
Journal published papers:
5. Bauer K. Interventions involving positioning and handling in the neonatal intensive care unit: Early
developmental care and skin-to-skin holding. In: Research on Early Developmental Care for Preterm
Neonates. John Libbey Eurotext; 2006. p. 59–64
6. Simmons LE, Rubens CE, Darmstadt GL, Gravett MG. Preventing preterm birth and neonatal mortality:
Exploring the epidemiology, causes, and interventions. SeminPerinatol. 2010;34:408–415. [PubMed].
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 65 - 82
Fascicle Electronics and Computer Science ISSN 2587-3474
Topic Microelectronics and Nanotechnologies eISSN 2587-3482
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640042
CZU 316.77:004.7
MEMS MANUFACTURING AND RELIABILITY
Titu-Marius I. Băjenescu
Swiss Technology Association, Electronics Group Switzerland
T.-M. Băjenescu, [email protected]
Received: February, 08, 2019
Accepted: March, 15, 2019
Abstract. Today flexibility means to produce reasonably priced customized products
of high quality that can be quickly delivered to customers. The article analyses issues
related to physic, able to generating defects, affecting the reliability limits for MEMS
(Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems). The MEMS industry is currently at a much more
vulnerable position than it appears, regardless of how wonderful its future may look
like. A full understanding of the physics and statistics of the defect generation is
required to investigate the ultimate reliability limitations for nanodevices. Biggest
challenge: cost effective, high volume production.
Key words: Process errors, MEMS, optical MEMS, failure analysis, MEMS switches, package
cracking, failure mechanisms, reliability, creep, lifetime prediction.
1. Introduction
In the development of advanced MEMS packaging, the following must be noted and
understood: The infrastructure of MEMS devices and MEMS packaging is not well
established; MEMS packaging expertise is not commonly available; MEMS packaging is
unique and custom-built; MEMS general packaging platform technology is not available;
hermetic sealing of the MEMS device is necessary; vacuum packaging is even required for
some MEMS devices; vertical electrical feed-through with through-silicon vias (TSVs) is still
too costly.
Packaging has often been referred as the “Achilles heel of MEMS manufacturing” and
a key bottleneck in the process of MEMS commercialization. Other than the few fully
commercialized products (i.e. air bag triggers, ink-jet print-heads, pressure sensors and a
few medical devices), packaging constitutes the single largest element of cost and a major
limitation to the miniaturization potential [1]. No MEMS product is complete unless it is
fully packaged. At present, packaging is one of the major technical barriers that has caused
long development times and high-costs of MEMS products. Packaging involves bringing
together: (a) Multitude of design geometries of the various constituent parts; (b) Interfacing
diverse materials; (c) Providing required input/output connections, and (d) Optimization of
all of these for performance, cost and reliability.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
66 T.- M. I. Băjenescu
On the other hand, reliability depends on (1) the mutual compatibility of the various
parts with respect to the desired functionality, and (2) the designs and materials from the
standpoint of long-term repeatability and performance accuracy.
Reliability testing provides techniques for compensation, and an understanding of
the catastrophic failure mechanisms in microsystems [2][3]. Engineers cannot design
reliable MEMS without first to understand the many possible mechanisms that can cause
the failure of the structure and performance of these devices and systems. And design alone
cannot ensure the reliability of the product. It is imperative that the successful design and
realization of microsystems or MEMS products must include all levels of packaging and
reliability issues from the onset of the project. Besides fabrication related issues, packaging
encompasses several other aspects that have also affected the overall manufacturability of
MEMS devices. These include: (i) functional interfacing of the device and their
standardization; (ii) reliability and drift issues; (iii) hermetic sealing techniques; (iv) assembly
and handling techniques; and (v) modelling issues.
A further challenge is to fabricate more devices than manipulation can facilitate. For
this purpose, a parallel integration method is required that can facilitate wafer scale
fabrication. This could be in-situ growth, where the nanotube is synthesized from a catalyst
particle that already has been placed at the desired position in the microsystem. This has
been investigated by developing and fabricating microsystems with integrated catalyst
particles and by constructing and optimizing a chemical vapour deposition system for
nanotube growth [4]. The fabrication techniques are essentially two dimensional while the
third dimension is created by layering. MEMS components by their very nature have
different and unique failure mechanisms than their macroscopic counterparts [5].
The manufacturing methods used to fabricate these devices are highly sophisticated
and rely heavily on a key processing technique called photolithographic patterning. This
methodology has come to dominate the technologies of microfabrication in much the same
way as silicon has the materials used to construct semiconductor devices [6].
2. Process errors
The main possible process errors are: (i) Faults in the seal glass (cracks, voids or
migration), leading to leakage – intermittent or open circuit – to be identified by stress
tests (seal, electrical, high temperature storage, temperature cycling and high voltage tests).
(ii) Incomplete hermetic seal (for metallic or ceramic packages), producing characteristic
degradation or short circuit due to chemical corrosion or humidity. A seal test is needed to
identify the failure risks. (iii) Dielectric particles floating in the package that may produce
intermittent or short circuit. The recommended stress sequence for eliminating these
failures is: constant acceleration, vibration (monitored), radiography, and shock (monitored)
test. (iv) Broken or bent external lead, which leads to open circuit and can be identified by
visual inspection followed by lead-fatigue test.
3. About mems
Manufactured by integrated circuit (IC) compatible batch-processing techniques, they
are integrating electrical components (sensors, ICs), mechanical components (actuators),
optical and fluidic components.
Variants of MEMS: MOEMS (micro optical electro mechanical systems), or BioMEMS
(biological MEMS - aimed to manipulate biological matter in order to analyzing and
measure its activity).
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mems manufacturing and reliability 67
Electronics-only devices MEMS
Design methodology focused on fast New devices, without a history allowing to
manufacturing cycles (accelerated testing). design accelerated testing.
Optimized standard processes, high yields. The processes are not standardized.
The third dimension of the structures may be The third dimension (the depth) of the
ignored. structure cannot be ignored.
Designers must know details about the
Designers rarely know details about the
manufacturing processes (electronic /
manufacturing processes.
mechanical devices).
Package should form a cheap but reliable
Package should separate the chip from the
interface between the active device and an
environment. Standardized cases.
often harsh, demanding environment.
New failure mechanisms (small distances
Reliability problems are well-known. between various functional elements, new
phenomena).
A typical microsystem contains, on a single chip, a microsensor, a microactuator (a
mechanical component) and the necessary electronics, so one may say that a microsystem
has “eyes” (microsensor), “arms” (microactuator) and a “brain” (electronics).
Microsystems (MEMS) - relatively new devices, being developed at the end of 1970s,
but not commercialized before the 1990s. Basically, there are: biomimetic microsystems
(built on principles imitating the basic principles of the living matter) and intelligent
microsystems (fulfilling various functions, such as: sensing, processing and/or actuating,
and combining two or more operating modes: electrical, mechanical, optical, chemical,
biological, magnetical, etc., integrated in a single structure or a hybrid one).
4. Optical mems
Optical MEMS or Micro-Opto-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MOEMS)4 are a marriage
of three technologies: (i) Optics (reflective, refractive, diffractive, wave guiding); (ii)
Semiconductor devices (optoelectronic III-V devices, Si-CMOS processing and control
electronics); (iii) Semiconductor-based micromachining (lithography deposition, epitaxy,
etching) [7]. Similar to optical MEMS devices, there is no single standard processing
technology for optical MEMS fabrication. Silicon based optical MEMS is dominant materials
system and different micromachining processes are being used as the most appropriate
fabrication techniques. Also, conventional IC processes (lithography, depositions,
implantation, dry etching, etc.) are often used in microstructure formation.
MOEMS are promising for many optical components. Three-dimensional (3D) MEMS
optical switches are attracting great interest as large-scale all-optical switching fabrics
because of their great potential to lower cost, reduce power consumption, and provide
compactness and high optical performance. Several MEMS optical switch fabrics have been
reported and received with keen interest [8, 9].
The optical communications market has now clearly embraced wavelength selective
switch (WSS) technology for ROADM and ring/mesh interconnect applications [10]. While
the drivers for more agile optical networks are now well understood, the initial design-in
4
The most significant MOES device products include waveguides, optical switches, cross connects, multiplexers, filters,
modulators, detectors, attenuators, and equalizers. The small size, low cost, low power consumption, mechanical
durability, high accuracy, high switching density and low cost batch processing of these MEMS-based devices make them a
perfect solution to the problems of the control and switching of optical signals in telephone networks.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
68 T.- M. I. Băjenescu
process for WSS-based modules posed many uncertainties and concerns due to use of long
free-space paths, unproven MEMS technology, and significantly increased levels of
functional integration. The manufacturing of a complex optical assembly such as a WSS can
be very difficult, because of the large number of degrees of freedom in the alignment and
the large number of parameters to be optimized (wavelength, channel spacing, insertion
loss of up to 10 ports, etc.). To have a commercially viable product, it is essential to
minimize the use of skilled labour and maximize the yield of the manufacturing process
[11].
Creep and fatigue are more important concerns in metal MEMS than in brittle silicon
MEMS, and more so when the melting point of the structural metal is relatively low, like in
aluminium devices.
Utilization of optical fibre as the signal transmission medium and in some conditions
also as a sensor, allows taking advantage of its properties such as: electromagnetic noise
immunity, low signal loss, galvanic insulation, relatively low mass and dimensions [12].
Optical fibres can guarantee safety of the maintenance and test crew, by full isolation from
the object; the electromagnetic noise immunity of this sensor is an advantage.
CMOS technology on silicon is the dominating technology for microelectronic
systems. Figure 6 shows a technology landscape until the year 2015 to give an overview
about the whole area of potential technologies for information processing. Apart from solid-
state nanoelectronics other technologies such as optoelectronics, super-conductive and
molecular electronics are depicted.
A wrong output signal produced by a defective system is called an error. An error is
an effect whose cause is some defect. Errors can be classified into three main groups [13]:
permanent, intermittent, and transient errors (the last ones are temporal single
malfunctions caused by some temporary environmental conditions which can be an
external phenomenon such as radiation or noise originating from other parts of the chip)
[17].
Environment / packaging related effects
Humidity effects, out gassing, and residues from die attach and lid attach processes.
Packaging and environment are critical elements in life cycle reliability for switches, due to
the surface dominated nature of MEMS devices. Humidity may also have a strong effect due
to the scaling of capillarity forces at small dimension. Electrostatic Discharge Events could
also impair the reliability of micro gap based devices [7].
Figure 1. Example of nanocomponents
Figure 2. Fatigue cracks at the flip-
intended to be integrated in a System-on-
chip interface.
Chips (SoC).
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mems manufacturing and reliability 69
Figure 3. Defect images: (a) Bridging
defects with low-resistance electrical
Figure 4. Landscape of different
behaviour on the top and high-resistance
technologies for future information
electrical behaviour on the bottom
processing [23].
microphotograph, and (b) Open defect
inside the circle [20].
Figure 5. Micromirror (after [6]). Figure 6. Evolution of microtechnology.
Figure 7. Cracking due to temperature
Figure 8. Moisture induced failures.
cycle.
5. Mems switches
MEMS switches use mechanically moving parts to physically vary the distance
between two conductive elements of a signal line in order to make or break an ohmic
contact1 (in the case of ohmic switches), or to increase or decrease the enclosed
capacitance (in the case of capacitive switches). Since as early as 1971, when the first RF
switches were built using commercial technologies, the designs have developed and
improved dramatically. The newest switches that are manufactured and tested today, using
MEMS technology, operate at radio, even microwave frequencies. Designers are
approaching the optimal MEMS switch, yet electro-thermo-mechanical (ETM) effects still
limit the design possibilities and adversely affect reliability of the microswitches.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
70 T.- M. I. Băjenescu
An optimal RF MEMS switch is one with low insertion loss, high isolation, short
switching time, and operational life of millions of cycles. The ETM effects are a result of
Joule heat generated at the microswitch contact areas. This heat is due to the current
passing through the microswitch, characteristics of the contact interfaces, and other
parameters characterizing a particular design. It significantly raises temperature of the
microswitch, thus affecting the mechanical and electrical properties of the contacts, which
may lead to welding, causing a major reliability issue. Reliability issues started to become a
serious burden in the early 2000’s and actual roadblock toward commercialization. From the
beginning, very deep studies have been done in order to understand the different physics of
failure occurring during device lifetime. The main reliability problems were found out to be
dielectric charging, contact degradation, fatigue and stress control in the movable
membranes. The results of the deep investigation in failure mechanisms of RF-MEMS have
resulted in the development of materials tolerant to dielectric charging or contact
degradation. Despite all these efforts, RF-MEMS are still struggling to reach the mass-
market since these failure mechanisms can only be minimized and not avoided even in
optimized materials. At this moment, the research community is facing the problem from
another perspective: if you cannot solve the problem, remove its cause. This approach takes
into account the failure mechanisms and its effects at the very beginning of the device
conception. This approach is denoted as "Design for Reliability" [2, 17].
6. Package cracking
Generally, most cracks will start from
the die pad area to the bottom where the
resin strength is the weakest. Under some
conditions, however, cracks may develop in
the direction of one side or both sides, or
may develop upward; in other cases,
package cracking may not occur particularly
on thin packages, but the bottoms of these
packages may be swollen, and soldering
errors may occur.
When gradually increasing the stress
in a film attached to a substrate and given
that the interface fracture toughness is high
enough to prevent delamination, the film
will fail by the formation of a number of
cracks propagating from the surface to the
interface and subsequent channelling
across the film. The crack interaction
distance depends on the elastic mismatch
coefficient. Thin film cracking (TFC) can be
detected electrically by test structures in
the corner of the die; it is sensitive to opens
and shorts. See Figure 9, where passivation
delamination crack propagates into
Figure 9. Mechanism of package
substrate. Figure 9 shows the delamination
cracking [14].
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mems manufacturing and reliability 71
at the die edge after 168 hours of steam.
To fully utilize mechanical performance of thin films, optimize MEMS device design,
enlarge suitable material range, and enhance reliability of MEMS devices, it is crucial to
grasp the relationship between manufacturing technique and mechanical properties. It is
Figure 11. Delamination at die edge after
Figure 10. Thin film cracking TFC
168 hours of steam [33]. (Courtesy : C.
[33], (Courtey: K. Hayes, Intel).
Hong, Intel).
significant to control the mechanical parameters of thin films, such as residual stress,
Young’s modulus, and Poisson’s ratio, in surface micromachining process.
6. Yield and reliability
Yield and reliability are perhaps two of the most important aspects for the
development of a new technology. Yield is defined as the probability of failure of an as-
processed device, while reliability is defined as functional failure of the device during its
operation (for t > 0). A process with low yield (due to various extrinsic defects) is
unacceptable to begin with, but even a process with high yield (low initial defects) but
relatively large degradation rates (poor reliability) is unacceptably expensive in the long
term. For MEMS, reliability of various components is an issue of major interest since they
are expected to function without failure for a long period of time (e.g. ten years or more)
under extreme operating conditions.
7. Reliability aspects of mems and rf microswitches
MEMS are integrated micro-scale systems combining electrical, mechanical or other
(magnetic, fluidic / thermal / etc.) elements typically fabricated using conventional
semiconductor batch processing techniques that range in size from several nanometers to
microns or even millimeters. These systems are designed to interact with the external
environment either in a sensing or actuation mode to generate state information or control
it at a different scale. In recent years, MEMS technology has gained wide-spread acceptance
in several industrial segments
including automotive,
industrial, medical and even
military applications. Figure
12 illustrates the functional
block-diagram of MEMS.
Reliability of MEMS is
a very young and fast
changing field. Key benefits
of MEMS devices include
miniature size, light weight, Figure 12. Functional block-diagram of MEMS.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
72 T.- M. I. Băjenescu
high resonant frequencies, short thermal time constant, and the capability to integrate with
microelectronics. Given the wide interdisciplinary behaviour of MEMS and RF MEMS
devices, the aspects to be faced as well as the knowledge required to handle their
development are multiple, regardless of the specific phase – design, simulation, fabrication,
testing – one is dealing with.
8. Failure mechanisms
All failure mechanisms (FMs) have the causes in the design of the device (choice of
materials, layout drawing, process/control elaboration, testing/reliability issues, etc.) and in
the fabrication process (including here control, testing and reliability as monitored
operations).
In general, there are three kinds of failure mechanisms for MEMS devices: process related
failure mechanisms, in-use failure mechanisms, and packaging related failure mechanisms.
The failure mechanisms (process which leads to failure) that have more importance in RF
MEMS are charging of dielectric, creep, plastic and elastic deformation, structural short,
capillary forces, fusing, fracture, dielectric breakdown, corrosion, wear, equivalent DC
voltage, Lorenz forces, whisker formation, fatigue, electromigration and Van der Waals
forces. All these mechanisms are caused mainly by the device thermal budget (during
manufacturing and in working stage) and the device working environment (humidity,
contamination, etc.) [14, 15]. A list of common degradation/failure mechanisms of MEMS is
given in Table 1 [16].
One of the most important and almost unavoidable problems in MEMS is stiction.
MEMS structures are so small, that surface forces can dominate all others, and cause
microscopic structures to stick together when their surfaces come in to contact. The most
important surface forces in MEMS are the capillary force, the molecular van der Waals force,
and the electrostatic force.
Table 1.
Examples of MEMS failure mechanisms and accelerating factors
Failure
Accelerating factors Additional comments
mechanism
Cyclic fatigue Number of cycles, Models exist for this failure mechanism in
maximum applied mechanical engineering texts and literature, as
strain, humidity some MEMS structures.
Creep (plastic Temperature, Well understood materials science field.
deformation) applied strain
Stiction Humidity, shock, Difficult to model. Surface conditions are
vibration critical.
Table 1 continuation
Shorting and Electric field, Well understood field, yet the geometries in
open circuits temperature, MEMS and materials used could make this
humidity gas difficult to model for some structures. Again,
composition processing effects can be critical.
Arcing Electric field, gas Small gaps are prone to this in specific
pressure environments. Breakdown voltage relationships
should be investigated.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mems manufacturing and reliability 73
Table 1. Continuation
Dielectric Electric field, Some MEMS structures such as RF MEMS are
charging temperature, particularly susceptible to this.
radiation, humidity
Corrosion Humidity, voltage, Polarity is important if accelerating anodic
temperature corrosion.
Facture due to Acceleration, Models exist for this failure mechanism in
shock and frequency mechanical engineering texts and literature, as
vibration (resonance), vacuum well as some MEMS structures. Micro-scale
materials properties are needed.
The failure mechanisms encountered during testing were the break of bias line,
stiction and open circuit. The bias line used to break when the bias voltage was large and
the thickness of metal layer very thin.
A bad fabrication process release or contamination may result in a short circuit
between bias line and RF lines allowing the current through the circuit. The bias line then
evaporates because of its low thickness and the circuit remains open in the end. The
stiction is almost predictable since the release voltage decreases before ending in stiction
of the switch. The problem has been partly solved designing robust micro-switches with
large restoring force.
The switch may end in open circuit if the first metallization is not thick enough. In
the ohmic contact area, where the top electrode goes down to the bottom electrode, an
impact is left on the bottom side. After numerous impacts, the material is removed and a
hole will remain instead. This ends in an increase of contact resistance until no material
remains, leading in open circuit.
Each classification of MEMS [17] has failure mechanisms associated with it. Some are
specific to that category of devices, while others overlap with other categories of devices.
In paper [18], is showed that substrate charging is another possible failure
mechanism limiting the lifetime of capacitive RF MEMS switches. Switches fabricated on
different substrates can exhibit a different lifetime. Also, the influence of environmental
conditions on the lifetime can depend on the type of substrate. In addition, is showed that
switches actuated with an actuation voltage below pull-in voltage can pull-in after some
time due to charging of the substrate.
Table 1 gives some examples of MEMS failure mechanisms and accelerating factors
[8].
Table 2 gives some application areas for RF MEMS.
Table 2.
Application areas for RF MEMS
Application Frequency
Utility Required cycles
area range
Phase shifter for satellite based radars 20 billion
Defense 5 … 94 GHz Missile system radars 0,1…1 billion
Long range radars 20…100 billion
24, 60, 77
Automotive Radars 1…2 billion
GHz
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
74 T.- M. I. Băjenescu
Table 2. Continuation
Switching networks with 4x4 and 8x8
configurations and reconfigurable
Satellite 0,1 million
Butler matrices for antenna
comm. 12…35 GHz 0,1…100 million
applications
Systems 10…20 million
Switching filter banks
Phase shifter for multi-beam
Switching filter banks for portable
0,1…1 million
units
Wireless 0,1…10 billion
Switching filter banks for base stations
comm.. 0,8 … 6 GHz 0,1…10 billion
General SP2T to SP4T switches
Systems 2…4 billion
Transmit/receive switches
10…100 billion
Antenna diversity ST2T switches
0,01 … 50 High performances switches,
Instrumenta
GHz programmable attenuators, phase 20…40 billion
tion systems
shifters for industrial test benches
Reliability issues studied in the dissertation [11] regard mechanical creep and
acceleration factors. The mechanical creep occurs in our suspended structures whilst
enduring a constant force; it results in deformation of structures and shift of parameters.
9. Creep
Creep is known as a failure mechanism in macroscopic mechanical structures, with
more impact on flat and thin surfaces. The idea of dissertation [11] is to make an analogy
between macro and micro scales and infer if there is a good agreement that can be used to
predict lifetime of micro-switches. Creep and fatigue are more important concerns in metal
MEMS than in brittle silicon MEMS, and more so when the melting point of the structural
metal is relatively low, like in aluminium devices.
Temperature is an important matter regarding the impact of creep. Basically, creep is
accelerated with temperature. Every material that has a large thermal expansion coefficient
or a low melting point will not be suitable candidates for RF-MEMS. To reach the
requirements of electronic circuits that must handle a temperature about 85°C, materials
have to be carefully selected. Moreover, even without being under stress, the switch may
have an off-state capacitance that varies just because of temperature. Compared to
macroscopic mechanical devices, MEMS are less sensitive to fatigue phenomena, but more
sensitive to mechanical creep [12]. Creep occurs in MEMS because of the large ratio
between surface and thickness, whereas fatigue occurs for thicker structures where the
cyclic stresses create fatigue cracks on the surface and then propagate inside the structure.
In normal operation, MEMS bend when a constraint is applied on the structure. Locally,
atoms move according different mechanisms of creep that depend on constraint,
temperature and time [12]. To reach this mode the factories generally do a burn-in so as to
control the ageing of their products. And finally, the tertiary mode leads to the rupture of
the structure and its mechanisms may be numerous and complicated. The typically curve of
deformation of a microstructure under constant constraint and temperature over time is
given in figure 13.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mems manufacturing and reliability 75
Creep phenomenon is associated with some types of mechanism involved at grains,
molecular and atomic scales. Depending on temperature and stress, these reactions are
preponderants or not.
The secondary mode has the
longest duration (not truly
representative in figure 13).
Less the activation energy is
and more the structure will
be susceptible to
temperature, leading to big
deformations [19]. In
macroscopic structures, creep
is divided in two families, one
is related to dislocation glide
and the other is related to Figure 13. The typical curve of strain versus time to
diffusion of defects. represent creep behaviour at constant constraint and
Table 3 syntheses temperature. Creep is divided in three regimes.
MEMS failure modes and underlying causes, with examples. Often MEMS processes are not
very mature, so that disregarding process induced spread and the effect it has on reliability
will hamper efforts to determine the influence of stress conditions on devices.
Table 3.
Reliability issues in MEMS structures
Failure mode Underlying causes / Examples
Mechanical stress above yield
Mech. Facture and creep Fatigue (prolonged cycling)
strength Intrinsic mechanical stress
Thermal fatigue
Dielectric charging
Degradation of
Breakdown
dielectrics
Leakage
Van der Waals forces
Stiction
Capillary forces
Adhesion
Wear Abrasion
Corrosion
Delamination Loss of adhesion between material interfaces
Vibration
Shock
Humidity effects
Environmentally induced Radiation
Particulates
Temperature changes
Electrostatic discharge
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
76 T.- M. I. Băjenescu
10. Lifetime prediction
The fundamental approach to MEMS device reliability employs some of the same
basic concepts and methodologies established in high volume automotive and IC
manufacturing; including FMEA (failure mode and effects analysis – root cause), DfM
(design for manufacturability), DfR (design for reliability) and lifetime prediction. A major
challenge in MEMS is the shear diversity of potential applications, novel materials and
processes, unique sensing and actuation principles, and manufacturing techniques, and
hence the focus of this book is on reliability techniques and methodologies as applied to
MEMS devices. The lifetime prediction portion of the reliability program is seen in Figure
14. Reliability testing is required to accelerate the lifetime of the MEMS part using
acceleration factors, for proper lifetime prediction.
11. Wear
Wear is associated with rubbing and impacting surfaces in MEMS devices. There are
mainly four main causes of wear: adhesion, abrasion, corrosion, and surface fatigue.
Figure 14. Lifetime prediction diagram (after [32 and 20]).
12. Evaluating the reliability
Potential reliability problems can be identified and solved by understanding the
possible failure modes. Material design, characterization, and process evaluation therefore
play an important role in assuring product reliability. A general scheme of the methodology
for the microsystem reliability issues is given in Figure 15.
Figure 15. Scheme of microsystem reliability issues analysis methodology (after [21]).
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mems manufacturing and reliability 77
In a reliability sense, components can be treated as fractions of the product and in
most cases as links in a chain. The failure rate of a product is equal to the sum of the failure
rates of its components. The more components used in a product, the more reliable each
one must be. Therefore, for a reliable product, defective, weak or out of specification
components must be weeded out. This is done by functional testing, stress testing and by
burn-in, i.e. time testing until past the infant mortality period. The adequacy of the testing
procedures and the conformance to them, staff training, and the equipment used all affect
reliability.
Two procedures were proposed for evaluating MEMS reliability:
• To evaluate the reliability of a Virtual Prototype, i.e. simulating the dependence of the
reliability level on device structure and process parameters;
• To shorten the test time by using accelerated testing, this means to test the
components at higher values of stress as those encountered in normal functioning, in
the aim to shorten the time period necessary to obtain significant results. Caution: The
failure modes / mechanisms at high stress must be the same as at normal stress!
These two solutions are complementary, because the estimations made on a Virtual
Prototype has to be verified by the accelerated testing.
An accelerated test is useful only if, under the accelerated conditions, the item passes
through all the same states, in the approximately same order, as may expected in normal
use, but in a much shorter period of time.
MEMS: Top five failure mechanisms (production) by device type
Actuators Sensors Integrated systems Passive Elements
Stiction Electric short/ open Temperature Contamination
Wear Leakage Contamination Package stress
Electric short/ open Package stress Clogging Electric short/ open
Package stress Contamination Package stress Crack propagation
Contamination Crack propagation Leakage Deformation
Failure analysis is essential for accelerated life testing: (a) An understanding of the
anticipated failure mode(s) / mechanism(s); (b) Knowledge of the magnitutde of the
acceleration of each failure mechanism, as a function of the accelerating stress (ALT
models).
13. Failure analysis (FA)
FA plays a very important role in the semiconductor industry in enabling timely
product time-to-market and world-class manufacturing standards. Today ICs contain
transistors having minimum geometries of 90 nm, but the industry is now rapidly moving
into the 65 nm technology node. The actually chips contain hundreds of millions of
transistors and operate at frequencies greater than 5 GHz. In general, the investigation of
failures is a vital, but complex task.
From a technical perspective, failure can be defined as the cessation of function or
usefulness. It follows that FA is the process of investigating such a failure. FA is an
investigation of failure modes and mechanisms using optical, electrical, physical, and
chemical analysis techniques. A number of tools and techniques enable analysis of circuits
where, for example, additional interconnection levels, power distribution planes, or flip chip
packaging completely eliminate the possibility of employing standard optical or voltage
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
78 T.- M. I. Băjenescu
contrast FA techniques without destructive deprocessing [25, 26]. The defect localization
utilizes techniques based on advanced imaging, and on the interaction of various probes
with the electrical behaviour of devices and defects. In the recent years, various
contributions to the reliability of nanodevices have been reported [27] provided basic
physical modelling for MOSFET devices based on the nanolevel degradation that takes
place at defect sites in the MOSFET gate oxide. The authors investigated the distribution of
hot-electron activation energies, and derived a logistic mixture distribution using physical
principles on the nanoscale.
The final chip yield is governed by the device yield. A recent research paper [28]
demonstrates that once the major cause of failure is somehow identified or assumed, one
could use a Monte Carlo method to study yield problems. Unlike Monte Carlo methods, it
produces accurate results even when the probabilities of interest differ from one another by
many orders of magnitude. The method proposed in [28] was applied to the analysis of the
leakage current distribution of double-gate MOSFETs; the microscopic failure mechanism
was identified that limits the final yield. It explains experimental data very well. The insight
into the failure mechanism gives clear guidelines for yield enhancement and facilitates
device design together with the quantitative yield prediction. It is useful for yield prediction
and device design. Transistors should be designed such that It (the maximum current
generated by a single trap) is very much lower than the tolerable leakage current at the
specified cumulative probability. The method does not have any convergence problems, as
in the conventional Monte Carlo approach.
The question is: how to make the whole process of root-causing failures better,
faster and cheaper? FA has implications on investment, required skills of the analyst, lab
organization and time to result; the resulting cost explosion in FA cannot be compensated
by any conceivable measures to enhance FA productivity, but this suppose that a rising
number of today’s FA problems will be solved by modern testing techniques. FA becomes
such a substantial cost factor in yield learning that testing must be empowered to do the FA
job as well. It is important to integrate FA in semiconductor product and technology
development and to introduce it as part of all new projects. This explains while, in the
future, analysis productivity will be a key issue for product cost reduction [29]. More reliable
electronic systems with high integrated functionality within a shorter period of
development time, new methods/models for reliability of components and materials, and
lifetime prediction are necessary.
It is also difficult to predict the evolution of FA [30], because the continuous
progress in microelectronics and microtechnologies makes almost impossible to foresee
with maximum accuracy the types of electronic components that will be the most
successful on the market. And the FA must serve this development, being one step ahead
and furnishing to the manufacturers the necessary tools for their research.
Recent advances in the design of MEMS have increased the demand for more reliable
microscale structures. Although silicon is an effective and widely used structural material at
the microscale, it is very brittle. Consequently, reliability is a limiting factor for commercial
and defence applications. Since the surface to volume ratio of these structural films is very
large, classical models for failure modes in bulk materials cannot always be applied5.
5
For example, whereas bulk silicon is immune to cyclic fatigue failure, thin micron-scale structural films of silicon appear
to be highly susceptible. It is clear that at these size scales, surface effects may become dominant in controlling
mechanical properties.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Mems manufacturing and reliability 79
The reliability of MEMS is directly related to the occurrence and severity of failures
occurring at the manufacturing, operation of the device. It is surprising that little has been
done to fully classify these failures. A methodology is also proposed in [31] to assess their
severity and high-level design of failures is implemented in the case of a thermal actuator.
As the design of MEMS devices matures and their application extends to critical
areas, the issues of reliability and long-term survivability become increasingly important.
Packaging of MEMS is an art rather than a science; the diversity of MEMS applications
places a significant burden on packaging [1] (standards do not exist in MEMS packaging).
14. Instead of conclusions
MEMS will open a broad new array of cost effective solutions only if they prove
to be sufficiently reliable. It is not clear if standardization of MEMS fabrication process
à la CMOS will ever happen and is even possible. However currently most of the cost for
MEMS component happens during t h e back end process, thus it is by standardizing
interfaces that most savings can be expected.
The similarity between biological and technical evolution forms not only a ‘reference
book’ containing successful structural and functional decisions, it also gives a necessary
strategic criterion for development in engineering [34].
The development and production of RF MEMS switches aimed specifically at high
performance requirements, enabling increased RF hardware integration and significantly
improved RF performance characteristics over conventional switching. RF MEMS switches
feature ultra-low insertion loss, outstanding isolation, superior linearity and enable full
uplink carrier aggregation. The benefits include improved receiver sensitivity leading to
fewer dropped calls and better call quality together with optimal carrier aggregation
switching for massively improved data rates. Combined with high levels of RF integration,
this also results in a lower bill of materials cost for the RF front-end module, and
significantly longer battery life.
The correct solution for modelling MEMS devices is to use physical models: full-finite
element simulations of the naked die or packaged device. This is a time-consuming task, so
the companies are reluctant in using such approach. Very often, independent research
groups are involved in such activities. An example is the research group from the
Polytechnic University of Milan led by Prof. Alberto Corigliano, which has developed a
useful model for the effect of various mechanical and environmental factors on MEMS
reliability [21, 22].
MEMS will open a broad new array of cost effective solutions only if they prove to be
sufficiently reliable. It is not clear if standardization of MEMS fabrication process à la CMOS
will ever happen – and is even possible. However, currently most of the cost for MEMS
component happens during back-end process, thus it is by standardizing interfaces that
most savings can be expected.
There is a continuing need to extend knowledge of the physics of failure in MEMS. Its
techniques and microsystem) based devices have the potential to dramatically to affect of
all of our lives and the way we live. Extending knowledge of the physics of failure will
enable how to improve their reliability and for developing reliability accelerated test
methods. It is recognized that there is knowledge for specific devices that resides with
companies; however, this knowledge has traditionally been kept secret because it
results in commercial advantage.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
80 T.- M. I. Băjenescu
• A good manufacturing strategy for MEMS must include the complete device plan
taking into account the reliability as part of the design and process development of the
device.
• MEMS fabrication uses many of the same techniques that are used in the IC domain
such as oxidation, diffusion, ion implantation, LPCVD, sputtering, etc., and combines
these capabilities with highly specialized micromachining processes, which enables the
ability to integrate multiple functionalities onto a single microchip.
• One of the disadvantages of surface micromachining is that the mechanical
properties of most deposited thin-films are usually unknown and must be measured.
• Packaging is extremely important for the reliability of the device.
• It is not clear if standardization of MEMS fabrication process (CMOS like) will ever
happen – and is even possible.
• At manufacturing level, the degree of the difficulty of fabricating MEMS devices is
highly underestimated by both the current and emerging MEMS communities.
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Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 83 - 90
Fascicle Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering ISSN 2587-3474
Topic Environmental Engineering eISSN 2587-3482
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640044
CZU 504.05:656.2
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF RAILWAY TRANSPORT ON THE AMBIENT
ENVIRONMENT
Vasile Plămădeală*, Stanislav Slobodeaniuc
Technical University of Moldova, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Transport,
9/8, Studentilor Str., MD-2045, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding author: Vasile Plămădeală, [email protected]
Received: January, 15, 2019
Accepted: March, 25, 2019
Abstract: Unfortunately, most of the technologies applied and currently used by mankind,
to a lesser or greater degree, negatively influence and lead to the degradation and
degeneration of the planetary ecosystem, with rail transport being no exception. The
railways, together with the positive influence on the economic development of the regions
in which they were built, have caused irreparable damage to the environment. They
destroyed natural landscapes, led to the death and reduction of wildlife populations,
polluted the air and created an unbearable noise. The pollution of the environment by the
use of railway transport is also present for the Republic of Moldova. The article describes
the main components of the impact of railway transport on the environment: pollutants,
electromagnetic fields and rolling stock noise.
Keywords. transport, railway, electromagnetic field, exhaust gases, environment, toxic
substances, waste water, noise of rolling stock, noise pollution.
Introduction
From the moment of its appearance, the railways, together with the enormous
positive effect that they provided due to the rapid development of the areas they were
passing through, acted negatively with a number of factors on adjacent territories. The
noise of rolling stock, which, compared to animal-powered vehicles, proved to be terrifing,
frightening the animals, not allowing them to cross the railroad, thus diminishing their
population. In North America, the buffering and death of animals under the wheels of the
train, both wild and domestic, were usual. This is the reason why the „animal scraper” was
invented – a special grid in the lower part of the locomotive, not only for the protection of
the animals, but also for the prevention of the train's exit. Serious problems began later
when the railways began to expand rapidly not only the line network but also the
infrastructure – the locomotive and wagon depots, railway stations etc. Over time, the
railway stations that were built on the outskirts of the cities, „woke up” right in the center,
and the railroads passed through the residential districts, which created discomfort for the
residents of nearby houses. The development of electric traction, although it has
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
84 V. Plămădeală, S. Slobodeniuc
contributed to the reduction of noise and harmful emissions, has caused another problem –
the influence of the magnetic fields created by the contact suspension.
Table 1.
Length of railways in general use, inventory rail transport and freight transport by means of
transport at the end of the year
The year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
The length of railways in
1157 1157 1157 1157 1156 1151 1151 1151
service for general use, km
Diesel locomotives 152 150 139 138 138 138 138 134
Freight wagons 7835 7606 7433 7035 6866 6866 6741 5582
Passenger carriages 411 399 399 388 381 381 346 268
Goods transported – total,
27781,2 30717,6 30022,6 35674,1 37143,1 36711,8 36992,2 42928,2
thousands of tons
Rail transport 3852,1 4554,0 4163,8 5430,6 5008,4 4157,9 3493,0 4793,9
Road transport 23800,6 26012,9 25713,0 30079,6 31906,7 32401,3 33363,1 37998,4
River transport 127,2 149,1 144,2 162,6 227,2 152,0 135,6 134,8
Air transport 1,30 1,60 1,57 1,28 0,81 0,58 0,49 1,06
Goods flow – total, million
4193,1 4795,5 4916,3 5651,6 5489,7 5182,0 5484,3 5996,6
tons-km
Rail transport 958,6 1196,0 959,5 1226,9 1181,4 963,5 789,9 987,1
Road transport 3232,4 3597,3 3954,7 4423,1 4306,5 4217,3 4693,4 5008,4
River transport 0,4 0,5 0,4 0,5 0,8 0,4 0,3 0,3
Air transport 1,7 1,7 1,7 1,1 1,0 0,8 0,7 0,8
Passengers transported –
total, thousands of 232455,2 237099,6 240378,7 237237,6 237156,1 248727,2 248315,2 251793,4
passengers
Rail transport 4963,7 4711,3 4340,9 4092,4 3838,2 3268,3 2258,1 1813,7
Buses 105984,5 115270,6 118090,6 114800,3 108279,4 102641,6 102121,5 100325,7
Taxi 4085,5 4085,5 3724,4 3761,7 3048,0 4950,8 4960,3 6463,2
Trolleys 116476,6 112209,2 113434,1 113811,8 120951,1 136641,7 137708,1 141420,2
River transport 118,8 122,6 115,7 116,4 141,6 139,4 138,7 130,2
Air transport 649,2 700,4 673,0 655,0 897,8 1085,4 1128,5 1640,4
Passengers' journey –
total, millions of 3993,4 4349,7 4472,3 4574,4 4631,8 5071,9 5302,1 6212,6
passengers-km
Rail transport 398,8 363,1 347,2 329,8 256,9 180,8 121,5 99,0
Buses 2416,7 2733,4 2835,5 3003,6 2720,3 2834,4 3005,7 3123,0
Taxi 80,1 80,5 74,5 76,0 62,5 100,5 107,8 139,4
Trolleys 346,8 335,1 340,1 342,3 366,9 413,2 415,5 427,0
River transport 0,2 0,3 0,2 0,2 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3
Air transport 750,8 837,3 874,8 822,4 1224,9 1542,7 1651,3 2423,9
Railway transport, currently widely used around the world, is a land transport vehicle
in which freight and passengers are carried out on railways with wheeled vehicles. The
length of the railways operating in the world is approaching 1 million kilometers and
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Negative impact of railway transport on the ambient environment 85
continues to grow rapidly in the Republic of Moldova being 1151 km (table 1). Inventory rail
transport equipment at the end of 2017 consists of 134 diesel locomotives, 5582 freight
wagons and 268 passenger wagons (table 1). Railways are considered one of the main
inalienable signs of a developed civilization. In the Republic of Moldova the share of rail
transport accounts for about 13% of freight transport (20% for freight) and about 1,5% of
passenger traffic (5,8% for passengers) (table 1) being in a continuous decrease particularly
in passenger traffic. The impact of railway transport on the environment is assessed by the
level of consumption of natural resources and the level of pollutants emitted in the
environment in the regions where the railway undertakings are located. All sources of
environmental pollution, according to the nature of the operation, are divided into
stationary and mobile. Stationary sources include locomotive and wagon depots, repair
plants and preparation points of rolling stock, boiler rooms etc. Mobile and maneuvering
locomotives, operating and repair vehicles, industrial transport, refrigerated wagons, freight
and passengers etc. are hung to mobile sources. In turn, stationary sources of complexity
and number of technological processes can create pollutants of several types.
In general, factors affecting the environment, the objects of the railway transport,
can be classified according to the following criteria:
mechanical action (solid waste, road action on the soil);
physical action (thermal emissions, electromagnetic fields, ultrasound and infrared
radiation, vibrations, radiation);
chemical action (acids, bases, metal salts, hydrocarbons, paints and solvents,
pesticides);
biological action (macro and microorganisms, bacteria, viruses);
landscaping, drainage etc.
1. Rail transport – source of pollution of the environment with toxic emissions
The environmental advantage of rail transport consists, in general, of the
significantly small amount of harmful emissions in the atmosphere per unit of work
performed (table 2). The main source of air pollution is the exhaust gases of locomotive
diesel engines and the toxic substances emitted by the thermoelectric power plants
producing electricity for electric transport, as well as the rolling stock production and repair
enterprises. Among the most important pollutants are: soot, carbon oxides, sulfur and
nitrogen, hydrocarbons, lead. Accumulation of these substances in the air leads to
significant damage to vegetation (acid rain) as well as to human health (smog). The content
of sulfur compounds depends on the amount of sulfur in diesel, and the the content of
other components – on the method and quality of the combustion process, as well as the
type of overcharging and the load on the engine. The high amount of toxic substances in the
Table 2.
The ratio of the specific action indicators on environment and population by different types
of transport
Type of shipment
Specific action indicator
railway auto aerial
Energy consumption 1 8 3,5
Emissions of toxic substances 1 73 600
The area occupied 1 1,3 4,8
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
86 V. Plămădeală, S. Slobodeniuc
exhaust gases of diesel engines in idle mode is conditioned not only by poor mixing of the
fuel with the air, but also by combustion of fuel at lower temperatures.
Diesel engines installed on locomotives and those installed on cars in principle do
not differentiate, but the working process of diesel locomotives is more stable, because the
amount of harmful gases is much lower. The operating mode of the maneuvering
locomotives is less stable than the main ones, which is why the emissions of toxic
substances to them are several times higher. In the Republic of Moldova it is more
complicated to reduce the amount of harmful gases emitted into the atmosphere, due to
the small distances between the stations because, as it is known smoke and gas emissions
are higher in the use of permanent stationary transport than at larger distance at constant
speed. With this, fuel consumption also increases, as a result of this, these factors play an
important role not only in the environment but also in the fuel economy.
During the period 2010-2017, 19,11 thousand tons of fuel were used annually by rail
transport in the Republic of Moldova (table 3). The amount of annual emissions of
pollutants into the atmosphere, as a result of combustion of spent fuel, is 3,06 thousand
tons, including: carbon dioxide 1,03 thousand tons, nitrogen dioxide – 0,37 thousand tons,
hydrocarbons – 0,78 thousand tons, sulfur – 0,30 thousand tons, aldehydes – 0,33 thousand
tons, solid substances – 0,20 thousand tons.
Table 3.
Air pollutant emissions from rail transport and fuel consumption during 2010-2017
(thousand tons)
Including:
The The amount Mass of total
solid
year of fuel emissions CO CH NO2 SO2 aldehydes
substances
2010 21,55 3,64 1,10 0,42 0,88 0,32 0,72 0,20
2011 23,86 4,01 1,19 0,46 0,98 0,36 0,80 0,22
2012 19,12 2,68 1,01 0,37 0,78 0,28 0,07 0,17
2013 20,17 2,85 1,09 0,39 0,82 0,30 0,07 0,18
2014 19,20 2,66 0,98 0,37 0,78 0,29 0,06 0,18
2015 15,93 2,81 0,95 0,32 0,65 0,23 0,52 0,14
2016 --- 2,90 1,00 0,40 0,90 0,30 0,10 0,20
2017 13,96 2,39 0,87 0,27 0,57 0,33 0,05 0,30
Atmospheric air pollution is characterized by the following data: a section of the
diesel locomotive emits in the atmosphere 28 kg of carbon monoxide, 17,5 kg of nitrogen
oxides and up to 2 kg of soot per hour. At the rail welding industry, 3060 g of aerosols
containing manganese, silicon oxides and fluorides are emitted into the atmosphere while
using 1 kg of welding wire. When processing a rail welding joint, after welding, up to 60 g
of dust, containing silicon, magnesium and aluminum oxides are emitted. When painting on
products with ventilation emissions, up to 30% of paint and varnish materials (acetone,
toluene, alcohol and different resins) are emitted. When washing the rolling stock alkaline,
surface active substances etc. are hit into atmosphere.
In order to carry out the transport operations, the loading and unloading operations,
the storage of the goods and the technical maintenance and repair of the rolling stock and
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Negative impact of railway transport on the ambient environment 87
the upper rail structure, the railway transport consumes not only natural resources such as
water, air and soil, but it also pollutes them.
Every year, up to 200 m3 of waste water, containing pathogenic micro-organisms, is
poured out of passenger wagons every year and up to 12 t of garbage is dumped. This leads
to the pollution of the railways and the environment. This problem can be solved by the use
in the passenger wagons of storage tanks for the storage of waste water and garbage or
treatment devices.
From the ecological point of view, the most dangerous railway enterprises and
objects are the stations for flushing and steaming bulk rolling stock, disinfection points for
animal transport wagons and biologically hazardous substances, gravel and macadam
impregnation plants, depots of locomotives and wagons, rolling stock, carrying petroleum
products and explosives. Environmental safety can also be disturbed by physical factors that
are created during railway transport (noise, vibration, electric and electromagnetic fields,
explosions, fires).
When washing the railway vehicles in the soil and the water basins water, together
with the waste waters, penetrate synthetic substances, petroleum products, phenols,
hexavalent chromium, acids, bases, organic and inorganic substances in suspension etc.
Much more than waste water, there is soil pollution in the area near the cleaning and
washing points of the rolling stock.
At the repair plants, in the depots of locomotives and wagons, waste water is formed
by washing the rolling stock, cleaning components and parts in washing machines and
baths, galvanic machining of parts, washing of batteries, regenerating filters, washing and
blowing boilers, hydraulic testing of various vessels, discharge of water from oil storage
facilities, washing of floors, visiting channels etc.
Waste water at passenger wagon washing points is formed during external body and
chassis washing, containing petroleum products, metal corrosion products, dust, various
organic impurities, and detergents used to wash wagons. In the places of preparation of the
freight wagons, where they are washed inside, in the waste water there are remnants of the
shipped goods: cement, chalk, bricks, mineral fertilizers, cereals, vegetables, animal feed,
meat, fish etc.
At the disinfection-washing stations where the wagons are processed after the
transport of animals, birds, raw material from leather, wool, bones, waste water are polluted
with manure, straw, disinfectants (bleach, caustic soda etc.) and causative agents of various
diseases.
2. Railway transport – source of electromagnetic pollution of the environment
Electromagnetic field generators, which, for autonomous traction, are primary high
voltage back-up lines. In the case of electric traction, a network of contacts is added.
Although DC current (Edison) and AC current (Westinghouse) electric air lines appeared at the
end of the nineteenth century, there is still no shared view of the impact of the
electromagnetic fields created by them on the human body. This is reflected in the sanitary
rules, which differ in different countries.
The general view that scientists from different countries have come to is the belief
that electromagnetic fields of direct current and alternating current of industrial frequency
affect the human nervous system, alter blood pressure, possibly, inhibit hematopoietic
function, but to what extent and with what values the opinions vary greatly.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
88 V. Plămădeală, S. Slobodeniuc
3. Railway transport – a source of environmental noise pollution
One of the major sources of pollution is the noise produced by rail transport. It is
highlighted in the following aspects: the noise of wagon movement resulting from the
interaction between the wheel and the rail, being the main source of noise for a train
running, the locomotive noise due to the operation of the diesel engine, traction motors,
transmissions, auxiliary motors and gears and aerodynamic noise, which is lower than
rolling noise.
The noise pollution during the rolling stock exploitation, taking into consideration
the state of the locomotives operated on the territory of the country, has a negative impact
on the health of the people living near the railway stations.
One of the creators of the steam locomotive, George Stephenson, enjoys the imposing
sound of his creation. The inventor assumed that the strong sound, symbolizing power and
speed, attracts people's attention. Times, have changed instead. At the moment the noise
produced by locomotives is a disadvantage.
Considering that for a large part of the developed countries, rail transport has
become the main source of transport, such as subway, tram and suburban trains, such a
parameter as noise is very important. It has a number of negative factors such as sleep
disturbances, behavioral change and increased drug use. Noise can cause direct reactions to
the ear and even to the entire body. The intensity of the noise disturbance is directly related
to its intensity, frequency and duration. Noise causes impaired circulatory function, stomach
neurosis, insomnia etc.
The noise produced by the railway stations in the dwelling areas is more painful than
the one at the outskirts of the city, the noise produced by the railway stations and the triage
stations located in the dwelling areas have a greater negative effect than a mere movement
of the train. Train noise has been shown to be more obstructive to speech perception than
vehicle noise. This process is primarily due to the duration of the sound effect produced by
the train movement.
The noise produced by the railway vehicle is composed of the noise produced by the
locomotive and wagons. During the operation of diesel locomotives the highest noise is
produced by the exhaust pipes of the engine, which reaches 100-110 dB. Even at a distance
of 50 m from the railway, the external noise of the railway vehicle is 83-89 dB.
The main noise source of the wagons is the blows of the wheels at the points of
union and the irregularities of the rails, as well as the friction of the running surface and
the wheel flange with the rail. The track joints cause shock noise with a level increase of up
to 10 dB. The basic factor leading to the increase of noise is the vulnerable state of the
railway, the rails in particular. Rail surface defects cause vibrations and strokes, reduce rail
stability, lead to rolling stock wear and increased noise levels up to 15 dB.
Noise also occurs from suspension strokes, from vibration of brake rods, clutches,
couplings etc. Air propagation can occur through any existing and unprotected openings
(doors, windows, passageways, ventilation ducts, wagon communications).
Aerodynamic noise is produced by the air currents which wash the walls of the
locomotive and the wagons, in particular the front walls and the wings of the wagon. In the
range of speeds of up to 160 km/h, the main noises that predominate are rolling noise,
locomotive engine noise and braking noise. Aerodynamic origin noise mainly targets high-
speed trains (over 300 km/h).
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Negative impact of railway transport on the ambient environment 89
4. Proposals for improvement
The condition of the rolling stock and the equipment generally operated by the
Moldovan Railways is in deplorable condition, that leads to frequent failures during use,
that is why it can not be the case about minimizing the gas emissions. Not worrying about
the state of the road infrastructure, which is also in poor condition and poorly maintained, a
colossal investment is needed to bring it to normal. As a result of above mentioned we
have: excessive fuel consumption, increased gas and emissions to the atmosphere,
increased noise and obviously poor rolling stock condition. According to Moldova's Railways
2014-2020 Investment Plan, rail infrastructure in the Republic of Moldova would require an
investments of almost 300 million euros in order to improve its quality and safety. This
must be the first step towards solving the economic, as well as ecological problem of
Moldovan Railways.
For the Republic of Moldova the increased reduction of harmful emissions can be
solved by electrifying the roads or equipping the Moldovan Railways with locomotives and
wagons of the latest generation, which will help minimize the harmful emissions in the
atmosphere. Another way to reduce harmful emissions from railway transport is to equip
diesel engines with exhaust-gas neutralization systems similar to those of cars, or to drive
locomotives on other more environament friendly fuels.
The main measures for protection of the water basins from the pollution with the
waste waters of the railway transport are the construction and reconstruction of the
treatment plants, the implementation of the water recycling, the normalization of the
consumption and the reduction of the polluted emissions, the improvement of the
laboratory control etc.
For noise protection in the design of the railways it is necessary to provide for bypass
routes for trains in transit, without entering the city, for sorting stations outside the
localities. In the construction of the new railway it is necessary to separate the railway lines
and the stations from the residential area at a distance of at least 300 m.
In order to reduce the noise level of the trains, a series of measures, mainly aimed at
protection against rolling noise, which is the main source in the range of up to 300 km/h,
are used. The complex of these measures has been named LNT-technology (Low-Noise
Technology), including the following:
the use of disc brakes instead of drum brakes on all wheel pairs, which allows for a
longer duration of maintenance of the smooth running surface of the wheels, thus
reducing the noise;
grinding of rails;
use of damping plates on wheels;
installation of noise protection aprons, against the treadmill of the rolling stock;
construction of low-noise protection screens near the railway station.
The use of LNT-technology measures at the design stage of rolling stock and the
construction or reconstruction of railways allows for the reduction of costs that will be
needed to compensate for the negative impact of the noise produced by the rolling stock on
the environment.
Another way to reduce the noise of railway transport is to use green space. Green
areas (trees and shrubs) disperse and absorb the energy of the waves that propagate
through them. As a result of these measures, the effects of noise propagation through a
strip of green space are reduced compared to a treeless area. To achieve a significant effect,
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
90 V. Plămădeală, S. Slobodeniuc
the green stripe along the noise source should not have free spaces, ie the tree crowns
should be closed to one another and the space under the crowns should be filled with
dense bushes. Coniferous trees offer the best results. Using a green planting strip of about
60 m in width can provide an additional reduction in rolling stock noise of approximately
12 dB. The need to reduce the noise of a train by more than 20 dB requires the use of noise
protection tunnels (galleries).
Practice has shown that an effective method of protecting the population against
noise is the construction of industrial objects or garages along the railway.
Conclusion
1. The influence of railway transport, although it is a source with negative impact on the
environment and the population, it is much lower than other sources of pollution.
2. The environmental advantage of rail transport, compared to other modes of transport, is
the significant small amount of harmful emissions in the atmosphere per unit of work
performed.
3. The impact of magnetic fields created by the railroad contact network and high voltage
self-propelled power lines on the population living near the railways according to
measurements is significantly lower than the existing sanitary standards.
4. Rail transport is a source of noise, which causes dissatisfaction with the population
living near railways. Applying the described solutions can significantly reduce the
impact of rail transport noise.
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Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 91 - 95
Fascicle Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering ISSN 2587-3474
Topic Architecture, Urbanism and Cadaster eISSN 2587-3482
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2649980
CZU 666.972.16
MANAGEMENT OF CEMENT-CONCRETE ROAD PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
A. V. Mishutin*, M. V. Zavoloka, L. Kintia
Odessa State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture
*Corresponding Author: A. V. Mishutin, [email protected]
Received: January, 17, 2019
Accepted: March, 10, 2019
Abstract. The aim of the research is to study the effect of operating factors on the
pavement and optimize the composition of the modified additive for controlling the
structure of concrete. The choice of modifiers for concrete mixtures is mainly made
empirically and specifically tied to specific engineering tasks. The specifics of the material
work is associated with the unilateral action on the design of the operational load. There
are significant gradients of humidity and temperature over the cross section and height of
structures. Analysis of the experimental data of the planned experiment made it possible to
optimize the composition of the modified additive in order to control the structure to obtain
durable concrete.
Keywords: Cement concrete road pavement, modified additives, structure of concrete, durability
of concrete.
Introduction
Cement concrete road pavements are influenced by the simultaneous and uneven
influence of various operational and climatic factors. The list of factors includes frequent
changes in temperature, cycles of freezing and thawing, moistening and drying, effects of
salts, as well as pressure and dynamic effects from transport are shown in (Figure 1).
Figure 1. External impacts on road coverage.
a - road pavement; b - earth bed; с - railroad slope; d - road ditch
1 – temperature, t=+50˚…-20˚C; 2 – load from automobile transport, P; 3 – rain;
4 – snow; 5 - salt ingredients.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
92 A. V. Mishutin, M. V. Zavoloka, L. Kintia
The specifics of the material work is associated with the unilateral action on the
design of the operational load. There are significant gradients of humidity and temperature
over the cross section and height of structures.
The alternating volumetric deformations degrade the structure of the material, which
leads to a change in the initial (design) structural parameters that provide the necessary
values for water tightness and frost resistance.
The thickness of the cement concrete pavement construction does not exceed 25 cm.
For concretes of these structures, “fat” compositions with mobility are used depending on
the M-3, M-4 concrete pavers used and with W / C values ≤ 0.45.
In order to solve technological problems of workability and mobility of the concrete
mix, to reduce the setting time of concrete, as well as regulating the structure and physico-
mechanical characteristics of concrete, additives - modifiers are introduced into its
composition.
The purpose of the work. In fact, the choice of modifiers for concrete mixtures is
mainly made empirically and specifically tied to specific engineering tasks. Therefore, the
requirements for the development of concrete, taking into account the environment of their
operation, design and methods of obtaining, modified concrete with the necessary
performance characteristics and predicted durability are relevant. The problem of durability
of such concretes includes a large list of questions: studies in the process of operation
taking into account the environment, setting requirements for raw materials, selection of
compositions of modified concretes, increasing their structural and, as a result, quality
indicators and operational characteristics.
Analysis of research and publications
Professor Ivanov F.M. indicated that the design of the service life of structures should
be based on the knowledge of the rate of corrosion processes [7]. Professor Verbetsky G.P.
[8] considered that the main state for the durability of concrete in the aquatic environment
is its high density, which impedes the penetration of aggressive agents, in particular water,
into its capillary-porous system. Academic L.I. Dvorkin [9] noted that the required durability
Figure 2. Variants of the trajectories of the functional state S1 of concrete in time t
in the operational environment. Sifs - the initial functional state, Supc - ultimate permissible
state. According to research of V.L. Chernyavsky [10].
of concrete is ensured in a comprehensive manner by designing the optimal structure and
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Management of cement-concrete road pavement structure 93
composition, the technology for producing the structure and the erection of structures,
maintenance and protective measures.
Due to the fact that the freezing temperature of water in the pores, capillaries,
internal interfaces and technological cracks (with dimensions of 10-5 ... 10-7 cm) are in
structural form and its freezing temperature reaches -50 C, [6] based on this it can be
concluded that when passing through the freezing point, physical processes in concrete are
manifested mainly at the level of the macrostructure. In order to improve the durability of
concrete from the effects of freezing and thawing, it is necessary to increase the level of its
frost resistance (F). In [7], it was shown that for fine-grained and heavy concretes with
approximately equal W / C, frost resistance may differ by an order of magnitude. The most
frost-resistant are compounds with a system of closed pores with a size of 25..350 microns.
In this case, the second factor determining the frost resistance is the factor of the distance
between the pores, which should be from 02 to 03 mm.
The effect of coarse aggregate on frost resistance is studied, in particular, in [2]. It is
shown that concretes on rubble, other things being equal, have three times greater frost
resistance than concretes on gravel. This was explained by the fact that rubble due to its
rough and angular shape "creates a more dense aggregate structure" than gravel, and also
has better adhesion to the cement stone.
One of the most well-known ways to improve the frost resistance of concrete is the
introduction of air-entraining additives. The effect is explained by the appearance of fine air
emulsion in the concrete [4, 3] and the resulting change in structure. By creating a system
of closed pores, there is a space for the growth of ice crystals with minimal damage to the
body of concrete [3,5]. The highest rates of modified concrete frost resistance were
observed when creating closed pores in the structure while simultaneously increasing the
density of the cement stone. That can be considered the best system of closed pores of
small size (diameter).
However, most often when using air-entraining additives, closed porosity increases
with simultaneous increase and through porosity, which is undesirable for concrete
pavements. Therefore, increasing frost resistance should be achieved by creating the most
dense structure of concrete, that is, by creating small closed pores without increasing the
overall (total) porosity.
Water penetrates into the concrete bears the salt ions, which gradually accumulate
in the pores and capillaries of the material. This type of impact corresponds to the 3rd type
of corrosion according to V.M. Moskvinu. At the same time, the main part of the salts is
deposited from the side of the filtration effect, since penetrating through the smallest
capillaries, the water is partially filtered and straightened from the bottom side of the thin-
walled structure.
In recent years, prof. A.S. Faivusovich [1] developed a number of fundamentally new
models describing the features of corrosion processes in fully or partially water-saturated
concretes with the formation of a cylindrical front around capillaries and pores.
The structure of the pore space of concrete is considered as a system of cylindrical
parallel pores or capillaries of radius r0, located at equal distance from each other in a
staggered manner, with the boundary R0 of the zone of influence of each pore or capillary
considered impenetrable. In addition, it is assumed that to cross sectional longitudinal
capillaries and pores, there are a significant number of differently oriented capillaries, along
which moisture or mass transfer in the radial direction is possible.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
94 A. V. Mishutin, M. V. Zavoloka, L. Kintia
The results of research
In order to determine the possibility of controlling the structure of the
physicomechanical characteristics of modified concrete to cover the roads, a 5-factor
planned experiment was conducted.
As factors there were taken:
1. Consumption of portland cement
2. Modifiers:
a.) Concrete curing accelerator (CCA);
b.) Superplasticizer (SP) - МС Power Flow 5695;
Additive consumption 0.6% by weight of cement, cone slump 2-4 cm
c.) Air entraining additive (AEA) - Air 207
Additive consumption 0.35-0.4% by weight of cement
Air entrainment 5.5% by volume.
3. Polymer Fiber
The main structural indicator that we studied is the porosity of concrete. In
particular, the magnitude of the material open porosity (in terms of the maximum
absorption) was investigated. According to the EU model, which describes the influence of
composition factors on the open porosity of the material (% by volume), charts have been
plotted. The influence of the amount of cement and Peterona A (fixed levels of factors x2 =
0, x4 = -1 - i.e. formulations supplemented with C-3 in an amount of 0.8%).
The smallest porosity has the compositions with the maximum amount and with the
maximum content of the modifier Penetron A. However, it should be noted that the addition
of Penetron A reduces the open porosity of the material by no more than 7-8%. Thus, it can
be suggested that the effect of the additive is formed not only in clogging (filling in cracks
and pores), but also in redistributing the shape and size of pores and “treating” cracks and
capillaries. That is, the reduction is mainly not total, but “effective” porosity.
Parameters of the conditionally-closed porosity of modified complex additive
concrete were evaluated on microscopic polished sections by the linear method (secant
chord).
The developed complex modifying additive (CCA + SP + AEA) allows not only to
reduce the total volume of open pores, but also to increase the uniformity of pores in size.
Due to the use of the complex additive with a filler (ground sand with a specific surface of
300 m2 / kg), it is possible to obtain microporous (λ≤ 0.5) concrete and fiber concrete with
high uniformity of pores (0.7 ‹α≤ 1.0), as shown in Table 1.
Table 1.
Changes in the pore structure of modified fiber concretes
Concrete With With With fiber
Porosity
without additive complex and complex
characteristic
additives SP-3 additive additive
Total open porosity
10-12 8.5-10 7-9 7.5-9,0
%
The average size λ 2-5 0.6-1,1 0.4-0.7 0.4-0.6
Pores of the same
0.3-0.6 0.6.-0.8 0.7-0.9 0.8-0.95
size α
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Management of cement-concrete road pavement structure 95
Conclusions
The analysis of the experimental data of the planned experiment made it possible to
optimize the composition of the modified additive in order to control the structure and
obtain durable concrete for hard road coverage.
The use of complex modifiers allows to reduce the open porosity by 10-20% and
achieve a reduction in the average pore size of 1.2-2 times. It is shown that the main action
of the colmatating additive is the formation of crystals that grow into the pores and
capillaries.
References
1. Faysovich, A.S. The foundations of the mathematical theory of concrete corrosion processes. —M .:
Scientific world, 2006. — 40 p.
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Vneshreklamservice, 2004. — 270 p.
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Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 96 - 105
Fascicle Food Engineering ISSN 2587-3474
Topic Food Technologies and Food Processes eISSN 2587-3482
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640051
CZU 664.72:633.11
CHANGES IN CONSUMER PROPERTIES OF NEW GRAIN CRISPBREADS BASED
ON SPELT DURING STORAGE
Maryna Mardar1*, Rafaela Znachek1, Artur Macari2
1
Odessa National Academy of Food Technologies, Odessa, Ukraine
2
Technical University of Moldova, Chişinău, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding author: Maryna Mardar, email: [email protected]
Received: January, 18, 2019
Accepted: February, 27, 2019
Abstract. The changes that occur with the organoleptic, physicochemical, and
microbiological performance of new grain crispbreads based on spelt with the inclusion of
enriching supplements in the process of storage. Types of packing, which are used for
packing grain crispbreads have been analyzed. The results of the organoleptic analysis
showed that the use of biaxially oriented polypropylene film (BOPP) kept the organoleptic
performance of grain crispbreads at a high level for six months, in contrast to the samples
that were stored in a polyethylene film (PF). According to the physical and chemical
performance (mass fraction of moisture, acidity and the acid number of fat), it was found
out that it is advisable to use metalized packages of BOPP for storage of crispbreads,
allowing their storage life extension up to six months with a slight decrease in physical and
chemical performance. Microbiological analysis showed that the inclusion of vegetable
supplements in grain crispbreads reduced the overall insemination of the initial samples
and improved the stability of finished products during storage, due to the antioxidant
properties of enriching supplements. On the basis of the researches carried out, we define
the guaranteed storage term for expanded heifers, which is 6 months in the BOPP package.
Keywords: grain crispbreads, spelt, vegetable supplements, storage, consumer properties,
physicochemical performance.
Introduction
Along with the development of new products, the question of the duration of their
storage, that is, the possibility of bringing products to the consumer with the least loss in
quality and quantity is of great importance. The storage process is usually accompanied by
deterioration of the quality of food products, their organoleptic properties, nutritional and
biological value, the development of the microflora, and other undesirable processes.
Moreover, the duration of storage is determined by the individual composition of products,
the intensity of biochemical processes therein, as well as the nature of introduced
supplements, the effect of which may vary [1].
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
M. Mardar, R. Znachek, A. Macari 97
It is required to use packaging materials to weaken the influence of the environment
on the quality of products and to prolong their storage life. Packaging is necessary to
protect against mechanical damage, contamination, exposure to sunlight and heat, to
prevent sticking, drying, and moistening, to preserve the taste and aroma of products, to
reduce losses and increase storage life, and to provide products with an effective and
attractive look.
The aim of the paper is to learn changes occurring with consumer properties
(organoleptic, physicochemical, and microbiological performance) of grain crispbreads
based on spelt with the inclusion of vegetable supplements during the storage process, in
order to establish a guaranteed storage life.
Materials and Methods
Research materials used in the experiment. For the purpose of research, spelt,
enriching vegetable supplements were used as objects: milk thistle powder, rose hip fruit
powder, chokeberry fruit powder, and green tea extract, as well as new grain crispbreads
based on these components. According to the previously calculated formulation [2], all the
initial components of grain crispbreads were subjected to sieving, magnetic cleaning, and
dispersing. Prepared dry ingredients were mixed with water for 5 minutes until a
homogeneous mass and redistribution of surface-bound moisture were reached. The
obtained mixture was fed to a special device for the production of whole-grain swollen
grains of the brand, where its thermal and mechanical processing was performed. As a
result, grain crispbreads in the form of round briquettes were obtained: the control is
crispbreads of spelt; sample 1 is crispbreads of spelt with the inclusion of 5% of the milk
thistle powder; sample 2 is crispbreads of spelt with the inclusion of 5% of rose hips
powder; sample 3 is crispbreads of spelt with the inclusion of 5% of chokeberry powder;
and sample 4 is crispbreads from spelt with the inclusion of 0.5% of green tea extract.
Methods for Identification the Quality of Grain Crispbreads. Identification of the
moisture mass fraction in the raw materials and finished products was carried out by drying
the sample of the product to a constant mass at a temperature of 100-105°C as per GOST
15113.4-77. Acidity in finished products was identified by the method of alkali titration of
all acids in the product as per GOST 15113.5-77. The acid number of fat in crispbreads was
identified by the titration of free fatty acids as per GOST 5476-80.
Microbiological studies were carried out before dispatching for storage and every 3
months of storage. To identify the qualitative and quantitative content of the microflora,
both classical techniques and modern microbiological express analyzer "BacTrac 4300"
(Austria), whose work is based on the registration of changes in the electrical resistance
(impedance) of the nutrient medium, occurring as a result of microorganism activity have
been used. Samples were taken to sterile dishes under aseptic conditions, excluding
microbial contamination of samples from the environment. The qualitative and quantitative
content of the microflora of samples was identified by microbiological and sanitary
indicators, which include the number of mesophilic-aerobic and facultative-anaerobic
microorganisms, micromycetes (mold and yeast fungi), bacteria of the intestinal bug group
(coliform bacteria), followed by identification of potentially pathogenic Escherichia coli and
Staphylococcus aureus, and pathogenic microorganisms, including Salmonella and sulfide-
reducing clostridia. Identification was carried out by sowing on special culture media with
subsequent cultivation and characterizing as per GOST 10444.9, 10444.12, and 10444.15.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
98 Changes in consumer properties of new grain crisp breads based on spelt during storage
The total number of bacteria was determined by sowing wipe-samples of various
degrees of dilution in meat infusion agar, mold and yeast fungi, in wort agar, followed by
cultivation at the temperature of (30±1)°C for 24-48 hours and (28±1)°C for 5-7 days,
respectively. Spore forms of bacteria were identified in pasteurized wipe-samples that had
been seeded on a complex nutrient medium of the meat infusion agar and wort agar in the
(1:1) ratio; to identify clostridia, sowing was made in the liver broth and the nutrient Kitt-
Tarozzi medium; to identify Staphylococci, in the milk-salt agar; to identify Salmonella, in
the bismuth-sulfite agar; and to identify Proteus vulgaris, in the condensing water of the
freshly-cut meat infusion agar. The presence of E.coli in the Kessler medium was analyzed
by the turbidity of the medium, the appearance of gas bubbles in the floats and changes in
the color of the nutrient medium, which are mandatory signs of acid and gas formation for
this study and are formed when these bacteria ferment sugars. Furthermore, the
identification of directly potentially pathogenic Escherichia coli was carried out by
transplanting to the differential diagnostic Endo medium; cultivation was carried out at the
temperature of (30±1)°C for 24-48 hours.
Results and Discussions
Based on the analysis of the range of grain crispbreads that are represented in the
trading chain and references concerning packaging materials that use various enterprises
when packing grain crispbreads, it was revealed that manufacturers most often used the
following types of packaging: plain polyethylene film (PF) and biaxially oriented
polypropylene film (BOPP) [2, 3].
To study changes in consumer properties of grain crispbreads based on spelt with
the inclusion of vegetable supplements during the storage process, a number of
experiments were conducted to study changes in organoleptic, physicochemical, and
microbiological performance of the product quality depending on the storage duration and
conditions. For this purpose, all samples were placed in a conventional food polyethylene
film and packages of BOPP, GM-200, and stored at the temperature of (18±2)°C and a
relative humidity of 70...75% for 6 months. The quality performance was determined
immediately after their manufacture, as well as after 3, 6 months of storage.
Based on organoleptic analysis, it was found that grain crispbreads with the
inclusion of enriching supplements, which were stored in packages of BOPP for six months,
practically did not change their look, had a pleasant pronounced taste of the supplements
used, porous and crispy structure, and did not have any foreign odor (Figure 1). It should be
noted that after three months of storage, the control sample, which was stored in packages
of BOPP, had slightly deteriorated organoleptic performance, particularly, the sample had a
slight foreign taste and not enough crispy structure. This allows assuming that the inclusion
of vegetable supplements in the composition of grain crispbreads helps to prolong the
preservation of acceptable organoleptic performance of products. After six months of
storage, both the control and the test studied samples, which were stored in the PF, had a
slightly rancid taste, an unpleasant aftertaste, and a foreign faint odor, these samples did
not have a crispy structure as well. The results show the inadmissibility of the use of the PF
for packaging and storage of grain crispbreads. Therefore, it is established that the
metalized packages of BOPP preserve the organoleptic quality performance of grain
crispbreads at a high level within six months, in contrast to the samples stored in the PF.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
M. Mardar, R. Znachek, A. Macari 99
a) b) c)
d) e)
Figure 1. Samples of grain crispbreads: control (a), sample 1 (b), sample 2 (c), sample
3 (d), sample 4 (e).
In addition to organoleptic performance during the storage of grain crispbreads,
changes in such physical and chemical quality indicators as the mass fraction of moisture,
acidity, and the acid number of fat were also controlled. The results of the change in the
mass fraction of moisture of the samples are shown in Figure 2. In the samples that were
Figure 2. Change in the mass fraction of moisture of grain crispbreads during
storage, depending on the package.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
100 Changes in consumer properties of new grain crisp breads based on spelt during storage
stored in the polyethylene film, the mass fraction of moisture increased significantly
compared to the samples that were stored in BOPP. In our opinion, the reason is the
properties of the package, particularly, BOOP has high moisture-proof properties in relation
to the PF [3, 4]. In this regard, the mass fraction of moisture in the studied samples that
were stored in BOPP increased by an average of 1.3 times during six months of storage,
while in products that were stored in the polyethylene film, by an average of 1.6 times. At
the end of the sixth month of storage, the mass fraction of moisture in the samples that
were stored in the PF exceeded the standard allowed by the designed specifications for the
product (under 9.5%) by an average of 1.2 times. The results also indicate that the inclusion
of supplements in the composition of crispbreads may reduce the intensity of the process of
moisture loss during storage. Probably, this may be explained by the fact that the
supplements that were included in the composition of crispbreads had a higher moisture-
retaining capacity, which was also confirmed in a number of papers [5].
This allows reducing the loss of moisture and positively affecting the storage life of
products.
During the process of storage of crispbreads, the change in acidity was also
identified (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Change in the acidity of grain crispbreads depending on the packaging during
storage.
As it is known [6], the index of titrated acidity indicates the freshness of grain
products, and an increase in its value during storage is a consequence of changes in the
constituent chemicals of grain products under the impact of enzymes or microorganisms.
The results of studies showed that the inclusion of supplements in the composition of grain
crispbreads led to an increase in the initial value of acidity. In our opinion, this is due to the
chemical composition of supplements, particularly, to the presence of organic and fatty
acids [7, 8]. It was also found that the acidity of the samples that were stored in BOPP
packages for six months increased slightly compared to the samples that were stored in the
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
M. Mardar, R. Znachek, A. Macari 101
PF. Thus, after 6 months of storage, the studied samples that were stored in BOOP had the
average acidity value of 4.1 0 N, which corresponded to the requirements of the designed
regulatory documentation for grain crispbreads. After 6 months of storage, the samples that
were stored in the PF had the average acidity value of 6,9 0 N, which is much higher
compared to the samples that were stored in BOPP. The results indicate the feasibility of
storage of enriched grain crispbreads in BOPP for six months.
The accumulation of fatty acids, which occurs due to the preservation of fat, may be
controlled by measuring the acid number. As it is known [1], the intensity of fatty acid
accumulation is due to the formulation of products, storage conditions, and storage life, as
well as protective properties of the packaging material. If the packaging is not sealed
during storage, it will increase the humidity and temperature of products, and as a result,
activate all processes leading to faster spoilage of products [3].
The results of studies of changes in the acid number of fat during storage of grain
crispbreads showed in Figure 4. The acid number increases with an increase in storage life,
but it should be noted that with each measurement, the amount of free fatty acids was
greater in the control sample, compared to the test ones, which contained supplements
with bioantioxidants.
In addition, during the studies, protective functions of BOPP were found, which are
manifested in the inhibition of the accumulation of free fatty acids, that is, during the final
storage period, the difference between the values of the acid number of the fat component
of grain crispbreads stored in BOPP and those stored in the PF accounted for up to 70% on
average (in favor of BOPP).
Figure 4. Change in the acid number of fat of grain crisp breads depending on the
packaging during storage.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
102 Changes in consumer properties of new grain crisp breads based on spelt during storage
Based on the conducted studies, the following is found out: it is expedient to use
BOPP for storage of enriched grain crispbreads, which will allow prolonging their storage
life to six months, with an insignificant decrease in physical and chemical performance.
One of the most important indicators of the quality of any food product especially
obtained on the basis of a multicomponent vegetable system and its microbiological
performance. The number of mesophilic-aerobic and facultative-anaerobic microorganisms
is a mandatory indicator of quality and persistence of any product during storage, and this
indicator is widely used in the food industry.
Determination and identification of pathogenic, potentially pathogenic
microorganisms, mold and yeast fungi are necessary in terms of safety since the presence or
increase of their content compared to the permissible standard may cause food poisoning
[9]. During the study of the control sample microflora content, it was found out that the
dominant representative is the non-sporogenous rod-shaped bacteria, Erwinia herbicola
(representative of the epiphytic the microflora of grain). It is believed that the number of
these bacteria is an indicator of grain freshness. The content of Erwinia herbicola in relation
to the total number was 65-70%.
A group of Bacillus subtilis-licheniformis was found as a representative of
sporogenous bacteria, their relative content was 12-17% of the total number of
microorganisms, and the number of coliform bacteria was 10...16%.
Representatives of micromycetes identified before dispatch for storage were field
mold fungi of the Cladosporium, Alternaria species and a negligible number of unidentified
fungi. If the total number of microorganisms, including Erwinia herbicola, coliform bacteria,
Bacillus subtilis-licheniformis, micromycetes are taken as 100%, each of them amounts to
67.4%, 13.05%, 15.21%, and 4.34%, respectively.
Changes in the content of the microflora of finished crispbreads during storage are
shown in Table 1. As it may be seen from the data obtained, the presence of yeast fungi is
identified in none of the samples.
For non-sporogenous the microflora in grain crispbreads, their presence is probably
conditioned by a heat shock, which is received by cells during the process of swelling,
followed by the resumption of cell activity after a certain storage time.
During the storage for 6 months, the total number of bacteria decreased in the
control sample by 16.2...23.8%, regardless the type of packaging.
The data characterizing the dynamics of changes in the microflora of the test
samples of grain crispbreads indicates that in all samples during storage, the number of
bacteria decreased, regardless of the type of packaging. The most significant decrease was
observed when using BOPP with grain crispbreads that included rose hip fruit powder, by
60%, and green tea extract, by 39%, which may be explained by the antioxidant properties
of enriching supplements [8]. The decrease in the number of bacteria in all the studied
samples was due to the die-off of bacteria mainly of the Erwinia herbicola species, which is
natural for grain products during storage.
For sporogenous bacteria, their qualitative content in all the studied samples
remained unchanged, and the quantitative one decreased.
The total number of microorganisms before 6 months of storage. For sporogenous
bacteria, their qualitative content in all the studied samples remained unchanged, and the
quantitative one decreased.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
M. Mardar, R. Znachek, A. Macari 103
Table 1
Change in the microbiological performance of grain crispbreads during storage,
mesophilic-aerobic and facultative-anaerobic microorganisms (thd/g)
The content of the microflora (CFU/g * 10³)
Duration of storage, months
Mesophilic-aerobic and
facultative-anaerobic
microorganisms Micromycetes
Type of including
packaging
licheniformis
Penicillium
Aspergillus
B.subtilis-
herbicola
Total
Erwinia
Others
Total
Control, grain crispbreads without supplements
PF 0 1.05 0.62 0.12 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.04
3 0.94 0.48 0.06 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.02
6 0.80 0.33 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00
BOPP 0 1.05 0.62 0.12 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.04
3 0.99 0.38 0.09 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.02
6 0.88 0.24 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00
Grain crispbreads with rose hips (sample 1)
PF 0 0.50 0.38 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02
3 0.42 0.29 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01
6 0.20 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00
BOPP 0 0.50 0.42 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02
3 0.44 0.11 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01
6 0.38 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00
Grain crispbreads with chokeberry (sample 2)
PF 0 0.80 0.58 0.10 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03
3 0.68 0.17 0.09 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.01
6 0.60 0.01 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.00
BOPP 0 0.80 0.58 0.10 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03
3 0.74 0.09 0.09 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.01
6 0,69 0.01 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.00
Grain crispbreads with milk thistle (sample 3)
PF 0 0.72 0.53 0.08 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03
3 0.61 0.15 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.02
6 0.55 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00
BOPP 0 0.72 0.53 0.08 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03
3 0.66 0.14 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01
6 0.60 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.00
Grain crispbreads with green tea extract (sample 4)
PF 0 0.66 0.49 0.07 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02
3 0.50 0.15 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01
6 0.40 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00
BOPP 0 0.66 0.49 0.07 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02
3 0.57 0.15 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01
6 0.48 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
104 Changes in consumer properties of new grain crisp breads based on spelt during storage
The total number of microorganisms before 6 months of storage decreased in all the
samples: in the control, by 1.2 times, in crispbreads with vegetable supplements, by an
average of 1.5 times. Micromycetes did not develop practically, but there was a change in
their species composition.
The number of field fungi of the Alternaria, Cladosporium species and other
unidentified field fungi decreased, compared to the beginning of storage and up to 6
months of storage, they completely vanished in all samples of grain crispbreads. Permanent
representatives of the fungal microflora of grain crispbreads are Penicillium fungi, and only
before 6 months of storage, Aspergillusin fungi were found in all samples, except for grain
crispbreads with the inclusion of rose hip fruit powder, green tea extract, and milk thistle
powder in the polyethylene film. However, it should be noted that in the same samples, the
content of micromycetes before 6 months of storage decreased by 50%.
In all the studied samples, regardless of the type of packaging and the inclusion of
supplements, Salmonella, E.coli, sulfite-reducing clostridia are not detected. The presence
of micromycetes is within regular limits. This indicates the provision of appropriate sanitary
and hygienic conditions in the production of grain crispbreads.
Studies of the qualitative and quantitative composition of the microflora of grain
crispbreads showed that the inclusion of vegetable supplements in grain crispbreads
reduced the overall insemination of the output samples and improved the persistence of
finished crispbreads during storage.
This is probably because these vegetable supplements, especially rose hips powders
and green tea extract, are of a high content of vitamin C and bioflavonoids, which exhibit a
bactericidal effect on microorganisms.
The samples stored in BOPP are characterized by lower microbial insemination than
those in the conventional food film. Thus, according to the results of microbiological
studies, it was found out that the presence of vegetable supplements in grain crispbreads
not only improves the nutritional and biological value but also increases the storage life
due to the content of substances with bacteriostatic effect therein.
Conclusions
The results of studies of organoleptic and physicochemical performance showed that
the use of BOPP preserves the organoleptic quality performance of grain crispbreads at a
high level within six months, in contrast to the samples stored in the PF.
The packaging of crispbreads in metalized packages of BOPP also allows prolonging
their storage life up to six months with a slight decrease in physical and chemical
performance. It is found out that the inclusion of vegetable supplements in the composition
of grain crispbreads helps to prolong the preservation of acceptable organoleptic
performance of products. Studies of the qualitative and quantitative composition of the
microflora showed that the inclusion of vegetable supplements in grain crispbreads reduced
the overall insemination of the output samples and improved the persistence of finished
crispbreads during storage.
Based on studies, it is found out that the samples stored in BOOP are characterized
by lower microbial insemination than those in the conventional food film.
Based on the studies, it was found out that the guaranteed storage life of grain
crispbreads in the package of BOPP at the temperature of 18±2°C and a relative humidity of
70...75% is 6 months.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
M. Mardar, R. Znachek, A. Macari 105
References:
1. Vankevich, V.P., Milyutina, L.M., Rezgo G.Ya. Storage of Food Products. Moscow: Economics, 1983.
2. Mardar, M., Tkachenko N., Znachek R., Leonardi S. Optimization of formulation composition of the
crispbread with improved consumer properties. In: Process Audit and Reserves of Production, 2017, 2/3 (34).
P. 22-29.
3. Sirokhman, I.V., Zavgorodnya, V.M. Merchandizing of Packaging Materials and Containers. Kyiv: Center of
Science Literature, 2005.
4. Kontominas, M. G. Food Packaging: Procedures, Management and Trends. New York: Nova Science Publishers,
Inc., 2012.
5. Lukina, S.I., Zhuravlev, A.A., Sadykova, M.K. Non-Conventional Types of Flour in Cupcake Production
Technology. In: Bakery Products, 2013, 10. P. 44-45.
6. Kozmina, N.P. Biochemistry of Grain and Products of Its Processing. Moscow: Kolos, 1976.
7. Volynsky, V.G., Bender, K.I. Plants in Medicine. Saratov: Publishing House of the Saratov University, 1988.
8. Mardar M., Vikul S., Znachek R., Bordun T. Analysis of quality of grain shortbread for biological activity and
medical-biological assessment in: East.-Europeans'. journal. advanced technology, 2018, Vol. 6, 11 (96). P.
69 to 76.
9. Smirnova, T.A., Kostrova, Ye.I. Microbiology of Grain and Products of Its Processing. Moscow: Agropromizdat,
1989
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 106 - 113
Fascicle Food Engineering ISSN 2587-3474
Topic Food Industry and Management eISSN 2587-3482
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640054
CZU 663.2:634.85(478)
WINE PRODUCTION FROM LOCAL VARIETIES OF GRAPES IN MICROWINERY
CONDITIONS
Aliona Sclifos*, Ecaterina Covaci, Alexandra Stratan
Technical University of Moldova, Faculty of Food Technology,
9/9 Studentilor Street, MD 2045, Chișinău, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding author: Aliona Sclifos, [email protected]
Received: 15 February 2019
Accepted: 23 Mars 2019
Abstract In the paper there has been studied the process of wine making from local grape
varieties: Feteasca White, Feteasca, Regala, Feteasca Neagra, Rara Neagra, in conditions of
microvinification. Wine raw materials were obtained with the involvement of a dynamic
process of alcoholic fermentation from the varieties harvested in different regions of the
Republic of Moldova. It has been established that the obtained wine material meets the
requirements of the normative documents. The organoleptic characteristics of the red and
white wines produced from the local varieties in the micro winery of the Technical
University of Moldova are specific to each grape variety and they are of the highest quality.
Keywords: variety, must, white and red wines, physical-chemical indices, alcoholic fermentation,
control, temperature, sugar content.
Introduction
All local varieties are of particular importance for the development of Moldovan
winemaking industry, and the wines produced from these varieties represent a niche for
promotion on the international market because producers are looking for an original taste
that would represent the country.
Local varieties are also called aboriginal varieties and are the ones that have
appeared on Moldovan land since ancient times, have adapted to the pedo-climatic
conditions of the respective areas and have been preserved until the present. Among the
most important white grape varieties in this category the following are mentioned: Feteasca
albă, Feteasca Regală, Zghihara, Plăvaie, Galbena, Crâmpoșie. But the main red grape
varieties are: Feteasca Neagră, Rara Neagră, Negru de Ialoveni, Francuș [1, 2].
Feteasca Albă literally means “white young girl”. It is an old variety with probable
origins in the historic region of Moldova (including today’s Republic of Moldova and
Romania’s eastern region of Moldova), where it has been cultivated traditionally.
The short vegetation period, of about 150-160 days and the high capacity to accumulate
sugars are the main characteristics of the variety. The wine from this variety develops a very
pleasant secondary flavor of fermentation, which reminds of the vine flower perfume.
Usually the Feteasca Albă wines are dry, acid and full of freshness, but they can also be off-
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
A. Sclifos, E. Covaci, A. Stratan 107
dry or medium sweet, the latter having a characteristic aroma, resembling the taste of
honey comb [3 - 5].
Fetească Regală is a famous variety of white wine grape the origin of which is not
very ancient. This grape variety is the result of a natural crossing performed between two
different varieties of grape namely Grasa and Feteasca Alba. Feteasca is considered as one
of the three different varieties of the Feteasca which means maiden in Europe. The two
other grape varieties with the same name include Feteasca Alba and Feteasca Neagara [6,
7].
Figure 1. Feteasca Alba grapes. Figure 2. Feteasca Regală grapes.
Feteasca Neagra is an attractive prospect to winegrowers, as it is resistant to both
cold temperatures and drought conditions. It ripens late and has thick skins, leading to
wines with an excellent concentration of anthocyanins, giving good pigment to the wines.
Nowadays, Feteasca Neagra is usually produced as a varietal wine, although in the past it
was often blended with Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot to give it more body and weight [8,
9].
Rară Neagră or Babeasca Neagra is a grape variety which ripens late and it is also a
wine which buds from the mid-to-late season, contributing to the resistance to the early
spring frost like viticulture hazards and winter hardiness of grape. Rară Neagra is capable
of tolerating temperatures as less than -18⁰ C during the cold winters of Eastern Europe [10,
11].
Figure 3. Feteasca Neagră grapes. Figure 4. Rară Neagră grapes.
It is known that the cultivation of vine is a traditional occupation of Moldovans,
known for centuries in these lands. In the past, the produced and kept in the wine cellars
wines were demanded and much appreciated in the salons of the aristocrats of the
European capitals (including Vienna), where large quantities of wine were exported from
the grapes of the Rara Neagră (or Bănească) Black), Fetească Albă, Fetească Regală,
Fetească Neagră (also called Păsarească) [12]. These varieties, created by the scholars of
the Wine and Wine Research Institute (Feteasca albă, Feteasca, Regală, Feteasca Neagră,
Rară Neagră, Viorica, Legenda, Floricica), serve as the foundation for the creation of the
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
108 Wine production from local varieties of grapes in microwinery conditions
modern winery industry, based on the latest achievements of modern science and practice
[13]. At the same time, the potential of local varieties is enormous. Efforts are made to find
a relation between the variety and the specific climate of this microregion. This fact will
help to create more wines with their own personality. In this way, we can create
personalized wines, taking into account the soil, climate, variety and technology, in order to
occupy our own niche on the international wine market [14, 15].
Materials and methods
Local grapes, cultivated in different regions of the Republic of Moldova, have been
used for research. As autochthonous varieties, grapes from Feteasca Albă, Feteasca Regală,
Rara Negră and Feteasca Negră were harvested. Wine raw materials were obtained from the
harvested grape varieties under microvinification conditions, where the dynamics of the
alcoholic fermentation process was carried out. The alcoholic fermentation of the must
represents a decisive link, because it is the stage of wine ,,birth”. The quality level of the
wine depends largely on the way, in this stage it is carried out. Alcoholic fermentation is an
anaerobic process by which fermentable carbohydrates are metabolized in the main
products (ethyl alcohol and CO2) and secondary products (higher alcohols, acids, aldehyds,
etc.) as a result of oxido-reduction (redox) reactions, under the action of yeast enzymic
equipment.. Among monoglucides, glucose, mannose and fructose ferment easier, but
galactose - much harder. The remaining hexoses and pentoses do not ferment under the
action of yeasts, but are destroyed by other microorganisms. Reactions occurring in
alcoholic fermentation are determined by the enzymes in the yeast cells or yeast extracts
[16, 17]. To determine the physicochemical indices and the organoleptic properties of the
obtained wines, methods of analysis were used according to the standards in force, as well
as those recommended by the OIVV [18]. The harvested grapes were processed in the
microwinery section at the Department of Oenology. The grapes were harvested in different
regions of the Republic of Moldova. The highest concentration of sugar was determined in
Feteasca Neagră and Rara Neagră varieties, where the concentration was 228 and
223g/dm3, respectively (tabel 1). The lowest concentartion of sugar was determined in the
must of Feteasca Albă and Feteasca Regală varieties, where sugar concentration reached
170g/dm3 (tabel 3.1). The pH index in the must varies in the interval from 3,4 to 3,5.
Titratable acidity is lower in white varieties compared to red varieties. For white varieties
the titratable acidity varies from 5,4 to 5,8 g/dm3, but in the red must it is higher and varies
from 6 to 7 g/dm3 ( table 1) (19).
Table 1.
Physico-chemical indices of must from white and red grapes
Initial indices of grapes
Date of Grape
Grape varieties Sugar** Titratable
harvest origin Density* pH***
g/dm3 acidity****, g/dm3
Feteasca Albă 19.09.2018 Cricova 1074 170 3,4 5,4
Feteasca Regală 20.09.2018 Cricova 1074 170 3,4 5,8
Feteasca
14.09.2018 Cahul 1096 228 3,5 6,3
Neagră
Rara Neagră 25.09.2018 Purcari 1094 223 3,5 7,0
* According to OIV rules , OIV – MA - AS2 - 01B;
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
A. Sclifos, E. Covaci, A. Stratan 109
** According to OIV rules, OIV – MA – AS311-01;
*** According to OIV rules, OIV – MA – AS313-15;
****According to OIV rules, OIV - MA – AS313-01
Results and discussions
The process control was performed every day during the alcoholic fermentation,
determining the density and temperature of the environment. The alcoholic fermentation
control of the Feteasca Albă must is represented in figure 1.
Figure 1. Dynamics of the process of alcoholic fermantation of Feteasca Albă must
in microwinery conditions ( harvest year 2018).
Figure 1 shows that alcoholic fermentation of the must from Feteasca Albă grape
variety lasted about 11 days, from 19.09.2018 to 29.09.2018. The maximum temperature of
must during fermentation was 21oC, and the minimum temperature reached - 16oC. Density
values decreased from 1074 g/dm3 to 989 g/dm3. Based on the dynamics we can conclude
that the initial fermentation phase of alcoholic fermentation process has taken place in the
Figure 2. Dynamics of the process of alcoholic fermentation of Feteasca Regală must
in microwinery conditions ( harvest year 2018).
first 3 days, but the tumultuous phase has taken place in the following days and it lasted 5
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
110 Wine production from local varieties of grapes in microwinery conditions
days. The fermentation of Feteasca Alba must is characterized by higher values of
fermentation temperature (t=21oC) and by complete fermentation of sugar in the must.
Dynamics of alcoholic fermentation of Feteasca Regală must is similar to the
alcoholic fermentation process performed in the Feteasca Albă must.
The maceration-fermentation process is the decomposition of sugar in the must
under the action of yeasts in the presence of solid parts of the grapes (skin, skins and
seeds) and the enrichment of the must with extracted constituents. This process is known
as „the fermentation of must on grape mush”, found in the earlier specialty literature or ,,
fermentation in red”.
Figure 3. Dynamics of the process of alcoholic fermentation of Feteasca Neagră grape mush in
microwinery conditions (harvest year 2018).
Figure 4. Dynamics of the process of alcoholic fermentation of Rara Neagră grape mush in
microwinery conditions ( harvest year 2018).
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
A. Sclifos, E. Covaci, A. Stratan 111
Figures 3 and 4 show that alcoholic fermentation of must from Feteasca Neagră and
Rara Neagră grape varieties lasted approximately for 12 days, from 14.09.2018 to
25.09.2018. The maximum temperature of the must during fermentation was 25° C, and
the minimum temperature was 20° C. Density values of must decreased from 1094 to 989.
Based on the density dynamics we can conclude that during the first 5 days the initial
fermentation phase of alcoholic fermentation process has taken place, and in the following
days the tumultuous phase would take place.
Dry red and white wines obtained from local varieties were subjected to physico-chemical
analyzes, and the obtained results are presented in table 2.
Table 2.
The physico-chemical indices of dry red and white wines obtained from
native grape varieties after fermentation and postfermentation processes (2018).
After alcoholic fermentation After postfermentation
Indices Feteasca Feteasca Feteasca Rara Feteasca Feteasca Feteasca Rara
Albă Regală Neagră Negră Albă Regală Neagră Neagră
Alcohol
concentrat 9,8±0,2 9,8±0,2 13,4±0,2 13,0±0,2 10,0±0,2 10,0±0,2 13,4±0,2 13,2±0,2
ion, % vol
Mass
concentrat
ion of 5,2±0,3 5,2±0,3 4,8±0,3 5,4±0,3 2,5±0,3 2,4±0,3 3,5±0,3 3,4±0,3
sugar,
g/dm3
Mass
concentrat
ion of
5,4±0,2 6,0±0,2 6,4±0,2 6,9±0,2 5,5±0,2 6,4±0,2 5,52±0,2 6,1±0,2
titratable
acids,
g/dm3
Mass
concentrat
ion of
0,29±0,08 0,29±0,08 0,29±0,08 0,35±0,08 0,32±0,08 0,33±0,08 0,33±0,08 0,38±0,08
volatile
acids,
g/dm3
pH 3,4±0,01 3,4±0,01 3,5±0,01 3,4±0,1 3,4±0,01 3,4±0,01 3,5±0,01 3,4±0,01
Table 2 shows that after the post-fermentation process, degrees of alcoholic in all wines
increased by 0.1-0.3% vol, except for Feteasca Neagra, which remained constant at 13.4%
vol. The mass content of sugars decreased after post-fermentation, fermenting residual
sugars. The concentration of titratable acidity is within the permissible limits for dry white
and red wines and ranges from 5,4 to 6,9 g/dm3. The concentration of volatile acidity is
quite low and falls within the allowable limits of dry white wines. The pH values of the
examined wines are 3.4 to 3.5 which is characteristic for dry red and white wines.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
112 Wine production from local varieties of grapes in microwinery conditions
The organoleptic characteristics of the wines obtained from the local grape varieties were
also performed (table 3) [20, 21]
Table 3.
Organoleptic caracteristic of red and white dry wines obtained from local varieties*
Wine Organoleptic characteristics
name Clearness Colour Aroma Taste
A color that
Clear, without
changes from Honey taste,
Feteasca deposits and Flower aroma and
green yellow good intensity
Albă particles in honey flavor
to golden and persistence.
suspension
yellow
Adequately to the The taste is pure,
Clear, without
From straw grape variety, harmonious,
Feteasca deposits and
colour to with no with freshness,
Regală particles in
yellow extraneous no extraneous
suspension
nuances nuances
The taste of
Clear, without Aroma of black
blackberry is
Feteasca deposits and Intense ruby currant, wild
balanced,
Neagră particles in color berries and dry
consistent and
suspension fruits
vigorous
Clear, without Aroma of plums, The taste is full,
Red-ruby not
Rara deposits and with no velvety, with
too intense, but
Neagră particles in extraneous nuance of dry
vivid and bright
suspension nuances fruits
*According to the Laboratory Guide, Organoleptic Analysis of Wines and Alcoholic Products,
UTM, 2014
Characterizing the sensory properties of wines obtained from varieties of native
grapes, one can conclude: that all wines have a good clarity, with a color characteristic of
white and red dry wines. The aroma and taste of wines are appropriate for each variety and
correspond to the highest quality wines.
Conclusions
The process of alcoholic fermentation of must and grape mush from local red and
white grape varieties showed that the obtained wineraw material had a duration of the
alcoholic fermentation process of 11-12 days, but at different fermentation temperatures:
(16-21oC) for white wine and (20-25oC) for red wine.
The study of the physico-chemical composition of white and red wines over the
technological cycle has shown that most of the ethyl alcohol is formed in wines as a result
of the alcoholic fermentation process and in small amounts in the post-fermentation
process and in the malolactic fermentation process. The concentration of titratable acids
during the technological cycle does not change unnecessarily, only for red wines during the
malo-lactic fermentation process it decreases. The concentration of volatile acids over the
technological cycle is gradually increasing due to the formation of acetic acid as a by-
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
A. Sclifos, E. Covaci, A. Stratan 113
product of alcoholic fermentation. Analyzing the pH index dynamics, we can conclude that
the pH of white and red dry wines during the technological cycle is stable and does not
change essentially.
The organoleptic characteristics of the red and white wines obtained from local
varieties in the TUM microwinery section have sensorial characteristics, special for every
grape variety and they are of the highest quality.
The elaboration and implementation of modern technologies for the production of
high biological vineyard planting material for the creation of vineyards established with
native and prospective varieties from the new selection have contributed substantially to
the revival of Moldovan viticulture.
Acknowledgements
This work was done in the framework of Project 4/TC nr.18.80012.51.30 A, "Criteria for the
traceability of wines obtained from local grape varieties", cofounded by the National Agency
for Research and Development of Moldova and conducted at department of Oenology,
Microvinification Center of Technical University of Moldova.
References
1. Angela Ţîrdea, Constantin Ţîrdea, Gheorghe Sîrbu, Tratat de vinificaţie, ed.” Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iași,
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Centrală, Chișinău, 2018.
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selecţia nouă”, Nr 1 , martie, 2014
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agricole. 2002, nr 3,(288).
14. Ţârdea C. şi al. Tratat de vinificaţie. Iaşi, ed. „Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, 2000, 728 p.
15. Jones G. Climate change and wine: Observations impacts and future implications.In.Wine Industry
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16. Rusu E. Vinificaţia primară. Chisinau, ed. Continental Group SRL: 2011.- 496 p
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18. Institutul Știinţifico-practic de horticultură și tehnologii Alimentare. Reguli generale privind fabricarea
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Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 114 - 122
Fascicle Food Engineering ISSN 2587-3474
Topic Biotechnologies, Food Chemistry and Food Safety eISSN 2587-3482
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2640056
CZU 637.5:579.67
INHIBITING OF ACCIDENTAL PATHOGENIC MICROBIOTA IN MEAT PRODUCTS
WITH BERRY POWDERS
Daniela Cojocari 1,2*, Rodica Sturza 1, Elisaveta Sandulachi 1, Artur Macari 1,
Greta Balan 2, Aliona Ghendov-Moșanu 1
1
Technical University of Moldova, 168, Stefan cel Mare Bd., Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
2
State University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Nicolae Testemitanu”, 165,
Stefan cel Mare Bd., Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
*Corresponding author: Cojocari Daniela: [email protected]
Received: February, 01, 2019
Accepted: March, 22, 2019
Abstract. This article presents a case study of antimicrobial properties of berry powders on
pathogenic microorganisms that can accidentally colonize meat and meat products. We
tested the inhibiting properties of rose-hip and hawthorn on the growth of pathogenic and
opportunistic pathogenic microorganisms (S. aureus ATCC 25923, Salmonella Abony ATCC
6017, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883 and E. coli ATCC 25922). We found out that
introducing rose-hip and hawthorn powder in the sausage recipe decreased the
microorganism growth rate on purposely contaminated samples. By studying Lag and
Logaritmic phases of strain growth rate we found that hawthorn has a greater bacteriostatic
effect on S. aureus ATCC 25923 and E. coli ATCC 25922 strains, and rose-hip has a greater
bacteriostatic effect on Salmonella Abony ATCC 6017, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883
strains.
Keywords: pathogenic microorganisms, antimicrobial effect, meat products, rose-hip, hawthorn.
Introduction
Worldwide, poisoning and food poisoning pose one of the most severe public health
and industrial development problems [1]. The delayed phase of bacterial growth is
important from a medical and food safety perspective, but it is difficult to study due to low
cell density and metabolic rate [2]. The theoretical and experimental models for delay
phase dynamics, such as the Baranyi model [3], are widely used in the field of food safety to
estimate the duration of the delay phases in a particular food product. Globally, it is
estimated that Salmonella is responsible for 80.3 million cases of food-borne illness [4]. A
major problem threatening the food industry is the contamination with food microbes of
human origin resulting from inappropriate handling and processing. Microbial
contamination reduces the shelf-life and quality of foods that lead to food infections and
outbreaks of food poisoning, some of which may be fatal [5]. Continuous monitoring of food
processing is essential to avoid possible health problems [6, 7]. Staphylococcus aureus is one
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
D. Cojocari, R. Sturza, E. Sandulachi, A. Macari, G. Balan, A. Ghendov-Moșanu 115
of the major pathogens in food products, which frequently causes diseases as a result of
consuming food contaminated with the staphylococcal toxin [8]. E. coli can enter the meat
during processing. If contaminated meat is not treated at a temperature of 71 °C, bacteria
can survive and infect the consumer. This is the most common way people in Canada
become infected with E. coli. Any food product that has come into contact with the raw
meat could also be infected [9]. A definition of quality that is applicable to the food industry
is to ensure that the product is safe for consumption and that the composition of the food
does not present a favorable environment for recontamination. Many bacterial species
produce responses to environmental stress. The main factors affecting microbial growth and
bacterial survival are pH, water activity (aw) and temperature [10].
Based on risk assessment, manufacturers should decide what measures or
combination of measures should be implemented to achieve the microbiological risk
reduction objective. Some of these measures can be easily applied, while others require
significant investment. We propose the use of berry additives in order to reduce the
microbiological risk and to control the quality and safety of the foodstuffs. The Lag phase is
a period without growth that occurs when stationary phase bacteria are transferred to a
fresh environment. Bacteria in the delayed phase seem inert: their biomass does not
increase. The low number of cells and low metabolic activity make it difficult to study this
phase. As a consequence, it was not studied as well as other bacterial growth phases [11].
In this context, a case study aiming to study the hawthorn and rose-hip influence on
the growth rate of pathogenic and opportunistic pathogenic microorganisms (S. aureus,
Salmonella, Klebsiella pneumoniae, E. coli) in meat products was conducted.
Previous studies indicate that hawthorn, rose-hip and sea-buckthorn have
antimicrobial properties [12, 13, 14]. The addition of powders or extracts from these fruits
in the manufacturing of pastry and confectionery products controls the microbiological risk,
diminishing the growth of B. mesentericus and B. subtilis sporulated bacteria.
Materials and methods
The research was carried out within State project 18.51.07.01A/PS "Decreasing
contamination of raw materials and food products with pathogenic microorganisms".
For the contamination of the products the microbial strains (S. aureus ATCC 25923,
Salmonella Abony ATCC 6017, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883 and E. coli ATCC 25922)
were procured from The National Public Health Agency.
As a substrate for contamination, the sausage samples obtained in laboratory
conditions within the Department of Food Technology, Technical University of Moldova.
Microbiological tests were carried out in the laboratory of the Department of Microbiology
and Immunology, State University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Nicolae Testemiţanu”.
From the reference strains (S. aureus, S. Abony, K. pneumoniae and E. coli),
microorganism suspensions were prepared according to the McFarland 0.5 turbidity
standard. This turbidity corresponds to approximately 1×108 CFU·mL, then decimal 10-3 and
10-6 dilutions were performed for inoculations in the sausage samples [15].
Nutritional environments used Muller Hinton agar, Endo and Mannitol salt agar. One
milliliter of microorganism suspension corresponding to the McFarland 0.5 turbidity
standard prepared from the reference strains (S. aureus, S. abony, K.pneumoniae and E. coli)
was added to one gram of ground sausage sample. From each type of sausage, four samples
were prepared. The intentionally contaminated samples were incubated in the thermostat
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
116 Inhibiting of accidental pathogenic microbiota in meat products with berry powders
at 37 °C for 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours and 96 hours. Upon expiration of the incubation
time set, the increased colonies were counted in the tested Petri dishes and the microbial
growth rate was calculated [16]. In order to determine the antibacterial effect of
biologically active compounds of rose-hip and hawthorn in sausages, we have to analyze
the multiplication kinetics of S. aureus, S. abony, K. pneumoniae and E. coli in situ. Two
phases of the microorganism growth curve were studied: Lag and Exponential phase.
Results and discussions
In order to study whether berries have a bactericidal or bacteriostatic effect in meat
products, different samples of sausage with rose-hip and hawthorn additives have been
prepared under laboratory conditions at the Department of Food Technology. The sausage
samples were intentionally contaminated with S. aureus ATCC 25923, Salmonella Abony
ATCC 6017, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883 and E. coli ATCC 25922 strains. The
microbial growth in situ (sausage) was identified, in control samples (without added berry
powder) as well as in those with rose-hip and hawthorn additives. Incubation was carried
out at 37 °C. The growth rate of pathogenic microorganisms was identified after 24, 48, 72
and 96 hours. Table 1 presents the monitoring results of the pathogenic strains in situ
growth.
Table 1.
Growth of in situ microorganisms (sausages with an addition of
biologically active substances from rose-hip and hawthorn)
Strains S.aureus Salmonella Klebsiella E. coli
ATCC 25923 Abony pneumoniae ATCC ATCC 25922
ATCC 6017 13883
Sample Nr. of colonies Nr. of colonies Nr. of colonies Nr. of colonies
10-3 10-6 10-3 10-6 10-3 10-6 10-3 10-6
control 552 78 diffuse >700 diffuse 168 diffuse 488
After 24h
with rose-hip 228 16 diffuse 120 diffuse 88 diffuse 64
additive
with hawthorn 96 1 diffuse 248 diffuse 103 diffuse 88
additive
control >1000 268 diffuse >800 diffuse 346 diffuse 596
After 48h
with rose-hip 440 23 diffuse 228 diffuse 114 diffuse 264
additive
with hawthorn 176 3 diffuse 480 diffuse 144 diffuse 152
additive
control >1000 396 diffuse difuz diffuse 412 diffuse >700
After 72h
with rose-hip 560 49 diffuse 392 diffuse 300 diffuse 960
additive
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
D. Cojocari, R. Sturza, E. Sandulachi, A. Macari, G. Balan, A. Ghendov-Moșanu 117
Table 1. continuation
with hawthorn 222 4 diffuse >1000 diffuse 760 diffuse 344
additive
control diffuse 416 diffuse diffuse diffuse 560 confluent diffuse
confluent confluent
After 96h
with rose-hip diffuse 280 diffuse >1000 diffuse 372 confluent diffuse
additive confluent confluent
with hawthorn 144 3 diffuse >1000 diffuse 896 confluent 364
additive confluent confluent
After 24 hours in the samples inoculated with suspensions of strain S. aureus
ATCC 25923, the following results were obtained: for 10-3 dilution in the control sample,
552 colonies grew, whereas in the sample with hawthorn additive, only 78 colonies, and in
the one with rose-hip additive – 228 colonies. For the suspension of microorganisms with
10-6 dilution: in the control sample, 78 colonies grew, and in the rose-hip additive sample –
16 colonies and in the hawthorn additive one – 1 colony respectively. In the following
incubation days, the growth rate of pathogenic micro-organisms was also different. In some
Petri plates there was an abundant increase that spread across the entire surface.
Figures 1-5 show some Petri plates of the total number of plaques inoculated with
different strains of microorganisms and incubated at 37 °C. Microorganisms grown in each
Petri plate after 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours and 96 hours were counted, the result was
expressed In CFU (colony forming units).
a) b)
Figure 1. Growth of S. aureus ATCC 25923 strains in sausage samples tested after 24h:
a) control sample; b) hawthorn sample.
Based on the results obtained by counting the colonies from the Petri plates, the
number of microorganisms was calculated depending on the dilutions of the inoculated
strain suspensions and the growth curve of each strain was constructed for a period of 4
days (96 hours). The bacterial growth curve represents the number of live cells in a bacterial
population over a period of time.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
118 Inhibiting of accidental pathogenic microbiota in meat products with berry powders
a) b)
Figure 2. Growth of E. coli ATCC 25922 strains in sausage samples tested after 48h:
a) control sample; b) hawthorn sample.
a) b)
Figure 3. Growth of Klebsiella pneumonia ATCC 13883 strains in sausage samples
tested after 48h: a) control sample; b) hawthorn sample.
The Lag phase (adaptation phase) is characterized by cellular activity but not growth.
A small group of cells are placed in a nutrient-rich environment that allows them to
synthesize proteins and other molecules necessary for replication. These cells grow in size,
but there is no cell division in this phase [17, 18].
The Exponential (logarithmic) phase: after the delay phase, the bacterial cells enter the
exponential or logarithmic phase. This is the moment when the cells divide by binary
division and duplicate after each generation of time. Metabolic activity is high, as DNA,
RNA, cell wall components and other substances necessary in growth are generated for
division. In this growth phase, antibiotics and disinfectants are most effective, as these
substances usually target bacterial cell walls or the synthesis process for proteins necessary
in DNA transcription and RNA translation [2, 19]. In the study conducted, we tested the
effect of biologically active substances on the Lag phase of certain pathogenic microbial
strains.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
D. Cojocari, R. Sturza, E. Sandulachi, A. Macari, G. Balan, A. Ghendov-Moșanu 119
a) b)
Figure 4. Growth of Salmonella Abony ATCC 6017strains in sausage samples
tested after 72h: a) control sample; b) hawthorn sample.
a) b)
Figure 5. Growth of Klebsiella pneumoniae strains in sausage samples tested after 96h:
a) control sample; b) hawthorn sample.
Figure 6 shows the Lag and Exponential growth phases of the tested microorganisms.
From these phases of the microorganism growth curve, we can see the influence of various
berry additives on decreasing the growth of pathogenic microorganism strains that may
accidentally get on/in the meat products.
The bacterial Lag phase phenomenon was first described at the end of the nineteenth
century, when the "latent period" was described in studies of the effects of temperature on
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi Surprisingly [20]. The Lag phase is the least well-
understood growth phase, primarily due to the lack of data describing the physiological and
molecular processes underlying it [17]. The assumption was that the delay phase allows for
the adaptation necessary for bacterial cells to start activating in the new environmental
conditions [21, 22].
Based on the experimental data analysis (Figures 1-5), the kinetic growth curves of
the pathogenic microorganisms were plotted (Figure 6). From Figure 6, it is clear that
hawthorn and rose-hip additives in sausage samples increased the Lag phase for the
inoculated microorganism strains and diminished the growth rate of the pathogenic
microorganisms.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
120 Inhibiting of accidental pathogenic microbiota in meat products with berry powders
In S. Aureus (Figure 6a), the addition of hawthorn powder completely inhibits the
growth of microorganisms during the evaluated period. For E. Coli (Figure 6d) the hawthorn
is also most effective for stagnating the development of the pathogen microbiota on meat
products. In the case of Klebsiella pneumoniae (Figure 6b), the effect of the rose-hip powder
is the most striking. For Salmonella Abony pneumoniae, the Lag phase is observed over the
course of 80 hours (rose-hip powder sausage) and about 40 hours for products with
hawthorn (Figure 6c). The experimental results of this study confirm the results of another
study on the antimicrobial properties of rose-hip and hawthorn powder on the pathogenic
microbiota with Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia. The plant
powders researches have shown promising antimicrobial potential against pathogenic
microorganisms and can be used in the food industry to reduce microbial contamination of
raw materials and foods [23].
When bacteria are inoculated in fresh media, they often show a period without known
growth as the delay phase [18]. The Lag phase is interesting as a fundamental biological
process in which bacterial physiology adapts to a new environment. The Lag phase is also of
interest in areas such as food safety - where the delay phase is a factor in determining the shelf
life of foods [24, 25].
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 6. The Lag and Exponential phase of pathogenic strains in the tested sausage
samples (testing period of 96 h): a) S. aureus ATCC 25923; b) Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC
13883; c) Salmonella Abony ATCC 6017; d) E. coli ATCC 25922.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
D. Cojocari, R. Sturza, E. Sandulachi, A. Macari, G. Balan, A. Ghendov-Moșanu 121
Conclusions
As a result of the conducted tests, we determined that rose-hip and hawthorn
additives in the sausage recipe can control the growth rate of microorganisms, including
pathogenic ones. This has been determined by evaluating the multiplication of
microorganism strains such as S. aureus ATCC 25923, Salmonella Abony ATCC 6017,
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883 and E. coli ATCC 25922.
By studying the Lag and Logarithmic growth phases of pathogenic microbial strains
we determined that the hawthorn has a greater bacteriostatic effect on strains of S. aureus
ATCC 25923 and E. coli ATCC 25922 and the rose-hip has a greater bacteriostatic effect on
Salmonella strains Abony ATCC 6017, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883.
So the use of berry additives in the meat products recipe can mean two things: an
improved nutritional value of the product and an increased product shelf-life by keeping
the microbiological risk under control.
The extension of the Lag phase in the sausage samples with the berry powder
additives demonstrates that these products can have a longer shelf-life, a factor that is
extremely important from a food safety perspective.
Acknowledgments
This work was benefited from support through the 18.51.07.01A/PS State project
“Decreasing raw material and food products contamination with pathogenic microorganisms”,
funded by the Moldavian Government.
References
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2. Jurtshuk, P. Bacterial Metabolism. National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine,
1 Jan. 1996, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7919/.
3. Baranyi J, ROBERTS T.A. A dynamic approach to predicting bacterial growth in food. Int J Food Microbiol, 1994;7:
277–294. doi: 10.1016/0168-1605(94)90157-0.
4. Majowicz, S. E. et al., International Collaboration on Enteric Disease Burden of Illness Studies. The global burden
of nontyphoidal salmonella gastroenteritis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2010, 50, 882-889.
5. Al-Bahry S.N. et al., Staphylococcus aureus Contamination during Food Preparation , Processing and Handling,
International Journal of Chemical Engineering and Applications, Vol. 5, No. 5, October 2014, 338-392.
6. Commission Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 of 15 November 2005 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs.
02005R2073 EN 01.01.2018 — 007.001 — 1
7. Regulation on microbiological criteria for food, approved by the Government Decision nr.221 from 16.03.2009.
Official Monitor of the Republic of Moldova nr.59-61, art. nr. 272 from 24.03 2009.
8. Arg Udín, M. A. MENDOZA, C. M., RODICIO, M. R. Food poisoning and Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins.
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10. Alvarez-Ordonez, A. et al. The adaptive response of bacterial food-borne pathogens in the environment, host
and food. Implication for food safety. Int. J. Food Microbiology 2015, 213, 99-109
11. Mardar, D. et al. Promoter activity dynamics in the lag phase of Escherichia coli. BMC Syst Biol. 2013; 7: 136.
12. Ghendov-Moșanu A. Biologically active compounds of horticultural origin for functional foods, Tehnica-Info Ed.,
UTM, Chișinău, 2018, 236p.[in Romanian]
13. Ghendov-Moșanu A., Sturza, R., Sandulachi, E., Patraș, A. Diminution de la contamination des produits de
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2018, 97.
14. Roșca I., Rubţov S., Sandulachi L, Ciobanu C. Functional bakery products with added roseship powder, 2018, 1,
p. 85-88, ISBN1683-853X. [in Romanian]
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Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Journal of Engineering Science Vol. XXVI, no. 1 (2019), pp. 123 - 125
Fascicle ISSN 2587-3474
Topic History of engineering eISSN 2587-3482
ŞTEFAN-IOAN GEORGESCU-GORJEAN – “THE CONSTRUCTOR” OF THE
ENDLESS COLUMN
Gheorghe Manolea
University of Craiova, 13 A. I. Cuza street, Craiova, Romania
Corresponding author: Gheorge Manolea, [email protected]
Received: February, 2, 2019
Accepted: March, 14, 2019
Abstract. When we talk about the “Endeless Column” or about the “Infinite Sacrifice
Column” from Tg. Jiu, we think of Constantin Brâncuşi. When we talk about the “Endeless
Column” or about the “Infinite Sacrifice Column”, we think that it is a work of art. In 2001,
when we celebrated 125 years from C. Brâncuşi’s birth, UNESCO drew up a report in which
it was stated: “The Endless Column is not only a masterpiece of the modern art, but it is
also an extraordinary engineering work.” The one who pointed out the engineering
characteristic of this work of art was Ştefan-Ioan Georgescu-Gorjan.
Keywords: the Endless Column, constructor, Georgescu –Gorjan, Brâncuși.
A short biography
Ştefan-Ioan Georgescu-Gorjan was born on September 11th 1905, in Craiova, 23
Madona Dudu Street. Between 1912 - 1916 he attended “Petrache Poenaru” Primary School
from Craiova. He easily learnt French and German at school, and
English, Italian and Spanish in private. After primary school,
between 1916 and 1923, he attended “Carol” High School, where
he was remarked as a student with initiatives. He was a violinist
in the high school orchestra, he edited the Mathematics Journal
of “Carol I” High School, he acted in plays. He always found
innovative solutions, solutions that were different from his
colleagues’ ones for the mathematics homework. As a result he
graduated the last two years in one. He went to study at the
Polytechnics Institute of Bucharest, specialization electro
mechanics. He took the entrance examination on the 17th place
out of 400 candidates. At the same time with his engineering
studies he also attended the Faculty of Letters and Philosophy, being interested especially
in the history of arts. He was often seen at art exhibitions. He could speak French, German
and Italian. Although still a student, he bought a lot of foreign books, but also art books,
philosophy and poetry books. In order to earn money for these books, he drew up projects
for his colleagues, and during the last year he worked as a technical inspector at the
Brâncovenesc Hospital. During the same period of time, professor Nicolae Vasilescu Karpen
organized a trip to Italy for his students to be able to visit the polytechnics institutes and
engineering associations. Georgescu-Gorjan used this opportunity to improve his knowledge
of Italian and Roman arts.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
124 Gh. Manolea
Engineer at Petroşani.
In 1928 he got his engineer diploma and on the 1st of September he took a job at
the Romanian Anonymous Society for “Petroşani” Mining Company. Immediately after
getting the job, he was sent to Wien for a six-month formation period at Siemens-
Schuckert Plant.
After coming back to Romania, he continued his formation period at several mines
from Jiu Valley; then he started a new job as engineer at the Central Workshops in
Petroşani. He was put in charge with the department of casting and metallic structures,
namely the designing department and trying labs. At the same time, he carried out a
teaching activity at the School of Mining and Mechanical Foremen. Being pragmatic and a
good organizer, he wrote scientific books and set up a gliding aero club in Petroşani. A lot
of young people from the area, but also from other regions, Craiova included, flew here with
his aeroplanes. Now, where the aero club used to be there is a neighbourhood called “The
Airport”. Several years ago, the city hall mounted here an IAR plane. The Company’s
management was pleased with his work and appointed him engineer-in-chief, putting him
in charge with several activities abroad.
Meeting Brâncuşi again.
In December 1934 he went to Paris. It was a good opportunity to visit Constantin
Brâncuşi who lived in his parents’ house in 23 Madona Dudu Street and who paid them
several visits during 1914-1922 and who sent them postcards from his trips. Brâncuşi’s
workshop was situated at 11 Impasse Ronsin Street. They discussed a lot about many
things. Brancuşi noticed that the young engineer Ştefan Georgescu-Gorjean was, on the one
side, a good professional, and, on the other hand, a lover of arts. Brâncuşi told him about
his idea to build a monument dedicated to the inhabitants of Tg. Jiu who, on the 14th of
October 1914, stopped the German army. The monument was ordered to him by the city
hall council. “A solid iron pole must be cast in concrete, and some identical spatial elements
must be placed on it, one above the other, like beads, empty inside. The perfect match of the
elements will give the impression of continuity”. In order to carry out such an idea, it was
necessary to choose the building materials carefully, to calculate its stability in case of
storms or earthquakes. In other words, an engineer was much needed, and he had just been
selected: Ştefan Georgescu-Gorjean. On his following visit, on the 7th of January 1935,
Georgescu-Gorjan presented his technical solution to Brâncuşi. They discussed the details
for the next two years.
The Endless Column starts to be built.
In August 1937, Brâncuşi came back to Romania, at Petroşani. He was given Manager
Ioan Bujoiu’s approval for the elements to be cast at the Central Workshops in Petroşani.
Georgescu-Gorjan and Brâncuşi, starting from the formulae of plastic harmony, namely a
report of 1:2:4, used by the sculptor to all his wooden columns, concluded that every
element should have the small side of 45 cm, the long side of 90 cm, and the height of 180
cm. They also agreed that the monument should have 15 entire modules and a half of
module to each end of the column, with a total height of 29,35 m. During this discussion,
Georgescu-Gorjan used his all engineering knowledge in order to put in practice, with the
financial and technical means he had, Brâncuşi’s ideas. The central pole, with a square cross
section, with a side of 42 cm, was built and cast by Georgescu-Gorjan in three parts, of de
8,93 m, 10 m and 9,4 m length in order to be able to transport them in carriages through Jiu
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
Ştefan-Ioan Georgescu-Gorjean – ”The constructor” of the endless column 125
Canyon. The wooden model of the beads, as Brâncuşi called the elements of the column,
was made by the carpenter Carol Flişek, in direct collaboration with Brâncuşi. In fact,
Brâncuşi carved, with his famous patience, a facet of the lime wooden model, with an
almost imperceptible curve, and the other three facets were carved by Carol Flişek. In the
first day of September 1937 the casting model was ready, and the casting in iron started on
the 16th of September.
One month later, only two
modules remained to be
cast. Meawhile, Georgescu-
Gorjan carried out several
mounting tests on horizontal
plane. The iron for the pole
was made at Malaxa Plant in
Reşiţa. The pole started to
be built on the 14th of
September. The first part,
having a weight of 9000
kilos, went towards Tg. Jiu
on the 12th of October. The Endless Column mounted horizontally for samples.
transport was carried out with carriages and it lasted three days. On the 18th of October the
other two parts were sent and their welding was programmed for the 23rd of October. The
column was finished on the 15th of November. So, we can notice that there were only 90
days from finding the technical solution on the 15th of August to the column erection on the
15th of November. Georgescu-Gorjan’s good organization led to finalizing of the
construction without any accident although the tools used were very simple. In the final
stage the column should be covered in yellow according to Brâncuşi’s wish. After many
searches, the brass was found in Switzerland. The plating was carried out by Brâncuşi
himself during the summer of 1938. The monument was inaugurated on the 27th of October
1938. Unfortunately, both Brâncuşi as well as the engineer Georgescu-Gorjan weren’t
present at the ceremony.
The Eternal Song of the Column – Vertical.
From 1953 until retirement in 1967, he worked in different institutions, but he
always supervised the Column. He wrote a book entitled “I worked with Brâncuşi” where he
told how he collaborated with Brâncuşi. The book was published at Universalia Publishing
House in Bucharest and it was launched on the 3rd of February 2005. Georgescu-Gorjan
didn’t participate to this event. He had died twenty years before, on the 15th of March,
eternizing Brâncuşi’s words:”The Endless Column is like an eternal song which takes us to the
infinite, beyond any pain or joy”. Georgescu-Gorjan’s last word was “Vertical”. The local
council of Tg. Jiu conferred him, post-mortem, in 2007, the title of “Honorary Citizen” of
Târgu-Jiu for special merits regarding the construction of “Calea Eroilor” Monumental
Assembly from Târgu-Jiu, as the author of the technical solution of the Endless Column,
work of sculptor Constantin Brâncuşi.
References
1. Georgescu-Gorjan Ștefan. Amintiri despre Brâncuși, Editura Scrisul românesc, Craiova, 1988.
2. Georgescu-Gorjan Sorana, Urcând Coloana infinită, Editura Eminescu, București, 2001.
3. Manolea Gheorghe. Invenţiile și istoriile lor. Despre inventatori. Editura ALMA, Craiova, 2010.
Journal of Engineering Science March, 2019, Vol. XXVI (1)
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