CHAPTER 6: ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION (PART 1)

W HAT IS AN ATTITUDE ?
An attitude is a state of mind, a set of views, or thoughts, regarding some topic ( called the
attitude object ) which have an evaluative feature ( positive, negative or neutral quality ).It is
accompanied by an emotional component, and a tendency to act in a particular way with regard
to the attitude object.
ATTITUDE STRUCTURE : COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE: ABC COMPONENTS
Cognitive : cognitive aspect or cognition, thoughts ,beliefs about the attitude object
Behavioural: behavioral or cognitive aspect representing the tendency to act
Affective : emotional aspect representing feelings and emotions attached to the attitude
Example : Attitude :“ I am opposed to laws in any way allowing the ownership of guns.”
Cognitions:“I think unrestricted gun ownership is not a basic right guaranteed in the
constitution. “
AffectiveI feel strongly about hurting or injuring innocents accidently.
Behavioural:“ I called my legislator and argued against the gun ownership bill.”
DISTINGUISHING ATTITUDE FROM BELIEFS AND VALUES

Beliefs Values

 refer to the cognitive  Value are attitudes or beliefs that contain a

component of attitudes, ‘should’ or ‘ought’ aspect, such as moral or
and ethical values.
 form the ground on which  Value is a conception of what is desirable
attitudes stand,  One example of a value is the idea that one
 Eg. belief in God, or belief should work hard, or that one should always be
in democracy as a political honest, because honesty is the best policy.
ideology.  Values are formed when a particular belief or
attitude becomes an inseparable part of the
person’s outlook on life
 . Consequently, values are difficult to change
 While attitudes are directed at objects, values are
broad and more general. Therefore, one value of
honesty may give rise to many smaller attitudes.

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE:
  They define us. The person who opposes gun control is telling us something important
about herself.
 They direct our future feelings and thoughts about the objects of those feelings and
thoughts. In other words, a negative attitude toward gun control would lead the person
holding it to search out and remember information that confirms the attitude.
 They summarize our feelings, thoughts, intentions and behaviours. When a topic comes
up , especially one with which we have some experience and familiarity, our attitude
helps us respond. For example, our attitude towards foreigners may indirectly provide a
mental ‘layout’ or ‘blueprint’ for the way in which we should behave whenever we meet
one. Thus attitudes help us operate efficiently in our social world.

PROPERTIES OF ATTITUDES :
1. Valence ( positive or negative):
 The valence of an attitude tells us whether an attitude is positive or negative towards the
attitude object.
 Suppose an attitude (say, towards nuclear research) has to be expressed on a 5-point
scale, ranging from 1 (Very bad), 2 (Bad), 3 (Neutral — neither good nor bad), and 4
(Good), to 5 (Very good). If an individual rates her/his view towards nuclear research as
4 or 5, this is clearly a positive attitude. This means that the person likes the idea of
nuclear research and thinks it is something good. On the other hand, if the rating is 1 or
2, the attitude is negative. This means that the person dislikes the idea of nuclear
research, and thinks it is something bad. We also allow for neutral attitudes. In this
example, a neutral attitude towards nuclear research would be shown by a rating of 3 on
the same scale. A neutral attitude would have neither positive nor negative valence.
2. Extremeness :
 The extremeness of an attitude indicates how positive or negative an attitude is.
 Taking the nuclear research example, a rating of 1 is as extreme as a rating of 5 : they are
only in the opposite directions (valence). Ratings of 2 and 4 are less extreme. A neutral
attitude, of course, is lowest on extremeness.

3. Simplicity or Complexity (multiplexity) :

 This feature refers to how many attitudes there are within a broader attitude. Think of an
attitude as a family containing several ‘member’ attitudes.
 In case of various topics, such as health and world peace, people hold many attitudes
instead of single attitude. An attitude system is said to be ‘simple’ if it contains only one or a
few attitudes, and ‘complex’ if it is made up of many attitudes.
 For example consider the attitude towards health and well-being. This attitude system is
likely to consist of several ‘member’ attitudes, such as one’s concept of physical and mental
health, views about happiness and well-being, and beliefs about how one should achieve
health and happiness. By contrast, the attitude towards a particular person is likely to consist
of mainly one attitude..

4. Centrality :
 This refers to the role of a particular attitude in the attitude system.
 An attitude with greater centrality would influence the other attitudes in the system much
more than non-central (or peripheral) attitudes would.
 For example, in the attitude towards world peace, a negative attitude towards high military
expenditure may be present as a core or central attitude that influences all other attitudes in
the multiple attitude system

ATTITUDE FORMATION

Attitudes are learned through one’s own experiences and through interaction with others.

PROCESS OF ATTITUDE FORMATION

The processes and conditions of learning may be different, resulting in varying attitudes among
people.
• Learning attitudes by association (classical conditioning ):
 A stimulus comes to evoke a response it previously did not call up. Classical
conditioning occurs by repeatedly pairing this stimulus ( the conditioned stimulus)
with a stimulus that does not have the power to evoke the response ( the
unconditioned stimulus )
 Students often develop a liking for a particular subject because of the teacher. This is
because they see many positive qualities in that teacher (unconditioned stimulus );
these positive qualities get linked to the subject that s/he teaches(conditioned
stimulus ), and ultimately get expressed in the form of liking for the
subject(conditioned response ). In other words, a positive attitude towards the
subject is learned through the positive association between a teacher and a student.
• Learning attitudes by being rewarded or punished (instrumental conditioning ) :
 If an individual is praised for showing a particular attitude, chances are high that
s/he will develop that attitude further.
 For example, if a teenager does yogasanas regularly, and gets the honour of being
‘Miss Good Health’ in her school (positive reinforcement ), she may develop a
positive attitude towards yoga and health in general. Similarly, if a child constantly
falls ilL( punishment )lbecause s/he eats junk food instead of proper meals, then the
child is likely to develop a negative attitude towards junk food, and also a positive
attitude towards eating healthy food.

• Learning attitudes through modelling (observing others) :

 Often it is not through association, or through reward and punishment, that we
learn attitudes. Instead, we learn them by observing others being rewarded or
punished for expressing thoughts, or showing behaviour of a particular kind
towards the attitude object.
 For example, children may form a respectful attitude towards elders, by
observing that their parents show respect for elders, and are appreciated for it.


• Learning attitudes through group or cultural norms :

 Very often, we learn attitudes through the norms of our group or culture. Norms
are unwritten rules about behaviour that everyone is supposed to show under
specific circumstances. Over time, these norms may become part of our social
 cognition, in the form of attitudes.
 Learning attitudes through group or cultural norms may actually be an example
of all three forms of learning described above — learning through association,
reward or punishment, and modelling.
 For example, offering money, sweets, fruit and flowers in a place of worship is a
normative behaviour in some religions. When individuals see that such
behaviour is shown by others, is expected and socially approved, they may
ultimately develop a positive attitude towards such behaviour and the associated
feelings of devotion.

• Learning through exposure to information :

 Many attitudes are learned in a social context, but not necessarily in the physical
presence of others.
 Today, with the huge amount of information that is being provided through various
media, both positive and negative attitudes are being formed. By reading the
biographies of self-actualised persons, an individual may develop a positive attitude
towards hard work and other aspects as the means of achieving success in life.

Factors that Influence Attitude Formation

The following factors provide the context for the learning of attitudes through the processes
described above.
1. Family and School Environment :
Particularly in the early years of life, parents and other family members play a significant
role in shaping attitude formation. Later, the school environment becomes an important
background for attitude formation. Learning of attitudes within the family and school
usually takes place by association, through rewards and punishments, and through
modelling.

2. Reference Groups :
 Reference groups indicate to an individual the norms regarding acceptable
behaviour and ways of thinking. Thus, they reflect learning of attitudes through
group or cultural norms.
 Attitudes towards various topics, such as political, religious and social groups,
occupations, national and other issues are often developed through reference
groups. Their influence is noticeable especially during the beginning of adolescence,
at which time it is important for the individual to feel that s/he belongs to a group.
 Therefore, the role of reference groups in attitude formation may also be a case of
learning through reward and punishment.

3. Personal Experiences :
 Many attitudes are formed through direct personal experiences which bring about a
drastic change in our attitude towards people and our own life.
 Here is a real-life example. A driver in the army went through a personal experience
that transformed his life. On one mission, he narrowly escaped death although all
 his companions got killed. Wondering about the purpose of his own life, he gave up
his job in the army, returned to his native village in Maharashtra, and worked
actively as a community leader.
 Through a purely personal experience this individual evolved a strong positive
attitude towards community upliftment. His efforts completely changed the face of
his village.

4. Media-related Influences :
 Technological advances in recent times have made audio-visual media and the
Internet very powerful sources of information that lead to attitude formation and
change.
 In addition, school level textbooks also influence attitude formation.
 These sources first strengthen the cognitive and affective components of attitudes,
and subsequently may also affect the behavioural component. The media can exert
both good and bad influences on attitudes.
 On one hand, the media and Internet make people better informed than other
modes of communication. On the other hand, there may be no check on the nature of
information being gathered, and therefore no control over the attitudes that are
being formed, or the direction of change in the existing attitudes.
 The media can be used to create consumerist attitudes where none existed, and can
also be harnessed to create positive attitudes to facilitate social harmony.

PROCESS OF ATTITUDE CHANGE

 During the process of attitude formation, and also after this process, attitudes may be
changed and modified through various influences.
 Some attitudes change more than others do. Attitudes that are still in the formative
stage, and are more like opinions, are much more likely to change compared to attitudes
that have become firmly established, and have become a part of the individual’s values.
 From a practical point of view, bringing about a change in people’s attitudes is of
interest to community leaders, politicians, producers of consumer goods, advertisers,
and others.
 Unless we find out how attitudes change, and what conditions account for such change,
it would not be possible to take steps to bring about attitude change.

THEORIES OF ATTITUDE CHANGE

1. BALANCE THEORY (FRITZ HEIDER)

 The concept of balance, proposed by Fritz Heider is sometimes described in the form of
the ‘P-O-X’ triangle, which represents the relationships between three aspects or
components of the attitude. P is the person whose attitude is being studied, O is another
person, and X is the topic towards which the attitude is being studied (attitude object). It
is also possible that all three are persons.
 The basic idea is that an attitude changes if there is a state of imbalance between the P-O
attitude, O-X attitude, and P-X attitude. This is because imbalance is logically
uncomfortable. Therefore, the attitude changes in the direction of balance.
 Imbalance is found when (i) all three sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative, or (ii) two
sides are positive, and one side is negative. Balance is found when (i) all three sides are
positive, or (ii) two sides are negative, and one side is positive.
 Consider the example of dowry as an attitude topic (X). Suppose a person (P) has a
positive attitude towards dowry (P-X positive). P is planning to get his son married to
the daughter of some person (O) who has a negative attitude towards dowry (O-X
negative). What would be the nature of the P-O attitude, and how would it determine
balance or imbalance in the situation? If O initially has a positive attitude towards P, the
situation would be unbalanced. P-X is positive, O-P is positive, but O-X is negative. That
is, there are two positives and one negative in the triangle. This is a situation of
imbalance. One of the three attitudes will therefore have to change. This change could
take place in the P-X relationship (P starts disliking dowry as a custom), or in the O-X
relationship (O starts liking dowry as a custom), or in the O-P relationship (O starts
disliking P) One of the three attitudes will therefore have to change. This change could
take place in the P-X relationship (P starts disliking dowry as a custom), or in the O-X
relationship (O starts liking dowry as a custom), or in the O-P relationship (O starts
disliking P). In short, an attitude change will have to take place so that there will be
three positive relationships, or two negative and one positive relationship, in the
triangle.

P(PERSON)

X X O(ATTITUDE OBJECT)

2. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY ( LEON FESTINGER )

 The concept of cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon Festinger. It emphasises the
cognitive component. Here the basic idea is that the cognitive components of an attitude
must be ‘consonant’ (opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e., they should be logically in line with
each other. If an individual finds that two cognitions in an attitude are dissonant, then
one of them will be changed in the direction of consonance.
 For example, think about the following ideas (‘cognitions’) :
Cognition I : Pan masala causes mouth cancer which is fatal.
Cognition II : I eat panmasala.
Holding these two ideas or cognitions will make any individual feel that something is
‘out of tune’, or dissonant, in the attitude towards pan masala. Therefore, one of these
ideas will have to be changed, so that consonance can be attained. In the example
 given above, in order to remove or reduce the dissonance, I will stop eating pan
masala(change Cognition II). This would be the healthy, logical and sensible way of reducing
dissonance.
 Festinger and Carlsmith, two social psychologists, conducted an experiment that
showed how cognitive dissonance works (see Box 6.2 in the text book )).
 Both balance and cognitive dissonance are examples of cognitive consistency.
Cognitive consistency means that two components, aspects or elements of the attitude, or
attitude system, must be in the same direction. Each element should logically fall in line with
other elements. If this does not happen, then the person experiences a kind of mental
discomfort, i.e. the sense that ‘something is not quite right’ in the attitude system. In such a
state, some aspect in the attitude system changes in the direction of consistency, because our
cognitive system requires logical consistency.

3. TWO-STEP CONCEPT ( S.M. MOHSIN )

 The two-step concept was proposed by S.M. Mohsin, an Indian psychologist.
According to him, attitude change takes place in the form of two steps.
1. In the first step, the target of change identifies with the source. The ‘target’ is the
person whose attitude is to be changed. The ‘source’ is the person through whose
influence the change is to take place. Identification means that the target has
liking and regard for the source. S/he puts herself/himself in the place of the
target, and tries to feel like her/him. The source must also have a positive attitude
towards the target, and the regard and attraction becomes mutual.
2. In the second step, the source herself/himself shows an attitude change, by
actually changing her/him behaviour towards the attitude object. Observing the
source’s changed attitude and behaviour, the target also shows an attitude change
through behaviour. This is a kind of imitation or observational learning.
 Preeti reads in the newspapers that a particular soft drink that she enjoys is
extremely harmful. But Preeti sees that her favourite sportsperson has been
advertising the same soft drink. She has identified herself with the sportsperson,
and would like to imitate her/him. Now, suppose the sportsperson wishes to
change people’s attitude towards this soft drink from positive to negative. The
sportsperson must first show positive feelings for her/ his fans, and then actually
change her/his own habit of consuming that soft drink (Step I) — perhaps by
substituting it with a health drink. If the sportsperson actually changes her/his
behaviour, it is very likely that now Preeti will also change her attitude and
behaviour, and stop consuming the harmful soft drink (Step II).

FACTORS INFLUENCING ATTITUDE CHANGE

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EXISTING ATTITUD: All four properties of attitudes

mentioned earlier, namely, valence (positivity or negativity), extremeness, simplicity or
complexity (multiplexity), and centrality or significance of the attitude, determine attitude
change. In general, positive attitudes are easier to change than negative attitudes are. Extreme
attitudes, and central attitudes are more difficult to change than the less extreme, and
 peripheral (less significant) attitudes are. Simple attitudes are easier to change than multiple
attitudes are.
DIRECTION OF ATTITUDE : In addition, one must also consider the direction and extent
of attitude change. An attitude change may be congruent — it may change in the same
direction as the existing attitude (for example, a positive attitude may become more
positive, or a negative attitude may become more negative). For instance, suppose a
person has a somewhat positive attitude towards empowerment of women. Reading
about a successful woman may make this attitude more positive. This would be a
congruent change. On the other hand, an attitude change may be incongruent — it may
change in a direction opposite to the existing attitude (for example, a positive attitude
becomes less positive, or negative, or a negative attitude becomes less negative, or
positive). In the example just given, after reading about successful women, a person may
think that women might soon become too powerful, and neglect their family
responsibilities. This may make the person’s existing positive attitude towards
empowerment of women, less positive, or even negative. If this happens, then it would be
a case of incongruent change. It has been found that, in general, congruent changes are
easier to bring about than are the incongruent changes in attitudes.
DIRECTION OF THE INFORMATION GIVEN: Moreover, an attitude may change in
the direction of the information that is presented, or in a direction opposite to that of the
information presented. Posters describing the importance of brushing one’s teeth would
strengthen a positive attitude towards dental care. But if people are shown frightening
pictures of dental cavities, they may not believe the pictures, and may become less
positive about dental care. Research has found that fear sometimes works well in
convincing people but if a message generates too much fear, it turns
SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS :
 credibility
 attractiveness
Source credibility and attractiveness are two features that affect attitude change. Attitudes are
more likely to change when the message comes from a highly credible source rather than from a
low-credible source. For example, adults who are planning to buy a laptop are more convinced
by a computer engineer who points out the special features of a particular brand of laptop, than
they would be by a schoolchild who might give the same information. But, if the buyers are
themselves schoolchildren, they may be convinced more by another schoolchild advertising a
laptop than they would be by a professional giving the same information .

MESSAGE CHARACTERISTICS :
 rational appeal or emotional appeal
 motives
 mode – face to face or indirect, audio- visual

The message is the information that is pesented in order to bring about an attitude change.
Attitudes will change when the amount of information that is given about the topic is just
enough, neither too much nor too little. Whether the message contains a rational or an
 emotional appeal, also makes a difference. For example, an advertisement for cooking food in a
pressure cooker may point out that this saves fuel such as cooking gas (LPG) and is economical
(rational appeal). Alternatively, the advertisement may say that pressure-cooking preserves
nutrition, and that if one cares for the family, nutrition would be a major concern (emotional
appeal). In the case of products such as cars, sales may increase if they are publicised, not
necessarily by experts, but by popular public figures ,
The motives activated by the message also determine attitude change. For example, drinking
milk may be said to make a person healthy and good-looking, or more energetic and more
successful at one’s job.
The mode of spreading the message plays a significant role. Face-to-face transmission of the
message is usually more effective than indirect transmission, as for instance, through letters and
pamphlets, or even through mass media. For example, a positive attitude towards Oral
Rehydration Salts (ORS) for young children is more effectively created if community social
workers and doctors spread the message by talking to people directly, than by only describing
the benefits of ORS on the radio (see Figure 6.3). These days transmission through visual media
such as television and the Internet are similar to face-to-face interaction, but not a substitute for
the latter.
TARGET CHARACTERISTICS :
 persuasibility
 strong prejudices
 self-esteem
 intelligence

Qualities of the target, such as persuasibility, strong prejudices, self-esteem, and intelligence
influence the likelihood and extent of attitude change. People, who have a more open and
flexible personality, change more easily. Advertisers benefit most from such people. People
with strong prejudices are less prone to any attitude change than those who do not hold strong
prejudices. Persons who have a low self-esteem, and do not have sufficient confidence in
themselves, change their attitudes more easily than those who are high on self-esteem. More
intelligent people may change their attitudes less easily than those with lower intelligence.
However, sometimes more intelligent persons change their attitudes more willingly than less
intelligent ones, because they base their attitude on more information and thinking.

ATTITUDE – BEHAVIOUR RELATIONSHIP

An attitude may not always always be exhibited in behaiour. There is consistency between the
two when

 Attitude is strong and central

 The person is aware of his/her attitude
 There is very little or no pressure
 The behaviour is not being watched or evaluated
  Esexpectancy that behaviou would have a positive consequence
Experiment
In the days when Americans were said to be prejudiced against the Chinese, Richard LaPiere, an American
social psychologist, conducted the following study. He asked a Chinese couple to travel across the United
States, and stay in different hotels. Only once during these occasions they were refused service by one of the
hotels. Sometime later, LaPiere sent out questionnaires to managers of hotels and tourist homes in the same
areas where the Chinese couple had travelled, asking them if they would give accommodation to Chinese
guests. A very large percentage said that they would not do so. This response showed a negative attitude
towards the Chinese, which was inconsistent with the positive behaviour that was actually shown towards
the travelling Chinese couple. Thus, attitudes may not always predict actual pattern of one’s behaviour.

Sometimes it’s the behaviour that decides the attitude: In the experiment by Festinger and Carlsmith
(see Box 6.2 of the textbook )), students who got only one dollar for telling others that the experiment was
interesting, discovered that they liked the experiment. That is, on the basis of their behaviour (telling others that
the experiment was interesting, for only a small amount of money), they concluded that their attitude towards
the experiment was positive (“I would not have told a lie for this small amount of money, which means that the
experiment was actually interesting”).

FOLLOWING TOPICS TO BE DONE FROM THE TEXTBOOK

PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION

PREJUDICE
 ATTITUDE TOWARDS A PARTICULAR GROUP
 USUALLY NEGATIVE
 BASED ON STEREOTYPES
 HAS THREE COMPONENTS : COGNITIVE ( STEREOTYPES)
AFFECTIVE
BEHAVIOURAL ( DISCRIMINATION)

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION

DISCRIMINATI
STEREOTYPE
ON
Cognitive component of prejudice consisting Behavioral component where people behave
of a cluster of ideas regarding the in a less positive way towards a particular
characteristics of a specific group. target group compared to another group
All members belonging to this group are which they favour.
assumed to possess these characteristics. Eg. The genocide committed by the Nazis in
consist of undesirable characteristics about Germany against Jewish people is an
the target group leading to negative attitudes extreme example of how prejudice can lead
or prejudices towards members of specific to hatred ( affecive component) ,
groups. discrimination.
PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION

PREJUDICE CAN EXIST WITHOUT BEING SHOWN IN THE FORM OF DISCRIMINATION .

DISCRIMINATION CAN BE SHOWN WITHOUT PREJUDICE.

SOURCES OF PREJUDICE

STRONG SOCIAL
LEARNING IDENTITY AND
INGROUP BIAS

KERNEL OF
SCAPEGO TRUTH
ATING CONCEPT

SELF FULFILLING
PROPHECY

STRATEGIES FOR HANDLING PREJUDICE

EDUCATION AND INCREASING

INFORMATION INTERGROUP
DISSEMINATION CONTACT

HIGHLIGHTING
INDIVIDUAL IDENTITY
RATHER THAN GROUP
IDENTITY

HOW TO MAKE STRATEGIES MORE EFFECTIVE

 Minimising opportunities for learning prejudices

 Changing attitudes
 De-emphasising a narrow social identity based on the ingroup
 Discouraging the tendency towards self-fulfilling prophecy among the victims of
prejudice

SOCIAL COGNITION 9 (To be done in detail from the textbook)

 SCHEMAS AND STEREOTYPES
PROCESS OF KNOWING OTHERS
 IMPRESSION FORMATION
 ATTRIBUTION
 1. IMPRESSION FORMATION
 Perceiver and target
 Processes in impression information - selection, organization and inference
 Factors affecting impression formation
Primacy effect
Recency effeect
Halo effect
2. ATTRIBUTION
 Internal and external
 Attribution for success & failure - Stable and unstable factors, internal and external
factors,- Bernard Weiner’s classification of causal factors
 Fundamental attribution error
 Different attributions made for success and failure
 Actor-observer effect
BEHAVIOUR IN THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS
 Social facilitation and social inhibition - due to arousal and evaluation
apprehension
 Factors affecting social facilitation – nature of the task
Co-action
Social loafing – diffusion of responsibility

PRO SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR – ALTRUISIM

 Characteristics of pro-social behaviour
 Factors influencing pro social behaiour