StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
me/apresources
BEFORE WE START:
Calculator Tips
- Press “MODE” and confirm that “Stat Diagnostics” are turned on.
- Make sure to update your calculator to the latest operating system. Non-color TI-84s
should be at least version 2.55 MP, and the TI-84 Plus CE should be at least 5.3.0. You
can check your calculator version with [2nd] [+] [Enter]
1. Exploring One-Variable Data
1.1 analyzing categorical data
● Places an individual into of several categories
● Bar graphs, pie charts and venn-diagrams can be used to present this data
1.2 analyzing quantitative data
● Takes numerical values for which arithmetic operations make sense (ex: # of siblings)
● Dot plots, box plots, stem plots, scatter plots and histograms
● A stem plot gives a quick picture of the shape of a distribution while including
numerical values
○ Separate each observation into a stem and a leaf
■ Write leaf to right of stem. Stems in vertical column and draw a vertical
line to right of column
○ Histograms break the range of data values into classes and displays the count/%
of observations that fall into that class
■ To make a histogram:
● Divide range of data into equal-width classes
● Count observations in each class→ “frequency”
● Draw bars to represent classes→ height=frequency
● Bars should touch unlike bar graphs
● Should have between 4-12 bins
○ Boxplot: Displays 5 number summary
■ Min, Q1, median, Q3, max
■ A value is an outlier if it is less than Q1-1.5(IQR) or greater than
Q3+1.5(IQR)
● Interquartile range (IQR) → Q3-Q1
■ Modified Boxplot displays outliers as separate dots.
1.3 Describing Distributions SOCS
● Look for overall pattern and for striking deviation from that pattern
● There are 3 important things to note when looking at distributions
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
○ Shape: Symmetric or skewed (left or right)
■ Symmetric → mean=median
■ Skewed Right → mean>median
■ Skewed Left → mean<median
○ Center: What number typifies the data (mean vs. median)
○ Spread: How variable are the data values (Range)
■ Highest-Lowest
○ Outliers
● Median is resistant to extreme values because it is not easily affected by outliers
● Mean is not resistant because it is easily affected by outliers
● Percentile: Another measure of relative standing is a percentile rank
○ ‘P’th percentile → value w/ p% observations below it
○ Median is the 50th percentile
● Quartiles: Q1 + Q3 represent the 25th and 75th percentiles
○ Find them by ordering data min to max and determine the median. Q1 is middle
of bottom half and Q3 is middle of top half
● Variance and Standard Deviation
○ Standard Deviation: typically how far away a value is from the mean of a data set
(average distance from mean)
○ v ariance = σ 2
○ √var. = [Link].
○ σ = population standard deviation
○ μ = population mean
○ S = sample standard deviation
○ x = sample mean
○ σ 2 = population variance
○ S 2 = sample variance
→ CALCULATOR: find by placing in lists, run 1-Var Stats STAT → CALC → 1:1-Var Stats
● Standardized Value
○ One way to describe relative position in a data set is to tell how many st. devs.
above or below the mean the observation is.
○ Standardized Value: Z-score
x−μ
○ z= σ
1.4 density curves and normal distribution
● Density Curve:
○ A density curve is an idealized description of the overall pattern of a distribution
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
○ Area underneath density curve = 1 and it represents 100% of observations
○ Density curve is valid only if it is on or above the horizontal axis and its area is 1
○ The mean of the density curve is at its balance point
○ The area of a density curve represents the % of observations that fall inside it
○ Median of density curve cuts area in half
● Normal Distribution
○ Empirical Rule 68-95-99.7
■ 68% of observations lie within 1 st.
dev. of mean
■ 95% lie within 2 st. dev.
■ 99.7% lie within 3 st. dev.
CALCULATOR:
FIND Z-SCORE: 2nd → VARS → 3:InvNorm(area:, μ : , σ : )
FIND AREA: 2nd → VARS → 2:normalcdf(L:, U:, μ : , σ : )
● Normal Probability Plot (NPP)
○ A NPP plots values of a data set vs. its standardized values (z-scores)
○ If the NPP is relatively linear we can say the distribution is relatively normal
○ A non-linear pattern indicates the data is not normal and outliers will be far from
the overall pattern…. Not associated with correlation
→ CALCULATOR: to draw a NPP: 2nd → y= → type: (last one)
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
2. Exploring Two-Variable Data
2.1 scatterplots and correlation
Scatterplots (quantitative data)
- Explanatory Variable; Horizontal Axis “x-axis” - independent variable
- Response Variable; Vertical Axis “y-axis” - dependent variable
Correlation
- r = correlation coefficient
- r is positive there is a positive correlation
- r is negative there is a negative correlation
- The closer it is to 1 or -1 the stronger the correlation.
- r2 = coefficient of determination (the variation in y explained x)
- Closer to 1 = strong correlation
- Interpreting r2: “ _____ % of the variation in [response variable name] can be
accounted for by the linear relationship with [explanatory variable name].”
HOW TO DESCRIBE SCATTER PLOTS:
- Strength (strong, moderately strong, moderately weak, weak)
- Direction (positive, negative)
- Shape (linear, nonlinear [curved, cluster, etc])
- Outliers (any points not conforming to the overall pattern)
2.2 least squares regression
A Line of best fit can be found for Linear Models using least-squares regression. This line
minimizes the sum of squared errors. On a Ti-84 the line of best fit can be found by using
CALCULATOR: find line of best fit: STAT → CALC → 4:LinReg(ax+b)
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
y = a + bx → passes through (x, y )
- Extrapolation: using predictions outside of data range (avoid this, as you don’t know
what happens to the trend afterwards)
︿
- Residual = y − y
HOW TO SOLVE FRQ:
- If it asks for the model:
︿
- y = b + ax
︿
- Define y and x
- Interpreting slope:
- For every 1 [unit] increase in [x in context], there is a [a] increase in expected
value of [y in context].
- Is the linear model appropriate:
- See if there is a pattern in residual plot.
- If yes, not appropriate
- If no, appropriate
3. Collecting Data
3.1 sampling and surveys
● Sample:
○ A smaller group of individuals selected from a population
○ To r epresent t he entire population, individuals are selected a
t random
■ The best defense against bias
○ Sample surveys
■ Surveys designed to ask questions of a small group of people in the
hope of learning something about the entire population
○ Sample size
■ You need a large enough sample to be representative of the population
● Census
○ The entire population is the “sample”
○ Difficult to complete and impractical; some people might be difficult to get a
hold of and populations rarely stand still
● Biases
○ Sampling methods that tend to over or underemphasize some characteristics of
a population
○ Voluntary response bias
■ When individuals can choose to respond or not
■ ALWAYS invalid and can’t be recovered
■ Form of nonresponse bias
○ Convenience sample
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
■ Consists of individuals who are conveniently available
■ Every individual in the population is not equally convenient to sample
○ Undercoverage
■ Part of the population is less represented than it is in the population
○ Nonresponse bias
■ When a large fraction of those sampled fails to respond
■ May occur for a variety of reasons
● Ex. survey calls home phone during the day, but the individual is
not home during the day
○ Response bias
■ Anything in a survey design that influences responses
■ Ex. wording of questions to favor one response
● Population and Parameters
○ Population parameter
■ A numerically valued attribute of a model for a population
■ We hope to estimate it from sampled data
■ Ex. the mean income of all employed people in the country
○ Sample statistic
■ Values calculated for sampled data
■ Ex. the calculated mean income of all employed people in a
representative sample
○ A representative sample reflects the corresponding parameters accurately
● Simple Random Samples
○ Simple Random Sample (SRS)
■ A sample in which each set of n elements in the population has an equal
chance of selection
○ Sampling frame
■ A list of individuals from whom the sample is drawn
○ Sampling variability
■ The natural tendency of randomly drawn samples to differ
■ Not an error
● Stratified Sampling
○ Strata
■ Homogenous groups
○ Stratified random sampling
■ When the population is sliced into strata before the sample is selected
■ Then simple random sampling is used within each stratum
○ Benefit(s)
■ Reduced sampling variability
● Cluster and Multistage Sampling
○ Cluster sampling
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
■ Works by splitting the population into representative clusters and then
selecting one or a few clusters at random and performing a census within
each of them
■ Clusters should be representative of the population
○ Multistage sampling
■ Sampling schemes that combine several methods
● Systematic sampling
○ A sample drawn by selecting individuals systematically from a sampling frame
○ Can be representative when there is no relationship between the order of the
sampling frame and the variables of interest
● CLUSTER vs. STRATIFIED SAMPLING
○ Strata are internally homogeneous but differ from one another. Clusters can be
heterogeneous; we want them to represent the population
3.2 experiments
- Experiments are when an actual treatment is DONE to a group of units. (Like samples
but active).
- Experimental Units - individuals on which the experiment is done
- Subjects - if experimental units are humans
- Treatment - a specific experimental condition applied to the units
- Factors - Explanatory variables
- Level - a specific value or amount of factor
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
- Placebo - dummy bill that does nothing (usually used as control, preserves blindness)
- Experiments give good evidence for causation.
- Comparative experiments
- Treatment -> Observe response
- Gives more control, so can reduce lurking variables
- Bias can exist if an outcome in the experiment is more favored
- Such as a pharmacy pushing the good effects of a drug
- Randomization
- (see previous section for designs)
- Methods
- Table of random digits
- assign each unit a number and go through each digit
- Papers in hat
- Ti84: MATH → PRB → 5:randInt(L: , U: )
- Principles of Experimental design
- Control
- Is there a control? Are lurking variables prevented?
- Randomization
- Are the units and treatments assigned randomly?
- Replication
- Can this be done multiple times to reduce chance variation?
- Statistically significant - An effect that couldn’t have been chance.
- Double blind - neither subjects or doctor knows which treatment is given to which
subject.
- But a 3rd party needs to know.
- Matched Pairs
- Pair up similar subjects and give each a different treatment. Observe any
differences.
- Confounding Variable - adds effect to response and cannot be distinguished from the
independent variable
3.3 responsible stats (causation, scope, ethics)
- Random assignment → ensures two groups are as similar as possible before treatment
is imposed
- Allows us to make a causal inference
- Challenges of establishing causation:
- Lack of realism → if experiment results are due to specific environment and
specific individuals
- Consider having randomized comparative experiment
- How to establish causation without experiment
- Association is strong and consistent
- Larger values of experimental variable associated with stronger response
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
- Alleged cause precedes the effect of time
- Cause is plausible
- Data Ethics:
- Do no harm
- No discrimination
- Planned studies must be reviewed by institutional review board
- Informed consent from all individuals
- All individual data is confidential
4. Probability, Random Variables, and Probability Distributions
4.1 randomness, probability, and simulation
- Chance behavior is unpredictable in the short run, but has a regular and predictable
pattern in the long run
- Law of large numbers: guarantees that as more and more repetitions are made, the
proportion of times that a specific outcome occurs approaches a single value aka the
true probability.
- The probability of any outcome of a chance process is a number between 0 and 1.
- random =/= “haphazard” in chance, but rather “by chance.”
- Runs that seem “not random” to our intuition can be quite common
- FALSE: Law of averages: must lose to win so that the “wins” and “losses” balance out
- Simulation: imitation of chance behaviour, based on a model that accurately reflects the
situation
- FRQ Performing a simulation
- STATE: ask a question of interest about a chance process
- PLAN: describe how to use a chance device to imitate one repetition of the
process. Tell us what you will record at the end of each repetition.
- DO: perform many repetitions of the simulation
- CONCLUDE: use the results of your simulation to answer the question from the
STATE step.
4.2 probability rules
- Two events are mutually exclusive or disjoint if they cannot occur at the same time.
- The probability that Event A occurs, given that Event B has occurred, is called a
conditional probability. The conditional probability of Event A, given Event B, is
denoted by the symbol P(A|B).
- The complement of an event is the event not occurring. The probability that Event A
will not occur is denoted by P(AC).
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
- The probability that Events A and B both occur is the probability of the intersection of A
and B. The probability of the intersection of Events A and B is denoted by P(A ∩ B). If
Events A and B are mutually exclusive, P(A ∩ B) = 0.
- The probability that Events A or B occur is the probability of the union of A and B. The
probability of the union of Events A and B is denoted by P(A ∪ B) .
- If the occurrence of Event A changes the probability of Event B, then Events A and B
are dependent. On the other hand, if the occurrence of Event A does not change the
probability of Event B, then Events A and B are independent.
Formulas
- Test for Independence
- P(A) = P(A I B)
- Addition Rule
- P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
- Multiplication Rule for All Events:
- P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B I A)
- Multiplication Rule for Independent Events:
- P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B)
- Conditional Probability
- P(A I B) = P(A and B) / P(B)
- At least once
- P(A happens at least once) = 1 - P(A does not happen)
4.3 Conditional Probability and Independence
- Conditional probability: P(A|B) This is read, find probability of A, given B.
- Independence: Suppose P(A)>0 and P(B)>0. Then events A and B are independent
events if and only if, P(A|B)=P(A) or, equivalently P(B|A)= P(B).
- If two events are independent we can use: P(A and B)= P(A) · P(B)
- To prove independence for a joint probability distribution P(A|B)=P(A) must be proven
for every event probability. If A and B are not independent then they are dependent.
- Only if A and B are independent:
√(SD(a))
2
- S D(a + b) = SD(a − b) = + (SD(b))2
- v ar(a + b) = var(a − b) = var(a) + var(b)
4.4 discrete vs continuous random variables
- Random variable: variable that has a single numerical value for each trial/ experiment.
There are two main types, these are Discrete Random Variable and the Continuous
Random Variable.
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
● Discrete Random Variable - Something that has a countable number of
outcomes (number of touchdowns scored in a football game)
● Continuous Random Variable - Measurable outcomes; infinitely many
(The time it takes a player to complete the video game Far Cry 4)
4.4.1 Discrete Random Variables
robability histogram to represent the probability
To show probability, we can use a p
model.
● This is because each outcome has a specific probability to it.
○ Number of heads flipped, baby genders, etc.
4.4.2 Continuous Random Variables
To show probability, we can use a density curve to represent the probability model.
4.5 Transforming and Combining Random Variables
4.5.1 Rules for Means
- E (x±C) = E(x) ± C
- E (ax) = a × E (x)
- E (x±y) = E(x) ± E(y)
4.5.2 Rules for Variances
- v ar(x±C) = var(x)
- v ar(ax) = a2 × v ar(x)
- v ar(x + y ) = var(x − y) = var(x) + var(y)
4.5.3 Rules for SD
- S D(x±C) = SD(x)
- S D(ax) = a × S D(x)
√(SD(x))
2
- S D(x + y ) = S D(x − y) = + (SD(y))2
4.6 binomial and geometric variables
4.6.1 Binomial Variables
For a statistical experiment to be a binomial experiment, it must meet these four
conditions (BINS):
● Binary - Each outcome is either a success (P) or a failure (Q).
● Independence - All trials are independent of each other
● Number - There are a fixed number, n, of trials.
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
● Success - The probability of success, p, is the same for each trial.
Definitions:
● When describing a binomial distribution, use the notation B(n, p).
● Binomial random variable: The number of successes, x, in n repeated trials of a
binomial experiment.
● Binomial distribution: The probability distribution of a binomial random variable.
Examples of binomial distributions:
● The number of male or female births in the next 20 births at a local hospital
● The amount of successful free throws in the next 30 free throws
● The total correct answers on a 10-question multiple-choice exam when guessing
at the answers
● The number of people who show up for a flight when 100 tickets are sold
Test checklist:
1. Check the 4 conditions
2. Verify the conditions in the text with context, eg: “Yes. There is success or failure
(win a prize or don't win a prize), there is a fixed number of trials (n = 52), each
lottery ticket's outcome is independent of one another, and there is a constant
probability (p = 0.1).”
3. Describe your data using the notation B(n, p) -- where n is number and p is
probability. Eg: B(52, 0.1)
Crucial formulas -- Binomial Distribution: Where is equal to the factorial
Cumulative Binomial Distribution: Add the probabilities. For instance, P(X > 3) with n = 5 is P(X
= 3) + P(X = 4) + P(X = 5)
Essential Calculator Usage: BinomCDF vs. BinomPDF (Ti84)
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
Test tip: Explain all inputs and outputs in words and proper symbolization. Include the context
of the question
Translator:
HOW TO ANSWER FRQ:
- STATE: define variables
- PLAN:
- State model binom(n,p)
- Check conditions (BINS)
- DO: find probability using calculator functions above
4.6.2 Geometric Distribution
- Continue until success occurs
- Check BIFS
- Binary
- Independent
- First success
- Same probability of success
- Shape
- Always right skewed
- Center
- 1/probability of success
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
- Basically on average how many tries it will take
- Variability
- Standard deviation is square root of 1-probability of success over probability of
success
- To calculate probability that the number of tries equals x, you multiply the probability
that he does not succeed the number of times that the try failed, and then you multiply
it again by the probability that it succeeded
- If the probability of success is .4, and you want to calculate the probability that it
takes 4 tries, multiply .6 three times and then multiply it by .4
- geometpdf(prob of success, number of tries)
- To calculate probability that the number of tries is less than or equal to x, you can add
up all the individual probabilities
- geometcdf(prob of success, number of tries that can be equal or less than)
- No combinations
- Conditions:
- Binary - fail or success
- Independence - 10% condition
- Success? - prob is always the same
- Formulas
- Mean:
- Standard deviation:
HOW TO ANSWER FRQ
- STATE: define variables, define what you want to find (e.g. P(x≤3)
- PLAN: conditions + state model geom(p,x)
- DO: using technology geometcdf(p,x) = __
- CONCLUDE: The probability that ___ is found within _____ is ______.
5. Sampling Distributions
5.1 What is a Sampling Distribution
- Sampling distribution of a statistic is the distribution of all the possible samples of a
given size from a given population
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
- Unbiased estimator: if on average the value of the estimator is equivalent to the given
population parameter
- Biased estimator: systematically underestimating or overestimating the parameter.
5.2 Sample Proportions
- Shape: In some cases, the sampling distribution of can be approximated by a Normal
curve. This seems to depend on both the sample size n and the popula- tion proportion
p.
- Center: The mean of the distribution is mp ^ = p . This makes sense because the sample
proportion p ^ is an unbiased estimator o f p.
- Spread: For a specific value of p , the standard deviation s p ^ gets smaller as n gets
larger. The value of s p ^ depends on both n a nd p .
- To sort out the details of shape and spread, we need to make an important connection
︿
between the sample proportion p and the number of “successes” X i n the sample.
HOW TO SOLVE FRQ:
- STATE:
- Point estimator
- Point estimate
- PLAN:
- If needed: check 10% condition to find standard deviation
- DO: whatever the problem asks for
- CONCLUDE: write results in sentence form
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
5.3 Sample Means
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
6. Inference for Categorical Data: Proportions
6.1 Confidence Intervals for Proportions
An interval of values should be used to estimate parameters, in order to account for
uncertainty.
Overview: construct a confidence interval for a proportion, p, as the statistic, p̂, plus and
minus a margin of error.
CONDITIONS TO BE MET FOR THESE PROCEDURES:
- Random? - random sample/random assignment
- Independent? - 10% rule
- Normal? - Large counts (np and nq both greater than or equal to 10) (for two sample
remember to check both!)
Confidence INTERVAL Confidence LEVEL “C”
A range of results from a poll, experiment, or The probability that if a poll/test/survey were
survey that would be expected to contain the repeated over and over again, the results
population parameter of interest. obtained would be the same.
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
Key Words: Range, an interval, from this to Key words: “Capture” the true…
that.
6.1.1 1 Proportion
(1-p hat) is equivalent to q hat! This is the goated equation.
Remember that with proportions we only use z intervals!
Margin of error:
Table - Z-Scores for Commonly Used Confidence Intervals
Desired Confidence Interval Z Score
90% 1.645
95% 1.96
99% 2.576
HOW TO ANSWER FRQ:
- STATE:
- Define parameters and C-level
- PLAN:
- Check conditions
- State procedure that will be used
- DO:
- Find z*: This can be done through your invNorm function on a TI-84!
2ND-VARS-3. Set the appropriate boundary and make sure the mean is zero
and the SD is one!
- You can also use 1-PropZInt on a TI-84! X is the number of successes
rounded to a whole number, n is sample size, and c-level is confidence level.
- TI-84: STAT → TEST → A: 1-PropZInt
- Finding sample size for margin of error? USE 0.5 FOR P AND Q!!!
- For a population proportion, the width of the interval is proportional to 1/sqrt(n)
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
- CONCLUDE:
- “We are (c-level)% confident that the true proportion of (context) is between
(lower bound, upper bound). “
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
6.1.2 2 Proportion
The procedure is practically the same as the one sample!
CONDITIONS TO BE MET FOR THESE PROCEDURES:
- Random? - random sample/random assignment
- Independent? - 10% rule
- Normal? - Large counts (n1p,n1q, n2p, and n2q are greater than or equal to 10)
HOW TO SOLVE FRQ
- STATE:
- Define parameters and C-level
- PLAN:
- Check conditions
- State procedure that will be used
- DO:
- 2-PropZInt on TI-84 can also solve this! STAT-TEST-B
- Write out formula, but do calculations in calculator
- TI-84: STAT → TEST → B: 2-PropZInt
- x=number of successes, n=sample size, and c-level = confidence level.
- CONCLUDE: “We are (c-level)% confident that the true difference in proportion of
(context) is between (lower bound, upper bound).”
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
6.2 Z-Tests for Proportions
Errors and its significance when dealing with Significance Tests.
- Type 1 Error: Reject H0 when H0 is true
Memory Cue: Hoes are bad girls. You reject a girl, thinking you have rejected a hoe. But
actually, they are not hoes. They are your soulmate. You committed the primary and
important error! It is a type ONE error! NOOO!
- Type 2 Error: Fail to reject H0 when H0 is not true
Memory Cue: You FAIL TO (2) like TWO reject the Ho, when it is false! Oh no!
CONDITIONS TO BE MET FOR THESE PROCEDURES:
- Random? - random sample/random assignment
- Independent? - 10% rule
- Normal? - Large counts (np and nq both greater than or equal to 10)
6.2.1 1 Proportion
HOW TO RESPOND ONE PROPORTION TEST FRQ
- STATE:
- Population → optional
- Parameter of interest (we want to find...) → optional
- Ho
- Ha + Context and defining variables
- State α level
- PLAN:
- Prove conditions
- State procedure that will be used
- DO:
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
- State z score
-
- State p-value
- Calculate using normalcdf
- CONCLUDE:
- We fail to reject/reject H0 as there is (not) convincing evidence that H0 is false/true. +
context
6.2.2 2 Proportion
HOW TO RESPOND TWO PROPORTION TEST FRQ
- STATE:
- Population → optional
- Parameter of interest (we want to find...) → optional
- Ho
- Ha + Context and defining variables
- State α level
- PLAN:
- Prove conditions
- State procedure that will be used
- DO:
- State z score
-
- State p-value
- Calculate using normalcdf
- CONCLUDE:
- We fail to reject/reject H0 as there is (not) convincing evidence that H0 is false/true. +
context
7. Inference for Quantitative Data: Means
Conditions
● Randomization Condition: The data arise from a random sample or suitably randomized
experiment. Randomly sampled data (particularly from an SRS) are ideal.
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
● 10% Condition: When a sample is drawn without replacement, the sample should be no
more than 10% of the population.
● Nearly Normal Condition: The data come from a distribution that is unimodal and
symmetric. Check this condition by making a histogram or Normal probability plot.
7.1 Confidence Intervals for Means
Now that we know how to create confidence intervals and test hypotheses about
eans. Just as we did before, we
proportions, it’d be nice to be able to do the same for m
will base both our confidence interval and our hypothesis test on the sampling distribution
model.
Confidence INTERVAL Confidence LEVEL “C”
A range of results from a poll, experiment, or The probability that if a poll/test/survey were
survey that would be expected to contain the repeated over and over again, the results
population parameter of interest. obtained would be the same.
Key Words: Range, an interval, from this to Key words: “Capture” the true…
that.
7.1.1 1 Sample
One sample t-interval for the mean.
FIRST, make sure the conditions are met. After they are, then we are ready to find the
confidence interval for the population mean, μ.
The confidence interval is
When the standard error of the mean is
The critical value depends on the particular confidence level, C, that you specify and on the
number of degrees of freedom, n – 1, which we get from the sample size.
7.1.2 2 Sample
Two-Sample t-interval
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
When the conditions are met, we are ready to find the confidence interval for the difference
between means of two independent groups, 1 – 2.
The confidence interval is
where the standard error of the difference of the means is
The critical value t*df depends on the particular confidence level, C, that you specify and on
the number of degrees of freedom, which we get from the sample sizes and a special formula.
7.2 T-Tests for Sample
Errors and its significance when dealing with Significance Tests.
- Type 1 Error: Reject H0 when H0 is true
Memory Cue: Hoes are bad girls. You reject a girl, thinking you have rejected a hoe. But
actually, they are not hoes. They are your soulmate. You committed the primary and
important error! It is a type ONE error! NOOO!
- Type 2 Error: Fail to reject H0 when H0 is not true
Memory Cue: You FAIL TO (2) like TWO reject the Ho, when it is false! Oh no!
Steps
1) STATE Parameter Of Interest (optional)
2) Define parameters (NOT OPTIONAL)
3) Write the appropriate hypotheses
4) Check conditions/assumptions
5) State procedure to be used (one/two sample t test)
6) Find mean and standard deviation
7) Find the p-value
8) Explain the p-value in context
9) State your conclusion
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
7.2.1 1 Sample
One sample t-test for the mean
STATE:
- H0 (always =)
- HA +
context (≠, <, >)
- Define parameters
- State α level
PLAN:
- Check conditions
- State procedure to be used
DO:
- We test the hypothesis H0: = 0 using the statistic
The standard error of the sample mean is
When the conditions are met and the null hypothesis is true, this statistic follows a Student’s t
model with n – 1 df. We use that model to obtain a P-value.
- Ti84: STAT → TEST → 2: T-Test
CONCLUDE:
- “Since p value = __ [logic symbol] α = ___, we fail to reject/reject H0. There is not
enough/enough statistically significant evidence that ________.”
StudyResources AP Statistics Review Sheet. [Link]
7.2.2 2 Sample
Two-sample T-test for Means
STATE:
- H0 (always
=)
- HA + context
- Define parameters
- State α level
PLAN:
- Check conditions
- State procedure to be used
We test the hypothesis H0:1 – 2 = 0, where the hypothesized
difference, 0, is almost always 0, using the statistic
The standard error is
When the conditions are met and the null hypothesis is true, this statistic can be closely
modeled by a Student’s t-model with a number of degrees of freedom given by a special
formula. We use that model to obtain a P-value.
- Ti84: STAT → TEST → 4: 2-SampleTTest
CONCLUDE:
- “Since p value = __ [logic symbol] α = ___, we fail to reject/reject H0. There is not
enough/enough statistically significant evidence that ________.”
