Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences

RES 153: Basic Psychological Processes

MODULE 1: PSYCHOLOGY
Descriptors/Topics

•Nature, Scope and Applications;

•Approaches: Psychodynamic, Behaviouristic, Cognitive, Humanistic & Indigenous
•Indian Psychology (with special reference to Shrimad Bhagwad Gita, Sankhya
Darshan and Buddhism)

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PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology derived
from 2 Greek words

PSYCHE LOGOS
(SOUL) (STUDY OF A SUBJECT)

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 APA definition Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences

American Psychological Association defines

psychology as:

Psychology is the study of the mind and behaviour.

The discipline embraces all aspects of the human
experience — from the functions of the brain to the
actions of nations, from child development to care
for the aged. In every conceivable setting, from
scientific research centres to mental health care
services, “the understanding of behaviour” is the
enterprise of psychologists.

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Role of Psychologists
What do psychologists actually do?
• Help people understand their mental health and work with them to
cope & adjust in life.
• Study how many aspects of life relate to each other.
• Conduct studies to understand patterns of behaviour & thoughts.
• Implement studies to provide therapy, counselling, and consultation.
• Work alongside different professionals to improve aspects of
business, products, services, technology, communication, etc.
• Create self-help resources for people to cope independently.
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The nature and scope of psychology

Nature of psychology
• Nature of the field of psychology is SCIENTIFIC.
• It is evidence based.
• The theories are formulated on the basis of pre existing
principles and psychological laws.

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Nature of psychology
• Psychology is the scientific study and practical application of observable behavior and mental processes of organisms.
Psychology differs from other social sciences such as: Sociology, History, or Economics, because psychology specifically deals
with the study of an individual. The other social sciences will study groups, or history. Psychology is less a science of reported
findings, it attempts asks and answers questions using observable behavior and what can be determined as mental processes of
the subject. The symbol for psychology is the Greek letter "psi" (0).
• The subject matter of psychology is, affect, behavior, and cognition. The affect for psychology is the actual mental processes
that make up: moods, feeling, and emotional state. An example for affect would be feeling sad about something happening.
Behavior includes the actually actions and responses of organisms.
• Behavior can include the way we act in any given situation, for example when we get up in the morning. The order in the way
we prepare ourselves for going out into public can be categorized as our behavior. Cognition is the actual mental events and the
processes that result from them. Memories of an event are a great example of an organism's cognition. The components and
corresponding faces of psychology include the body of knowledge which is considered the teaching face, set of investigative
methods or research face, and array of techniques the therapy face.
• The goals of psychology are: to explain behaviors, to describe behaviors, to predict behavior, and to modify inappropriate
behaviors. Explaining behaviors would be a question similar to "Why does this happen?", and example of how describing
behavior could be accomplished would be asking "What causes this behavior, where does it come from?". Predictions can be
elaborated on by asking "When will the behavior occur?". An example of a behavioural modification question is "What can be
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Scope of Psychology/ areas of application

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1. Physiological Psychology:
• In the most fundamental sense, human beings are biological organisms.
• Physiological functions and the structure of our body work together to influence our behaviour. Biopsychology is the
branch that specializes in the area. Bio-psychologists may examine the ways in which specific sites in the brain which are
related to disorders such as Parkinson's disease or they may try to determine how our sensations are related to our
behaviour.

2. Developmental Psychology:
• Here the studies are with respect to how people grow and change throughout their life from prenatal stages, through
childhood, adulthood and old age.
• Developmental psychologists work in a variety of settings like colleges, schools, healthcare centres, business centres,
government and non-profit organizations, etc.
• They are also very much involved in studies of the disturbed children and advising parents about helping such children

3. Personality Psychology:
• This branch helps to explain both consistency and change in a person's behaviour over time, from birth till the end of life
through the influence of parents, siblings, playmates, school, society and culture. It also studies the individual traits that
differentiate the behaviour of one person from that of another person. AARSHI SAINI VISITING FACULTY
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4. Health Psychology:
• This explores the relations between the psychological factors and physical ailments and disease. Health psychologists focus
on health maintenance and promotion of behaviour related to good health such as exercise, health habits and
discouraging unhealthy behaviours like smoking, drug abuse and alcoholism.
• Health psychologists work in healthcare setting and also in colleges and universities where they conduct research. They
analyse and attempt to improve the healthcare system and formulate health policies

5. Clinical Psychology:
• It deals with the assessment and intervention of abnormal behaviour. As some observe and believe that psychological
disorders arise from a person's unresolved conflicts and unconscious motives, others maintain that some of these patterns
are merely learned responses, which can be unlearned with training, still others are contend with the knowledge of
thinking that there are biological basis to certain psychological disorders, especially the more serious ones. Clinical
psychologists are employed in hospitals, clinics and private practice. They often work closely with other specialists in the
field of mental health.

6. Counselling Psychology:
• This focuses primarily on educational, social and career adjustment problems.
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• Counselling psychologists advise students on effective study habits and the kinds of job they might be best suited for, and
provide help concerned with mild problems of social nature and strengthen healthy lifestyle, economical and emotional
adjustments.
• They make use of tests to measure aptitudes, interests and personality characteristics. They also do marriage and family
counselling, provide strategies to improve family relations.

7. Educational Psychology:
• Educational psychologists are concerned with all the concepts of education. This includes the study of motivation,
intelligence, personality, use of rewards and punishments, size of the class, expectations, the personality traits and the
effectiveness of the teacher, the student-teacher relationship, the attitudes, etc. It is also concerned with designing tests to
evaluate student performance. They also
• help in designing the curriculum to make learning more interesting and enjoyable to children.
• Educational psychology is used in elementary and secondary schools, planning and supervising special education, training
teachers, counselling students having problems, assessing students with learning difficulties such as poor writing and reading
skills and lack of concentration.

8. Social Psychology:
• This studies the effect of society on the thoughts, feelings and actions of people.
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• Our behaviour is not only the result of just our personality and predisposition.
 Scope of Psychology Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences
• Social and environmental factors affect the way we think, say and do. Social psychologists conduct experiments to determine
the effects of various groups, group pressures and influence on behaviour.
• They investigate on the effects of propaganda, persuasion, conformity, conflict, integration, race, prejudice and aggression.
These investigations explain many incidents that would otherwise be difficult to understand. Social psychologists work largely
in colleges and universities and also other organizations.

9. Industrial and Organizational Psychology:

• The private and public organizations apply psychology to management and employee training, supervision of personnel,
improve communication within the organization, counselling employees and reduce industrial disputes.
• Thus we can say that in organizational and industrial sectors not only the psychological effects of working attitude of the
employees are considered but also the physical aspects are given importance to make workers feel healthy.

10. Experimental Psychology:

• It is the branch that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, thinking, etc. by using scientific methods. The
outcome of the experimental psychology is cognitive psychology which focuses on studying higher mental processes including
thinking, knowing, reasoning, judging and decision-making. Experimental psychologists often do research in lab by frequently
using animals as their experimental subjects

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11. Environmental Psychology: It focuses on the relationships between people and their physical and social
surroundings. For example, the density of population and its relationship with crime, the noise pollution and its
harmful effects and the influence of overcrowding upon lifestyle, etc.

12. Psychology of Women: This concentrates on psychological factors of women's behaviour and development. It
focuses on a broad range of issues such as discrimination against women, the possibility of structural differences in
the brain of men and women, the effect of hormones on behaviour, and the cause of violence against women, fear
of success, outsmarting nature of women with respect to men in various accomplishments.

13. Sports and Exercise Psychology: It studies the role of motivation in sport, social aspects of sport and
physiological issues like importance of training on muscle development, the coordination between eye and hand,
the muscular coordination in track and field, swimming and gymnastics.

14. Cognitive Psychology: It has its roots in the cognitive outlook of the Gestalt principles. It studies thinking,
memory, language, development, perception, imagery and other mental processes in order to peep into the higher
human mental functions like insight, creativity and problem-solving. The names of psychologists like Edward Tolman
and Jean Piaget are associated with the propagation of the ideas of this school of thought.
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Approaches to Psychology
• Psychodynamic,
• Behaviouristic,
• Cognitive,
• Humanistic &
• Indigenous

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Psychodynamic approach
Freud's Psychodynamic Theory
• Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist who was active from the late nineteenth
through the early twentieth centuries, was a leading figure within the psychological
world. His most notable contribution to psychology was his psychodynamic theory,
which suggested that an individual's unconscious wants, feelings, ideas, and memories
motivate their behavior. Freud asserted that these inner desires and thoughts mould the
human personality; further, he held that this influence begins in childhood and
continues to impact behavior into adulthood.
Psychoanalysis is a psychological discipline that was established by Freud during the preliminary part of his career. This method involves an
individual's unfiltered articulation of their emotional experiences, particularly in relation to dreams and childhood events. The raw and honest
information that is revealed during a session would be interpreted by the psychoanalyst, but also provides emotional relief to the individual. The
concept of psychoanalysis began as Freud's brainchild during his work with physician Josef Breuer, specifically when he examined the case of
Breuer's patient Anna. Anna suffered physiological symptoms in conjunction with a stressful situation, including headaches, paralysis, and
partial vision loss. Freud concluded that allowing Anna to candidly speak about her experiences led to the ease of her symptoms, particularly
since she opened up about a traumatic childhood event. Thus began Freud's journey into the construction and clarification of psychoanalysis,
including his influential personality theories.
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Psychodynamic approach
• What Is the Psychodynamic Approach?

The psychodynamic approach to psychology focuses on the internal, unconscious mental forces that
individuals are largely unaware of, but drive emotions and actions. Unconscious psychological activities include
underlying desires and anxieties that are present deep within the mind yet influence personality and behavior.
The psychodynamic approach is rooted in additional assumptions, one of the most significant being that
childhood experiences are key factors in the creation of the human personality. This perspective also proposes
that the human personality is composed of several parts that interact and create conflicting dynamics that cause
anxiety should they remain unbalanced. Sigmund Freud, the originator of the psychodynamic concept,
introduced additional ideas including defense mechanisms, which manifest as a result of the desire to protect
the conscious mind from unpleasant thoughts and memories. An exploration of Freud's history and theories, in
addition to modern viewpoints, help reveal the elements of the psychodynamic approach.

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Levels of Consciousness

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Psychodynamic Approach to Personality

Structure of Personality
• According to the psychodynamic approach, childhood experiences are crucial
elements within personality formation and will continue to affect behavior and
emotions into adulthood. Per this perspective, personalities are created by conflicts
between biological drives for instant gratification and the more socially acceptable
desire to control uninhibited urges. Freud stated that personality is developed
amidst the struggle to establish stability between these two forces, which are known
as the id and the superego.
• The id is the most primal part of the personality, demanding that impulses be
instantly fulfilled even though the results might be socially inappropriate or even
illegal. The superego acts as the moral high ground, attempting to subdue the wild
impulses of the id. Functioning as the middle ground, the ego is a third component
of the mind that attempts to resolve the constant battle between the id and the
superego. The ego aims to establish compromise in order to rationally and
appropriately satisfy the id's impulses, thus allowing urges to be fulfilled without
producing guilt or problems. As a group, the id, superego, and ego constitute
the psyche, or elements of the mind. Should the psyche function in harmony and
maintain a stable dynamic, an individual will maintain a healthy and well-balanced
personality. However, if one element is overly dominant or passive, a personality
disorder may develop. AARSHI SAINI VISITING FACULTY
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Stages of Psychosexual Development

Per the psychodynamic approach, individuals proceed through five stages of psychosexual development during youth and
adolescence. Each stage corresponds to a specific bodily area referred to as an erogenous zone, which represents where
gratification is focused. These stages are related to personality development; as Freud stated, childhood experiences influence
personality and behavior into the adult years. Should a child receive inadequate nurturing or neglectful parenting during one
of the psychosexual stages, they may develop a stage-related fixation that continues to manifest into adulthood. The five
stages of psychosexual development are as follows:

•Oral stage, from birth to 18 months: Needs are mainly met via oral gratification.
•Anal stage, from 18 months to three years: Toddlers are taught about the concept of self-control, with potty training being a
prime example.
•Phallic stage, from three to six years: Small children maintain an underlying sexual desire for their opposite sex parent but
resolve this by striving to imitate their same sex parent, thus comprehending their social role.
•Latency stage, from six years to puberty: Biological drives are briefly eased as a child focuses on relationships outside of the
home.
•Genital stage, 12+ years: Into the teen years and adulthood, individuals become interested in sex, but must utilize rationale in
order to control impulses.
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Stage Erogenous Zone Age Conflict Potential Fixation

Orally fixated
behaviours like
Oral Mouth Birth to 12 months Weaning smoking and
excessive eating or
drinking.
Anus, bowels, Anal-retentive
Anal 1 to 3 years Potty training
bladder personality
Genitalia - Attraction and
Phallic 3 to 6 years Penis envy
Particularly the Penis resentment
Sublimation and
channelling of sexual General immaturity of
Latent — 6 years to puberty
impulses into character
industrious behaviour.
Successful sexual and
Puberty to end of personal relationships a
Genital Genitalia Sexual perversions
life nd a place in the
community.

Stages of Psychosexual Development

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Defense mechanisms

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Defense mechanisms

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Techniques of Psychodynamic Approach

•Free association – expressing immediate [unconscious] thoughts, as they happen
•Dream interpretation – analysing the latent content (i.e. underlying meaning) of manifest
content (i.e. what was remembered from the dream).

Strengths and weaknesses of Psychodynamic Approach

Strengths Weaknesses

• First “talking cure”: psychoanalysis • Unfalsifiable

• Importance of childhood • Subjective interpretation
• Personality theory • Lacks empirical evidence)
• Recognition that some physical symptoms may • Deterministic (little free will)
have psychological (emotional) causes • Unrepresentative sample
• Play therapy (Anna Freud) • Reductionist: ignores cognitive processes

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HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY

• One of the founders of humanistic psychology was Carl Rogers

• Humanistic approach focuses on the view that each person is unique and has free will to change at
any time in their life. It believes we are responsible for our own happiness. It emphasises how our
perception of the world is subjective therefore it is an opposing approach to any scientific
attempts to explain human behaviour.

• Humanistic psychology is a perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole individual and
stresses concepts such as free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization. Rather than concentrating
on dysfunction, humanistic psychology strives to help people fulfil their potential and maximize
their well-being.

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Humanistic Approach to Psychology

• Humanistic psychology, a movement in psychology supporting the belief that humans, as individuals,
are unique beings and should be recognized and treated as such by psychologists and psychiatrists. The
movement grew in opposition to the two mainstream 20th-century trends in
psychology, behaviourism and psychoanalysis. Humanistic principles attained application during the “human
potential” movement, which became popular in the United States during the 1960s.
• Humanistic psychologists believe that behaviourists are overconcerned with the scientific study and analysis of
the actions of people as organisms (to the neglect of basic aspects of people as feeling, thinking individuals) and
that too much effort is spent in laboratory research—a practice that quantifies and reduces human behaviour to
its elements. Humanists also take issue with the deterministic orientation of psychoanalysis, which postulates
that one’s early experiences and drives determine one’s behaviour. The humanist is concerned with the fullest
growth of the individual in the areas of love, fulfilment, self-worth, and autonomy.
• The American psychologist Abraham Maslow, considered one of the leading architects of humanistic
psychology, proposed a hierarchy of needs or drives in order of decreasing priority or potency but increasing
sophistication: physiological needs, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization. Only when
the more primitive needs are met can the individual progress to higher levels in the hierarchy. People reaching
self-actualization will have fully realized their potential. AARSHI SAINI VISITING FACULTY
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Humanistic Approach to Psychology

• The concept of the self is a central focal point for most humanistic psychologists. In the “personal construct”
theory of American psychologist George Kelly and the “self-centred” theory of American psychotherapist Carl
Rogers, individuals are said to perceive the world according to their own experiences. This perception affects
their personality and leads them to direct their behaviour to satisfy the needs of the total self. Rogers stressed that,
in the development of an individual’s personality, the person strives for “self-actualization (to become oneself),
self-maintenance (to keep on being oneself), and self-enhancement (to transcend the status quo).”
• Following the writings of Jean-Paul Sartre and other existential philosophers, many humanistic psychologists
adopted the existential view of the importance of being and the meaning of life. The various “modes” of being-in-
the-world were described by Swiss psychiatrist and early leader of existential psychology Ludwig Binswanger.
According to Binswanger, the single mode is the individual who chooses to live within himself, the loner. The dual
mode occurs when two people unite in feeling for each other. Thus, “You” and “I” become “We.” The plural mode
occurs when an individual interacts with others. Finally, the mode of anonymity occurs when an individual loses
himself in a crowd or disassociates his feelings from others. American existential psychologist Rollo May
emphasized humans as beings who do the experiencing and to whom the experiences happen. To May, the
awareness of one’s own mortality makes vitality and passion possible.
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Humanistic Approach to Psychology

Tenets of Humanistic Psychology

Real self vs ideal self : How people view themselves is essential to

how they feel about themselves. If there is congruence, or equality,
between how people view themselves and the characteristics of
their ideal self, then that will help the person feel happy and secure.

Theory of Self-Actualization: To be self-actualized mean that a person is the best

version of themselves. However, there are five levels of needs to accomplish before
reaching self-actualization. The levels of needs begin with the most basic needs to
higher, more challenging to attain needs.
Here are the seven levels, from the most basic to most challenging:

•Physiological Needs: Basic physiological needs, such as food and water Psychologist, Abraham Maslow, was another founder of
•Safety and Security Needs: The need to feel secure and safe, such as having shelter humanistic psychology. Maslow developed the theory of
self-actualization, which follows his hierarchy of needs.
•Love and Belongingness Needs: The need to be accepted by others, feel love, and As humanistic psychology moves forward, humans'
belonging desire and ability to do and be their best improves. If a
person is self-actualized, that means all their needs
•Esteem Needs: The need to be competent, achieve and gain the recognition and
from Maslow's hierarchy have been met.
•Self-Actualization Needs: People fully realizing their potential
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Humanistic Approach to Psychology

Humanistic Psychology: Founders and History

One of the founders of humanistic psychology was Carl Some of the major ideas and concepts
Rogers, a psychologist, and psychotherapist who that emerged as a result of the
established the theory of self-concept. The self-concept humanistic psychology movement
centers around three aspects of a person's personality
that Rogers believed helped establish a person's
include an emphasis on things such
psychological state. as:
• Client-centered therapy
According to Rogers, the three aspects of a person's • Free will
personality is as follows:
•Self-image • Fully functioning person
•Self-worth • Hierarchy of needs
•Ideal self • Peak experiences
According to Rogers, there should be congruency between
• Self-actualization
a person's self-image and their ideal self. If the ideal self • Self-concept
and the person's self-image do not match, the person is • Unconditional positive regard
more likely to experience anxiety, unhappiness, and low
self-esteem.

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Humanistic Approach to Psychology

• Techniques

• There are several ways humanistic psychology is helpful in therapy. In particular, it is the basis of person-centered (or client-
centered) therapy and gestalt therapy, and various kinds of art-based therapies.
• Person-Centered Therapy: In this type of therapy, the therapist shows the client unconditional positive regard; also a
hallmark of humanistic psychology, listens and helps guide the client toward focusing on setting present and future goals that
can lead to fulfilment, happiness, and self-actualization. When people experience unconditional acceptance, empathy, and
positive regard, this helps increase their self-esteem and helps them toward self-actualization.
• Gestalt Therapy: In Gestalt therapy, which focuses on the whole client, the therapist encourages the client to experience and
process negative feelings to resolve them thoroughly. For example, suppose a woman was in an unhealthy relationship but
never said all she wanted to say to her ex-husband. In that case, she might participate in the empty-chair technique, talking to
an empty chair to say what she wanted to her not-present ex-husband.
• Art-based therapy: Through art-based therapy, clients can better express their feelings and thoughts and improve their self-
awareness through the creation of art.

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• COGNITIVE APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY

• Cognitive approach psychology, a branch of psychology that studies human The cognitive approach assumes:
thought processes and how these thoughts influence human behavior. An
example of the cognitive approach is the inductive approach to teaching—this
• The mind actively processes
can be math, grammar, or other subjects.
information from our senses
(touch, taste etc.).
• Cognitive psychology is about knowing the processes that happen in our • Between stimulus and
minds. It studies cognition, which are the processes through which
knowledge is acquired.
response are complex mental
processes, which can be
studied scientifically.
• Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of the mind as an information
processor. It concerns how we take in information from the outside world,
• Humans can be seen as data
and how we make sense of that information. processing systems.
• The workings of a computer
• Cognitive psychology focuses on studying mental processes, including how and the human mind are
people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and make decisions. alike – they encode and store
information, and they have
• Cognitive psychologists try to build up cognitive models of the information outputs.
processing that goes on inside people’s minds, including perception,
attention, language, memory, thinking, and consciousness.
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• The role of Schema Strengths and weaknesses of cognitive approach

• A key concept to the approach Strengths

is the schema, an internal • Models have presented a useful means to help explain internal
‘script’ for how to act or what mental processes
to expect from a given • The approach provides a strong focus on internal mental
situation. For example, gender processes, which behaviourists before did not.
schemas assume how • The experimental methods used by the approach are
males/females behave and how considered scientific.
is best to respond accordingly,
e.g. a child may assume that Weaknesses
all boys enjoy playing football. • It could be argued that cognitive models over-simplify
Schemas are like stereotypes, explanations for complex mental processes.
and alter mental processing of • The data supporting cognitive theories often come from
incoming information; their unrealistic tasks used in laboratory experiments, which puts
role in eyewitness testimony the ecological validity of theories into question (i.e. whether or
can be negative, as what not they are truly representative of our normal cognitive
somebody expects to see may patterns).
distort their memory of was • Comparing a human mind to a machine or computer is
actually witnessed. arguably an unsophisticated analogy.

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BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY

• Behaviorism, also known as behavioral learning theory, is a theoretical perspective in
psychology that emphasizes the role of learning and observable behaviors in
understanding human and animal actions.

• Behaviorism is a theory of learning that states all behaviors are learned through
conditioned interaction with the environment. Thus, behavior is simply a response to
environmental stimuli.

• The behaviorist theory is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors,

as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner.

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Behaviorism became well known for a number of groundbreaking experiments. The following are just a few:

• Pavlov's Dogs: This is generally considered to be the most well-known behavioral study regarding behavioral conditioning. In the 1890s,
Ivan Pavlov was studying his dogs' salivation levels in response to being fed. He discovered that they soon began to salivate in response to
any stimuli they associated with knowing they would be fed soon, such as his assistant approaching, and, later on, the sound of a
metronome. Pavlov devoted much of his future work to studying this concept and determined that if a conditioned stimulus (something a
person or animal is trained to respond to [the metronome]) and an unconditioned stimulus (something that leads to a natural response
[food]) occur within a close enough time frame, the two will generally be connected, and the person or animal will typically be conditioned
to respond accordingly.

• The Bobo Doll Experiment: This was a study on conditioning in young children that showed they could mimic and learn social behaviors
(particularly aggression) through observation of the adults in their presence. This generally happens in a process called observational
learning. During the Bobo Doll experiment, a group of children were divided into three smaller groups for experimentation purposes. One
group was shown a "Bobo" doll that they witnessed an adult abusing physically and verbally. A second group observed non-aggressive
behavior, and a third group observed no behavioral model. Afterward, the children were provided with toys that were soon taken away to
provoke aggression appropriate for their age range. The children who had witnessed adults displaying abusive behavior toward the Bobo
dolls tended to exhibit aggressive behaviors.

• The Skinner Box - The Skinner Box was an experiment supporting the idea of operant conditioning, which generally shows that behaviors
rewarded tend to be repeated, while punishment typically deters an individual from repeating certain behaviors. The experiment started by
placing a lab rat in a box. While hungry, it learned that touching a small lever would dispense a pellet of food. Therefore, the rat usually
learned to repeat the action for a positive response (often called positive reinforcement).
• In regard to negative reinforcement, rats were also placed within a box that would occasionally give them a small shock, but with a lever
that would prevent the shock from occurring. They often very quickly learned to trigger the lever to stop the shock from happening.
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BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY

Techniques
• Cognitive behavior therapy
• Dialectical behavior therapy
• Rational Emotive Behavior therapy
• Exposure therapy
• Systematic desensitization

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY

Strengths Weaknesses
• Objective measurement, which can be replicated
and peer-reviewed • Ignores mediational processes
• Reductionist – ignores biology
• Real-life applications (e.g., behavior therapies)
• Clear predictions that can be can be • Deterministic (little free will)
scientifically tested • Experiments – low ecological validity
• Humanism – can’t compare animals to humans
• Increased our understanding of the causes of
phobias and attachment • Freud – people not born a blank slate

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INDIGENOUS APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY

The goal of indigenous psychology is to identify knowledge as understood and experienced

by people within a culture / important steps in the indigenous psychology approach are the
thorough description and explanation of psychological phenomena as they exist within their
cultural context
The scientific study of human behavior or mind that is native, that is not transported from
other regions, and that is designed for its people (Kim and Berry, 1993).
• Indigenous psychology advocates examining knowledge, skills, and beliefs people have
about themselves and studying these aspects in their natural contexts.
• Theories, concepts, and methods are developed to correspond with psychological
phenomena.
• Indigenous psychology is an emerging field in psychology. It attempts to extend the
boundary and substance of general psychology.
• General psychology seeks to discover decontextualized mechanical, and universal
principles and it assumes that current psychological theories are universal.
• Indigenous psychology, questions the universality of existing psychological theories and
attempts to discover psychological universals in social, cultural and ecological context
(Kim & Berry, 1993; Yang, 2000).
• Indigenous psychology represents an approach in which the content (i.e., meaning,
values, and beliefs) context (i.e., family, social, cultural, and ecological) are explicitly
incorporated into research design. AARSHI SAINI VISITING FACULTY
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INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY
• Indian Psychology provides a holistic approach to understanding and
treating mental health issues, which includes addressing the symptoms and
the underlying causes. It emphasizes the importance of self-awareness,
mindfulness, and meditation in promoting well-being.
• Cornelissen, Misra, & Varma (2014) defined, “Indian psychology as an
approach to psychology that is based on ideas and practices that developed
over thousands of years within the Indian sub-continent.”
• Rao K. R (2014) “Indian psychology refers to a system/school of
psychology derived from classical Indian thought and rooted in the
psychologically relevant practices such as yoga prevalent in the Indian
subcontinent for centuries.”
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 Nature Of Indian Psychology Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences

• Upanishadas explain the self and personality Dosha Guna

structure with the help of concept called Kosha According to Ayurveda, there are three types of concept to explain human temperament.
(cover). These are Annamaya kosha, doshas, which are Kapha, Vata and Pitta and
Pranmayakosha, Manomayakosha, Vidnyanmaya
Human body is made up of Rajas, Tamas
these doshas determine Prakruti (characteristics)
kosha and Anandmaya kosha. They also talked of human beings.
and Sattva Guna.
about factors that affected these koshas and also
how these koshas determine human behavior. • Individuals who have kapha as a dominant • Sattva Guna,- Idle& sluggish. They
doshas are calm, flexible, patient, and do not work hard. They seem to be
• Patanjali explained deep thought about caring. They have strong memory. It is said, depressed.
Psychology in Yogsutra. He studied levels of that they take longer to grasp a subject but
human consciousness and also proposed ways to once they understand it they are able to
evolve spiritually. His theory of ashtangyoga is retain it for a longer time. • Rajas Guna,- Aristocratic &
useful today also. So, the eight aspects of aggressive. Strong self esteem. So,
ashtangyoga are yama, niyama, aasana, • Individuals who have Vata as a dominant they think that everything should
pranayam, pratyahar, dharana, dhyan and dosha are unpredictable. Their moods and happen according to their own wish.
Samadhi. thoughts fluctuate. They get angry very • Tamas Guna- Calm &
quickly but they also calm down very fast.
Also, they are art lovers.
understanding. They do their work
• Many Indian saints and philosophers have made carefully and promptly. They are
many comments about mind or human • Individuals who have Pitta as a dominant aware of reality therefore they
behaviour. However, Jain Tirthankar, Tathagat dosha are believed to be very behave calmly.
Buddha, Saint Kabir, Swami Vivekanand etc. sharp. However, they are known to be short
highlighted various aspects of human mind and tempered.
behaviour.
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Some key principles of Indian psychology that are relevant to mental health include
Atman
The belief in a spiritual essence or soul in all living beings. According to Indian psychology, understanding the
concept of Atman can help individuals connect with their inner selves and find inner peace.
Karma
• The belief that every action has consequences and that individuals are responsible for their actions and their effects
on the world around them. Understanding Karma can help individuals understand how their actions impact their
own mental and emotional well-being, as well as the well-being of others.
Dharma
• The belief that each individual has a unique purpose or role in the world and that living in alignment with one's
Dharma can lead to greater satisfaction and fulfillment.
Yoga and meditation
• Indian psychology emphasizes using yoga and meditation as tools for self-awareness and spiritual development.
Yoga and meditation are increasingly recognized for their potential benefits in treating many mental health
conditions, including anxiety, depression, and stress.
Ayurveda
• Indian psychology also includes traditional Indian medicine, where a big emphasis is on the balance of three doshas
called Vata, Pitta, and Kapha. An imbalance of these doshas is believed to be the root cause of most illnesses.
Ayurveda practitioners recommend certain herbal medicines, lifestyle changes, diet, and yoga to balance these
doshas.
• While Indian psychology is rooted in ancient Indian philosophy, many of its principles and practices can be adapted
to modern Western psychology. Some mental health professionals have begun incorporating these principles into
their treatment approaches for certain conditions. It is important to note that Indian psychology is one perspective
in understanding mental health and is not a substitute for modern evidence-based approaches to mental health care.
However, it can be a useful complement to Western-style therapy and medication.

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Spirituality
• Indian psychology is closely linked to spirituality, as the ultimate goal of Indian psychology is to achieve spiritual enlightenment and self-realization. The principles and
practices of Indian psychology are designed to help individuals understand their true selves, connect with their inner spirit, and find inner peace. One of the key concepts of
Indian psychology is the Atman, which is the belief in a spiritual essence or soul that is present in all living beings. According to Indian psychology, understanding the
concept of Atman can help individuals connect with their inner selves and find inner peace. Another key aspect of Indian psychology is the belief in reincarnation, the concept
that the soul is reborn into a new body after death. This belief can affect the way individuals understand their place in the world and the nature of their existence. It is also
worth noting that Indian psychology takes a holistic approach to human well-being, and it views the body, mind, and spirit as interconnected. This holistic perspective can
provide a more comprehensive understanding of the individual and their struggles and help individuals make sense of their experiences in a spiritual context. It is important to
note that Indian psychology and spirituality is a personal journey, and what works for one person may not work for another. It is also important to consult a healthcare
professional before trying any new approach to treating mental health issues.

Education
• Indian psychology has potential implications in education as it emphasizes the importance of character development, self-awareness, and self-regulation, which are
essential for success in education and life. Some of the key principles of Indian psychology that are relevant to education include

• Self Awareness
• Mindfulness
• Growth Mindset
• Values Education
• It is worth noting that many of the Indian psychology principles can be flexibly incorporated into education, and they can be tailored to fit into different cultures and
educational systems. It is also important that these practices be taught by qualified teachers who can guide the students safely and effectively.

Organizational behavior
• Indian psychology can be used to understand and improve organizational behavior, particularly in promoting teamwork, collaboration, and effective communication. It is
important to note that while Indian psychology can be a valuable perspective in organizational psychology, it should not be used in isolation and must be integrated with other
established models and practices. AARSHI SAINI VISITING FACULTY
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Indian psychology in relation of bhagavad gita

• Bhagavadgita : The Book of Psychotherapy. Bhagavadgita forms part of the Bhishma Parva of the
Mahabharata written by Vedavyasa in 3101 B. C. A symbolic representation of a common human conflict
and approaches to its solution are succinctly described in this book in a dialog form. The theme involves the
war between 'Kauravas' and 'Pandavas', who are cousins, for the usurpation of the kingdom, Arjuna, the
commander-in-chief of the 'Pandavas' is faced with an intense psychological turmoil when placed in the
predicament of having to kill his own kith and kin in the opposite camp- an immoral act according to him.
Amidst the warring forces, he suddenly becomes anxious, confesses to confusion and negative self-
evaluation and admits of physical and psychological symptoms ( his limbs quailed, mouth dried, body shook
and hair stood on end ) which threatens his very survival. He pleads that he is incompetent to face the
challenge and seeks to avoid it. Thus we have here an example of faulty colling strategy in the face of stress.
What follows in the Bhagavadgita is the response of his friend and mentor Krishna, to Arjuna's distress.

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 Indian psychology in relation of bhagavad gita Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences

• Krishna as a cognitive therapist: The stress Arjuna faced, as Ramachandra Rao has analysed, was due to an unrealistic cognitive appraisal of himself (viz., the righteous and valiant
warrior), the object (viz., the war) and the threat (viz., morality i.e. of the act he was doing). By anticipation of outcome in a negative way, his task oriented behaviour was vitiated and led
him to inaction. Krishna resorted to correct his cognitive inadequancy by providing a new framework for the coping behaviour, where the task performance is made independent of the
anticipation of the outcome. He focussed Arjuna's attention on the value of his perception of himself in his role status and of the objective environment. He taught that non-anticipation
does not necessarily mean inaction, but may actually induce more effective action . Thus, it was not proper of Arjuna, Krishna explained, to abstain from fighting against enemies on
account of doubt or result,

• 'Sthitaprajna' - a person with positive mental health But who can act effectively in a conflict free way? Before proceeding further, Krishna describes such a person whom he calls
'Sthitaprajna'. He is one who is unruffled by grief, desire or anger alike, has control over his senses and whose happiness wells up from within, being non-contingent upon external
gratification .

• Steps in cognitive re-structuring: 'Jnana', 'Karma' & 'Bhakti' Bhagavadgita provides a specific therapeutic package for distressing problems in which anxiety is of fundamental importance.
'Jnana' or cognitive appraisal, 'Karma' or appropriate action and 'Bhakti' or faith are the most important of them.

• 1'Jnana' or cognitive appraisal The first task in facing any situation is 'Jnana' or accurate cognitive appraisal, according to Bhagavadgita. Krishna uses the term 'Jnana' in a deeper sense, i.e.
to understand not only immediate situation but for a deeper knowledge of the ontogenic and phylogenic nature of the universe and man's place in it . Man is spiritual in nature and his spirit
/ soul or 'Atman' does not come under the category of any substance, attribute or even an action. Krishna, further appraises Arjuna that the soul passes through childhood, youth and old age
and also into another body just as an old cloth is replaced by a new one. Such an understanding makes experiential existence appear as a void. Problems arise only when an individual
mistakes himself as the enjoyer or sufferer. In fact, it is the body (body includes ego also) that undergoes these experiences and not the self . Thus the first way to overcome these
sufferings, is to know one's spiritual nature.

• 'Karma' being and not becoming as appropriate action. 'Karma' or appropriate action is another mean for facing problems. Appropriate action is determined, according to Bhagavadgita, by
one's 'Varna' or endowment and 'Asrama' or state of growth . Four 'Varnas' (viz., 'Brahmin' or priest class, 'Kshatriya' or warrior class, 'Vaishya' or business community and 'Shudra' or
labourer) and four 'Asramas'(viz., 'Brahmacharya' or learning stage, 'grahastha' or householder stage, 'Vana.prastha' or retirement from household and 'Sanyasa' or complete renunciation
from the worldly affairs) are the two dimensions constituting Hindu Social organisation and determines each person's action within this social fabric [22]. One should therefore: (1) derive
one's gratification from doing his duty and not from its outcome viz., 'Nishkamakarma' , (2) perform his task perfectly viz., 'Karmasu Kaushalam [24] and (3) dedicate action for Society's
Welfare viz., 'Yajnarthat Karma' . These three aspects of action are technically termed as 'Karmayoga' in Bhagavadgita. So, Krishna advises Arjuna to overcome his improper refusal of his
duty to fight which has come to him by his birth (warrior class), upbringing and temperament. This is his appropriate role, directed by 'Dharama' - the code of conduct, which protects the
interest not only of the individual, but of the society at large.
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 Indian psychology in relation of bhagavad gita Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences

• 'Bhakti' : The path of faith Faith in God, and dissolving the ego centricities thereby identifying with a universal soul or personal God is a unique step to
salvation from problems.
• Other approaches The Bhagavadgita also refers to other important approaches to better positive mental health. These include 'Pranayama' or deep breathing
exercises , 'Pariprashna' or discussion , 'Sraddha' or devotion , 'Ekagraman' or meditation and 'Yuktahara-Vihara' or good nutrition and relaxation.

• (v) Relevance of the Bhagavadgita to current psychological medicine. From the above, it is apparent that the Bhagavadgita is replete with concepts of relevance
to psychotherapy in the present day psychiatric context, but these concepts must be viewed with reservation. Obviously, the severely depressed, the confused
demented or the hallucinated schizophrenic may not reap much benefit from the Bhagavadgita. The message of the Bhagavadgita however, appeals to the vast,
multitude of less severely disturbed people, plunged in competition, frustration and meaninglessness. The Bhagavadgita's concept of 'Jnana' in wider sense i.e.,
the understanding of the universal nature of the spiritual self in contrast to the individual ego experiencing pleasure and pain, can be definitely helpful in
reducing the impact of life's events as personal stresses. The Bhagavadgita's concept of immortality of the soul is especially soothing for one who is grief
stricken with a loss of a loved one. Similarly, the emotional disturbances associated with the advent of adolescence and old age become more tolerable in light
of the Bhagavadgita's concept of these as inevitable phases of the life cycle. The principle of 'Nishkamakarma' is appropriate for anxiety states related to action
with uncertain outcome, and helps the person to function effectively in this achievement oriented world, where rewards may not be always certain.
Bhagavadgita's explanation on 'Bhakti' gives prominence to the identification of the individual soul with the supreme soul through complete dedication and
surrender. Infact, the active religious life of common Hindus today is grounded in the 'Bhakti' and thus, the various rituals such as 'Japa', 'Homa', 'Archana',
'Mudra', 'Seva' and 'Vandana' can be developed as therapeutic tools. Apart from providing a conceptual framework conducive to freedom from psychological
conflicts, Bhagavadgita also provides a cookbook approach to positive mental health, using the principles of yoga, the steps of self-disciplining in food and
habit and the code of conduct (Yuktaharavihara), physical training through postures (Asanas), autonomic training through deep breathing exercises (Pranayama)
and the various stages of meditation (Ekagramana). They constitute a truly effective approach to integration of the mind and body. For the therapist, in his busy
task of catering to the needs of the emotionally disturbed, to deploy these principles, certain pre-requisites are to be borne in mind. The therapist has to cherish
the value system of the Bhagavadgita himself, thus maintaining congruance in his therapeutic relation to the patient. Secondly, the belief and value system of
the patient must be considered, and the therapist must not impose his values upon the patient.
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Indian psychology in relation of Buddhism

• "Believe nothing, no matter where you read it, or who said it, no matter if I have said it, unless it agrees with your own
reason and your own common sense."—The Buddha

• Buddhism is most widely known as a religion. But it has also been called a philosophy and a science. Because these
terms—religion, philosophy, science—originated and evolved in the West, and Buddhism did not, it is perhaps not
surprising that Buddhism defies easy categorization. In this article, I offer a preliminary discussion of the scientific nature
of Buddhism and its contribution to psychological science.

• For all it’s seeming mysticism (think: karma and reincarnation) Buddhism is grounded in observable phenomena and
experiences available to any one of us. It teaches practitioners to adopt an impartial, investigative, even scientific method-
like mindset for understanding the world and ourselves. As with any science, the insights derived from Buddhist practice
can be tested and updated again and again as new experiences arise. Though different Buddhist traditions vary in the
secularity of their practices and emphases, the rational and non-dogmatic teachings of the Buddha are a common thread
holding Buddhism together.

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 Indian psychology in relation of Buddhism Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences

The Buddhist Path

• In Buddhist scripture, the Buddha is often referred to as “The Great Healer” or “The Great Physician.” In fact, his most
fundamental teachings (The Four Noble Truths) offer what might be expected of a physician or psychologist: The truth lays out
the nature of the disease (in this case, human suffering,) the second truth offers an aetiology, the third a prognosis, and the fourth a
remedy.

• The remedy described by the Buddha is an accurate insight into our own nature and the nature of humankind. Buddhism teaches
that the path to such insight and freedom from suffering is available to each of us, not just Buddhists. One simply needs to be
willing to look deeply and carefully inside and notice our patterns of thinking and behavior with fresh eyes. This is the path
of mindfulness.

• Meditation is the core practice of Buddhism because meditation helps us to live more mindfully. Mindfulness and meditation
create a capacity for connecting with the present moment and foster a clear, open mindset. For example, practice with meditation
allows us to perceive our emotions as sensations, rather than as “real” events, enabling us to analyse our feelings, rather than
getting caught up in them. Such enhanced accuracy in our perception frees us from unwittingly behaving in habitual ways that
cause suffering. For example, through mindful awareness, we learn to notice the urge to eat that second cupcake when
we're bored or shop excessively when we're anxious. Such awareness enables us to pause and decide whether or not to follow
through on the urge based on our long-term goals, rather than on our immediate impulses.
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 Indian psychology in relation of Buddhism Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences

Psychological Healing Through Buddhism

• Philosopher Alan Watts once wrote, “If we look deeply into such ways of life as Buddhism, we do not find
either philosophy or religion as these are understood in the West. We find something more nearly
resembling psychotherapy.” Indeed, Buddhism and modern psychology both seek to understand the nature of
consciousness and strive to benefit humankind through increased understanding and insight. Buddhism
offers a path to achieving the types of insights one might expect to gain through psychotherapy, such as
increased self-awareness, enhanced acceptance of life as it is, and an improved capacity to live with meaning
and gratitude.

• Modern psychological research validates the solutions proposed by Buddhist teachings. Meditation, for
example, has been shown helpful for reducing stress and anxiety, improving attention span, improving sleep,
helping with chronic pain, and benefitting emotional health overall. Buddhism has also inspired a number of
evidence-based treatments, including Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, Mindfulness-Based Cognitive
Therapy, and Dialectic Behavior Therapy.

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 Indian psychology in relation of Sankhya Darshan Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences

• Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical schools, and it holds that everything, in reality, is derived from
Purusha (self, soul, or intellect) and Prakriti (matter, creative agency, energy). The name ‘Samkhya’ or ‘Sankhya’ literally
means ‘Enumeration’.
• Sage Kapila, who is credited with creating the Samkhya Sutra, developed this earliest philosophical school.
• This school is well-known for its system of scientific inquiry.
• This school of thought adhered to Dvaitavada, or Dualism, which holds that the soul and matter are two different beings.
• This concept serves as the cornerstone for all meaningful knowledge, as man’s misery is thought to be caused mostly by a
lack of information.
• To get this information, three fundamental concepts can be applied:
• Pratyaksha is Sanskrit for perception.
• Anumana means inference.
• Shabda means hearing.
• According to the ultimate philosophy, Prakriti and Purusha are the absolute and autonomous foundations of reality.
• Prakriti consists of three fundamental characteristics:
• Thought movement,
• Transformation
• Manifestation.
• These traits put it closer to the physiognomy of a lady.
• Purusha is associated with awareness and cannot be altered or modified since it reflects male attributes.
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 Indian psychology in relation of Sankhya Darshan Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences

• Samkhya often written as Sankhya is one of India’s six philosophical schools (darshans). Samkhya maintains a coherent
dualism between matter (Prakriti) and the eternal spirit (Purusha). Purusha and Prakriti are initially distinct, but over time,
Purusha mistakenly connects themselves with parts of Prakriti. Purusha’s ability to distinguish itself from Prakriti is
defined as the right knowledge. Despite several allusions to the philosophy in earlier writings, Samkhya got its canonical
shape and expression, in the 3rd century CE, in Samkhya-karikas (“Stanzas of Samkhya”) by Ishvarakrishna, a
philosopher. In the 16th century, Vijnanabhikshu authored an important book on the system.

• The Samkhya school of thought holds that there are two bodies: a temporal body and a body of subtle substance that
survives biological death. When the former body dies, the latter migrates to a different temporal body. The higher
functions of buddhi (“awareness”), ahamkara (“I-consciousness”), manas (“mind as the organiser of sensory
impressions”), and prana (“breath,” the basis of vitality) comprise the body of subtle matter.

• According to Samkhya, there are an unlimited number of comparable but distinct Purushas, none of which is superior to
the others. The presence of a God is not theorised since Purusha and Prakriti are adequate to explain the cosmos. The
Purusha is all-pervasive, all-conscious, unmoving, immutable, immaterial, and devoid of desire. Prakriti is the ubiquitous
and delicate nature governed solely by time and space.

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Phases of Development

• According to this school, Purusha impinges on Prakriti, much like a magnet attracts iron shavings to itself, and the process of development
starts. Purusha, which was previously pure consciousness without an object, gets focused on Prakriti, from which buddhi (“spiritual
awareness”) emerges. The next stage of evolution is individualistic ego consciousness (ahamkara, “I-consciousness”), which instils in the
Purusha the mistaken belief that the ego is the source of the Purusha’s objective existence.
• The ahamkara is further subdivided into five gross elements (space, air, fire, water, earth), five fine elements (sound, touch, sight, taste,
smell), five organs of perception (to hear, touch, see, taste, smell), five organs of activity (to talk, grip, move, procreate, expel),
and consciousness (as coordinator of sense impressions). The whole universe is the outcome of all these principles, in different
combinations, to which the Purusha is added.
• Prakriti stands is made of three primal qualities called Gunas:
• Tamas (“darkness”) is obscurity, ignorance, and inertia;
• Rajas (“passion”) is energy, emotion, and expansiveness; and
• Sattva (“goodness”) is enlightenment, enlightened knowledge, and lightness.
• This school’s development was categorised into two: Original Samkhya View and New Samkhya View. Both schools of thought argued
that knowledge may lead to salvation.

Sankhya Philosophy believes that self-knowledge, rather than any external influence or agent, leads to freedom. Samkhya is
the philosophical basis of Yoga Philosophy, given by Patanjali. The requirement of God is not perceived in Samkhya for epistemic clarity
concerning the interaction between the greater self, the individual self, and the surrounding universe. Rather, Samkhya is a dualistic astika
school of Indian philosophy that views reality and human experience as being made up of two separate ultimate principles, Purusha and Prakriti.

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Indian psychology in relation of Sankhya Darshan

New Samkhya View Original Samkhya View

They advocated for a spiritual interpretation of They advocated for a reasonable and scientific
the Universe’s creation. perspective of the universe’s genesis.
Purusha, or spirit, they claimed, was required for They thought that the presence of a divine agent
the formation of the Universe, together with the was not required for the Universe’s formation.
element of nature.

This point of view is associated with a more This viewpoint is seen as belonging to the
spiritual school of thought. materialistic school of thought.
During the 4th century AD, modern features This viewpoint is regarded as early Samkhya
blended with the older Samkhya paradigm, philosophy, and it dates from the 1st century AD.
resulting in this view.

They asserted that the universe was created by They also held that nature, or Prakriti, was
the clash of natural and spiritual elements. responsible for the existence of the world.

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