Chapter Two Communication Process

CHAPTER TWO

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

2.1 ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The process of communication involves five elements:

☺ Sender-Encoder
☺ Message
☺ Medium
☺ Receiver-Decoder
☺ Feedback
The following figure illustrates how these factors interact in the communication process, affected
by various internal and external conditions and decisions.

Sender – Encoder Message Medium Receiver - Decoder

External environment,
Verbal, External Environment,
internal stimuli nonverbal Internal stimuli
(Experiences Attitudes, (Experiences, attitudes,
skills), perception idea Stimuli
skills) Receptor Mechanisms
encoding symbol perception, decoding
decisions sending
Idea interpretation
mechanisms

Feedback
Verbal

Non-verbal
Let us discuss now each elements one by one:
Sender: the person who transmits, spreads, or communicates a message or operates an electronic
device is the one who conceives and initiates the message with the purpose of informing,
persuading, influencing, and changing the attitude, opinion, or behavior of the receiver (audience
listener). He /she decides the communication symbols, the channel, and the time for sending the
message after carefully considering the total situation in which communication takes place.
Ideas or Thoughts: the raw form of telling the ideas that the sender wants to share with a receiver
by changing them to messages using symbols.

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Encoding: is changing the raw idea from its mental form into symbols, that is, patterns of words,
gestures, pictorial forms, or signs (physical or sounds) of a specific visual /oral language. The
sender must choose certain words or non-verbal methods to send an intentional message. This
activity is called encoding. The words and channels that a communicator chooses to deliver a
message can make a tremendous difference in how that message is received. Consider the simple
act of a manager offering feedback to an employee whether the words are respectful or abrupt and
whether the message is delivered in person or in a memo can make a big difference in how the
feedback is received.
Message: It is the information, written, spoken, or nonverbal, which is to be sent from one person
to another. Here, the word “person” stands for the two ends of a system and may represent an
individual, a group of individuals, or even electronic machines.
The most important characteristic of a message as an element of communication is that it is
organized, structured, shaped, and selective – a product & pre-writing or pre–speaking stage. It
exists in the mind of the sender (communicator)
Medium: is the carrier of the message such as written words, in the form of written
communication, and spoken words and gestures in the form of face-to-face discussion.
Channel: is the carrier of the medium like a memo or a letter, which carry the written words, and
air, radio, telephone, television, etc. carry the spoken words.
Receiver: is the targeted audience of the message. A receiver is any person who notices and
attachés some meaning to a message. In the best of circumstances, a message reaches its intended
receiver with no problems. In the confusing and imperfect world of business, however, several
problems can occur. The message may never get to the receiver. It might be delivered but lie buried
under a mountain of papers on the recipient’s desk. Even worse, a message intended for one
receiver might be intercepted by another one.
Decoding: This is the act of translating symbols of communication into their ordinary meanings;
however, the total meaning would consist of the meanings of the words (symbols) together with
the tone and the attitude of the sender as treated by the structure of the message and the choice of
words used by him (the sender).
Feedback: This is the loop that connects the receiver in the communication process with the
sender, who, in turn, acts as a feedback receiver and, thus, gets to know that communication has
been accomplished. In communication, feedback plays an important role. It helps the

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communicator know if there are any corrections or changes to be made in the proposed action. It
also ensures that the receiver has received the message and understood it as intended by the sender
failure to answer a letter or to return a phone call can suggest how the non-communicative person
feels about the sender.

2.2 THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication involves participants (a sender & a receiver), the message to be sent a medium to
carry the communication signals & the environments in which the message is sent & received.
These elements act & interact in the five-step process. Whether you are speaking or writing,
listening or reading, communication is more than a single act. Instead, it is a chain of events that
can be broken into five phases:
 The sender has an idea.
 The idea becomes a message.
 The message is transmitted.
 The receiver gets the message.
 The receiver reacts & sends feedback to the sender.
2.3 BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

No two persons are exactly the same mentally, physically, or emotionally. Thus the innumerable
human differences plus cultural, Social & environmental differences may cause problems in
conveying an intended message. Although all communication is subject to misunderstandings,
business communication is particularly different. Various characteristics of the sender, receiver,
& communication situation can create barriers to effective communication. The major barriers to
communication include the following:
1. Channel selection: Communication may be oral, written, visual, or audio-visual. The different
communication channels can be personal barriers in that some individuals always seem to incline
toward a particular channel even though a more effective one exists. All the media have their
relative merits and limitations. While a properly chosen medium can add to the effectiveness of
communication, an unsuitable medium may act as a barrier to it.
Consider, for example, a superior who uses a written memo to let you know about the recent denial
of a promotion. The more effective channel in this case might have been a face-to-face meeting in
which you can ask questions. An employee desirous of expressing his regrets for his earlier

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misconduct with his supervisor should meet him personally. A manager using a memo to
compliment an employee for a creditable achievement or to congratulate another employee for a
wedding is surely creating a communication barrier through the wrong choice of medium.
2. Physical barriers: these include noise, and time & distance.
a. Noise:
Anything that interferes with communication & distorts or blocks the message is noise. Noise is
quite often a barrier to communication. In factories, oral communication could be difficult by the
loud noise of machines. Electronic noise like ear-splitting often interferes with communication by
telephone. The word “noise” is also used to refer to all kinds of physical interference like illegible
handwriting, smudged copies of duplicated typescripts, poor telephone connections, use of jargon
(terms that have a precise meaning among specialists, but are unfamiliar to others), a distraction
that prevents the receiver from paying attention, a worn printer ribbon that makes a document hard
to read, etc.
b. Time & Distance:
Time and distance also act as barriers to communication. Modern communication facilities like
fax, telephone, and internet are not available everywhere. This is especially so in most companies
in our country. Even when these technologies are available, sometimes mechanical breakdowns
render these facilities ineffective. In such cases, the distance between the transmitter and the
receiver becomes a barrier. There is a kind of communication gap between persons working in
different shifts in a factory. Can you imagine how difficult it would be to send an urgent message
to a business partner living in England if it had to be done through postal mail?
3. Semantics: refer to the different uses & meanings of words and symbols. Words and symbols
may not have similar uses and meanings for different individuals from different cultural groups,
languages, and living styles so it may create some barriers in the communication process. Semantic
barriers include:
A. Interpretations of words:
Do you remember a situation where you and your friend understood a word communicated by
somebody else in a different way? The knowledge each has about a subject or word affects the
meaning we attach to it. Individuals have their own network of words & meanings available for
recall that overlap, but do not correspond exactly, with those of other individuals using their own
networks can attach different meanings to words. Receivers decode words & phrases in conformity

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with their own network, which may be very different from those of senders. Words are capable of
communicating a variety of meanings. It is quite possible that the receiver does not assign the same
meaning to a word as the sender has intended, which may lead to miscommunication. For some, a
successful career means having a prestigious job title & making a lot of money; for others, it may
mean having a job they really enjoy & plenty of personal time to spend with family & friends.
Different word interpretations are especially, noticeable in, “bypassed” instructions & in reactions
to denotations, connotations, and euphemisms.
B. Bypassed instructions:
When the message sender & receiver attribute different meanings to the same words or use
different words though intending the same meaning, bypassing often occurs. Example: An office
manager handed to a new assistant a letter, with the instruction “Take it to our store room and burn
it” In the office manager’s mind (and in the firm’s jargon) the word “burn” meant to make a copy
on a photocopier. As the letter was extremely important, she wanted an extra copy. However, the
confused employee afraid to ask questions burned the letter and thus destroyed the original existing
copy! To avoid communication errors of bypassing, when you give instructions or discuss issues,
be sure your words & sentences will convey the intended meaning to the recipient. Also, when
you are the recipient of unclear instruction, before acting on it, ask questions to determine the
sender’s intended meaning.
C. Denotations, Connotations, & Euphoniums:
Some of these communication problems may occur because words have both denotative and
connotative meanings, and the sender has not considered the receiver’s probable interpretation and
reactions.
Denotations: the denotative meaning is the meaning on which most people will probably agree.
It often is the dictionary definition. The word informs the receiver & it names objects, people, or
events without indicating positive or negative qualities. Such words are car, desk, book, house,
and water convey denotative meaning, provided, of course, that the communicators understand the
English language & provided that the receiver has a similar understanding of the context in which
the word is used.
Connotations: in addition to more literal denotative meanings, some words have connotative
meanings that arouse qualitative judgments & personal reactions. The term ‘meeting room’ is
denotative. Director’s lounge, executive suite, and boardroom, though they each denote a meeting

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place, also have connotative meanings. The word ‘student’ is denotative; bookworm, scholar, and
dropout are connotative.
The communicators’ different backgrounds & interests also affect the connotative meanings for
words. On hearing that a particular person is ‘cool’ members of one generation may take it to mean
the person is fun to be with, while members of earlier generation may believe it means that the
individual is unemotional & insensitive.
Euphemisms: tactful writers & speakers are euphemisms whenever possible to replace words that
might have blunt, painful, lowly, or distasteful connotations. Euphemisms are mild, innovative
expressions with which most people do not have negative associations. Expressions like the
following have an obvious connotative advantage: maintenance worker or staff member instead of
janitor, slender instead of skinny; restroom instead of the toilet. Instead of saying an employee was
fired, a communicator may use such euphemisms as laid off, terminated, or a victim of
reorganization or staff cutbacks.
4. Perception of reality: The reality of an object, an event, or a person is different for different
people. Reality is not a fixed concept; it is complex, infinite, and continually changing. Besides,
each human being has limited sensory perceptions of touch. Sight, hearings, smell, and taste, and
each person’s mental filter are unique. People perceive reality in different ways. No two persons
perceive reality in identical manners. We make various abstractions inferences and evaluations of
the world around us.
a. Abstracting:
It is the process of focusing on some details & omitting others. In countless instances, abstracting
is necessary and desirable – for both written and oral communications. Whether you write a memo,
letter, or report or converse by telephone, you will be limited somewhat by time, expense, space,
and purpose. You will need to select facts that are pertinent to accomplish your purpose and omit
the rest. We often use abstracting while preparing business reports & application letters.
Precise writing is nothing but the art of abstracting. Abstracting poses a grave barrier to
communication for details, which look pertinent to one reporter, may look insignificant or trivial
to another. You as a communicator must also anticipate the likelihood that others may not be
abstracting as you are. Their points may be as important as yours though they select differently
from the infinite details in reality. For example, when reporting on an event-a football game, or
accident, no two witnesses give exactly the same descriptions. The participants will perceive

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different details than the observers, but all or several observers may mention some parts of the
whole. Juries often determine which witness’s details are the most credible. Differences in
abstracting occur not only when persons describe events but also when they describe people,
equipment, project, or animals. We do not give allowances for these differences, and
misunderstandings arise. Very often we yield to the “allness” fallacy.
The allness-fallacy states that we believe that whatever we know or say about an object or event
is all that is worth knowing or saying about it. The more we delve into some subjects the more we
realize there is so much more to learn and to consider. And unfortunately, the less we know the
surer we feel that we know it all. Even experts on certain subjects admit they don’t know all the
answers; they continue to study all available facts, though they sometimes disagree among
themselves. Unfortunately, it is true of some people that the less they know, the surer they are that
they know it all. Thus, it is best for us to avoid assuming we know all about any subject or
circumstance simply because we have a few facts. Otherwise, we may have an inadequate,
erroneous impression of the whole.
b. Inferring:
What we directly see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or can immediately verify and confirm & constitutes
a fact. But the statements that go beyond the facts and the conclusions based on facts are called
inferences. These are conclusions made by reasoning from evidence or premises. A very simple
example of inferring is when we drop a letter in the post box, we assume that it will be picked up
by someone and delivered to the destiny we desired. “If enough rainfall during the summer, we
can infer that the price of ‘teff’ will go down.” We infer that the gas station attendant pumps
gasoline (not water) into our car’s tank.
For business & professional persons inferences are essential & desirable in analyzing materials,
solving problems, & planning. Systems analysts, marketing specialists, advertisers, architects,
engineers, and designers are all required to draw inferences after they have gathered as much
factual data as possible. Also, as consumers in our daily activities, we may make inferences that
are necessary & usually fairly reliable. When we base our inferences on direct observations or on
reasonable evidence, they are likely to be quite dependable; but even so, there are disappointing
exceptions. Conclusions we make about things we have not observed directly may be true or
untrue.

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As an intelligent communicator, we must avoid faulty inferences. We must realize that inferences
may be incorrect & unreliable & may cause miscommunication. We need to anticipate risks before
acting on the inferences. Consider this simple example. Suppose that a personnel manager observes
a particular new employee has been leaving the office one hour late every day for the last two
weeks. What can be inferred from this observation? The manager might infer that the worker is:
 exceptionally conscientious;
 that he is incapable of doing the required work within the regular time;
 that he has been given more responsibility than should be expected of a new trainee; or
 Even that he is searching for some secrets from confidential materials after others have left
the office.
Do you suppose the personnel manager should take an action based on any of the above–mentioned
inferences or any other possible inference that the manager could make? Before acting on any of
these inferences, the manager should get more facts. A wrong inference can surely be a barrier to
communication.
c. Making frozen evaluation:
Another drawback of effective perception is the frozen evaluation- the stereotyped, static
impression that ignores significant differences or changes. Stereotyping is the tendency to
attribute characteristics of an individual on the basis of an assessment of the group to which the
individual belongs. The manager uses those perceived common characteristics to draw
conclusions about the characteristics of the individual, rather than acquiring information about
those characteristics more directly. It is often based on faulty inferences. To help you assure that
your comprehension of reality will be correct, you need to recognize that any person, product, or
event may be quite different from others in a group, or may have significant differences today
when compared with characteristics yesterday or some time ago. You should recognize individual
differences within groups & differences within time periods. In all, we should remember to avoid
frozen evaluations made on the basis of what was true for one (for a group) at one time. Changes
occur in everything.
5. Attitudes & Opinions: communication effectiveness is influenced also by the attitudes &
opinions the communicators have in their mental filters. People tend to react favorably when the
message they receive agrees with their views towards the information, the set of facts, & the
sender. In addition, sometimes unrelated circumstances affect their attitudes, & responses like:

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a. Emotional state:
A person’s ability to encode a message can become impaired when a person is feeling strong
emotions. For example, when you are angry, it is harder to consider the other person’s viewpoint
& to choose words carefully. Likewise, the receiver will have difficulty-decoding message when
her/his emotions are strong. For instance, a person who is elated at receiving good news might not
pay close attention to someone else’s words or body language. Someone who is angry might pay
attention but misinterpret a message in light of her/his anger.
b. Favorable or Unfavorable information:
Rejecting, distorting, & avoiding are three common undesirable, negative ways receivers react to
information they consider Unfavorable. For example, if a change in the policy of an organization
proves advantageous to employees, they welcome it as good; if it is contrary to their beliefs or
benefits, they may reject, or resent the company and their boss, perhaps falsely accusing them of
being unfair. Or they may instead, distort, the meaning and misinterpret the true purpose of the
policy change. Or they may avoid the message; situation or people by putting of acceptance hoping
that the delay will somehow prevent the change & protect them.
c. Closed mind:
Some people have a closed mind toward receiving new information. The closed-minded person is
one of the most difficult to communicate with. Typically, this person has only inadequate and
mainly incorrect knowledge of the subject. Yet she/he refuses to consider any new facts. Even
from an expert who has made a long, careful study of the problem and the proposed change. The
closed-minded person says in essence: “my mind is made up” “Don’t bother me with facts” “I
want what I want”. Closed – minded people stubbornly reject distort or avoid a viewpoint before
they know the facts.
d. Status consciousness:
People in the upper areas of organization’s hierarchy, those who have more status & power, may
be hesitant to listen to those individuals lower in the hierarchy, feeling for example, that people of
lower status & power do not possess any useful information. By the same token, people of lower
status & power may be reluctant to share information because they believe that people with higher
status & power will not listen. Subordinates are afraid of communicating any unpleasant
information to their managers. They may be afraid that they might displease their superiors by
telling them unpleasant facts. Or they may fear that unfavorable communication may adversely

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reflect upon their own competence. The subordinates also find it difficult to offer proposals for the
improvement of the organization, for such proposals are not usually encouraged.
e. Credibility:
People react more favorably when a communicator has credibility – when they respect, trust, &
believe in the communicator. A sender’s credibility plays an important role in how a message is
received & understood. If the receiver does not consider the sender trustworthy or knowledgeable
about the subject being communicated, she/he will most likely be reluctant even to listen to the
message. For example, if you may feel that she/he has little knowledge concerning the area of
management &, thus, places little weight on anything she tells you concerning the subject.
Likewise, a sender may limit what she/he communicates to a receiver who is not considered
trustworthy. For instance, if an employee offers idea for a more efficient way to perform a job &
his supervisor takes credit for it, then the employee is more likely to withhold future information
from the supervisor, as he will probably not trust the supervisor with such information.
6. Information overload: refers to the condition of having too much information to process. The
implication is that individuals can effectively process only certain amount of information. An
example would be if your professor gave you too much information, too quickly, concerning a
term paper’s requirements or if a manager gave an employee too much information at one time
about a report’s requirements. In either situation, the receiver probably does not receive the entire
message. Managers need to be aware of potential for information overload & to make appropriate
adjustments.
It is said that people remember:
 10 % of what they read
 20 % of what they hear
 30 % of what they see
 50 % of what they see and hear
 70 % of what they say
 90 % of what they say as they perform the task

2.4 GUIDELINES TO OVERCOME COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

Now having the knowledge of the barriers to effective communication, can you think of alternative
ways of avoiding them? The following are ways which are suggested so as to make your
communication in the work place as smooth and effective as possible.
There are six factors or themes that contribute to effective communication.

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1. Fostering an open communication climate.

An organization’s communication climate is a reflection of its corporate culture: the mixture of
values, traditions, and habits. It affects the quantity and quality of the information that passes
through the pipeline. The following are the measures that can be taken to create an open
communication climate:
a) Modify the number of organizational levels.
One way to foster an open communication climate is to reduce the number of levels in the
organization’s structure. The fewer links in the communication chain, the less likely that
misunderstandings will occur.
b) Facilitate feedback
Giving the audience a chance to provide feedback is crucial to maintaining an open communication
climate.
2. Committing to ethical communication
Ethics are the principles of conduct that govern a person or a group. Ethical people are generally
trustworthy, fair and impartial, respecting the rights of others, and concerned about the impact of
their actions on society. Ethics plays a crucial role in communication. Ethical communication
includes all relevant information, is true in every sense and is not deceptive in any way.
3. Understanding the difficulties involved in intercultural communication
More and more businesses are crossing national boundaries to compete on a global scale and the
makeup of the global and domestic work force is changing rapidly. Global companies must
understand the laws, customs and business practices of many countries, and they must deal with
business associates and employees.
4. Adopting an audience-centered approach to communication
Using an audience-centered approach means keeping the audience in mind all times when
communicating. Since audience is taken care of, every possible step is taken to get the message
across in a way that is meaningful to the audience. Empathizing with and being sensitive to the
audience’s feelings is the best way to overcome such communication barriers as differences in
perception and emotional interference.
5. Using technology wisely and responsibly to obtain and share information

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In today’s world, information moves through an array of media at the speed of a neural impulse.
Technology has such an impact on business communication. When used wisely and responsibly,
technology helps to improve the effectiveness of business communication.
6. Creating and processing messages effectively and efficiently.
The sixth guideline is to plan messages, generate ideas, organize thoughts, and turn words into
effective business messages. In order to create messages effectively and efficiently, consider the
following issues:
❖ Learn about the audience
❖ Adapt the message to the audience
❖ Develop and connect ideas
❖ Reduce the number of messages
❖ Choose the correct channel and medium
❖ Strengthen the communication skills
10 Ways to Improve Your Communication Skills
Effective communication is the key to landing a job and thriving. Communication skills, tops the
list of fundamental skills needed to succeed in the workplace. A decade-and-a-half later, with the
rise of social media networking and texting, communication is becoming more casual, even in
situations where more formal ways of communicating are required. What this means is that people
from the younger generation, may not know or even understand the importance of effective
communication skills in the workplace. When you take a look at the greatest leaders, one of the
traits they possess, is the ability to communicate effectively, which underscores the importance of
communication skills.

There are specific things to do that can improve your communication skills:

1. Listen, listen, and listen. People want to know that they are being heard. Really listen to
what the other person is saying, instead of formulating your response. Ask for clarification
to avoid misunderstandings. At that moment, the person speaking to you should be the
most important person in your life. Another important point is to have one conversation at
a time. This means that if you are speaking to someone on the phone, do not respond to an
email, or send a text at the same time. The other person will know that she doesn’t have
your undivided attention.

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2. Who you are talking to matters. It is okay to use acronyms and informal language when
you are communicating with a buddy, but if you are emailing or texting your boss, "Hey,"
"TTYL" or any informal language, has no place in your message. You cannot assume that
the other person knows what the acronym means. Some acronyms have different meanings
to different people, do you want to be misunderstood? Effective communicators target their
message based on who they are speaking to, so try to keep the other person in mind, when
you are trying to get your message across.

3. Body language matters. This is important for face-to-face meetings and video
conferencing. Make sure that you appear accessible, so have open body language. This
means that you should not cross your arms. And keep eye contact so that the other person
knows that you are paying attention.

4. Check your message before you hit send. Spell and grammar checkers are lifesavers, but
they are not foolproof. Double-check what you have written, to make sure that your words
are communicating the intended message.

5. Be brief, yet specific. For written and verbal communication, practice being brief yet
specific enough, that you provide enough information for the other person to understand
what you are trying to say. And if you are responding to an email, make sure that you read
the entire email before crafting your response. With enough practice, you will learn not to
ramble, or give way too much information.

6. Write things down. Take notes while you are talking to another person or when you are
in a meeting and do not rely on your memory. Send a follow-up email to make sure that
you understand what was being said during the conversation.

7. Sometimes it's better to pick up the phone. If you find that you have a lot to say, instead
of sending an email, call the person instead. Email is great, but sometimes it is easier to
communicate what you have to say verbally.

8. Think before you speak. Always pause before you speak, not saying the first thing that
comes to mind. Take a moment and pay close attention to what you say and how you say
it. This one habit will allow you to avoid embarrassment.

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9. Treat everyone equally. Do not talk down to anyone, treat everyone with respect. Treat
others as your equal.

10. Maintain a positive attitude and smile. Even when you are speaking on the phone, smile
because your positive attitude will shine through and the other person will know it. When
you smile often and exude a positive attitude, people will respond positively to you.

Communicating effectively is a teachable skill, therefore following a few of the tips outlined
above, will enable you to hone up on your communication skills.

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