SEMICONDUCTOR
Moises B. Alvarez Jr., ECE
Insulators
► In an insulator, all of the electrons are either
tightly wrapped around the nuclei, or they are
locked into bonds between atoms.
► Since no electrons or ions can move, the material
is an insulator.
► Examples:
▪ Silicon dioxide
▪ Plastic
▪ Glass
Conductors
► Conductors have loosely bound electrons in their
outer shell.
► These large number of electrons are free to
move.
► These electrons require a small amount of energy
to free them for conduction.
Semiconductor
►A material which has a resistance in between that
of a conductor and insulator.
► Semiconductor in its purest form is known as
Intrinsic Semiconductor.
► Semiconductor containing impurities is known as
Extrinsic Semiconductor.
► Theirelectrons are not free to move but a little
energy will free them for conduction
► The two most common semiconductors are silicon
and germanium
Semiconductor Materials
► Atom is consist of Nucleus which has positive
charges and electrons which have negative charge
and move around the nucleus in elliptical path
► Electrons in the outermost shell is known
asValence Electrons.
► Silicon has a valency of 4 i.e. 4 electrons in its
outer shell.
► Each Silicon atoms shares its four outer electrons
with four neighbouring atom.
► These shared
electrons – bonds
– are shown as
horizontal and
vertical lines
between the
atoms
(Shared Electrons)
(Valence Electrons)
Silicon Atomic Structure
The Silicon, Si, Atom
Silicon has a valency of 4 This picture shows the
i.e. 4 electrons in its outer shared electrons
shell
Each silicon atom shares its
4 outer electrons with 4
neighbouring atoms
These shared electrons –
bonds – are shown as
horizontal and vertical lines
between the atoms
Slide 7
► If we extend this arrangement throughout a piece of silicon,
we will have the crystal lattice of silicon.
► The form of bond that holds the lattice together is called
covalent bond.
► It has no free electrons – it cannot conduct electricity –
therefore it behaves like an insulator
► It is possible for the Free electron
valence electrons to
absorb sufficient kinetic
energy from natural
causes to break the
covalent bond and
assume “free state”.
► Free electrons in the
material due to natural
causes are referred to as
“intrinsic carriers”.
► It is then available for
conduction and is free to
travel throughout the
material.
• Free carriers at room temperature of certain
intrinsic materials
► SILICON = 1.5 x 10 10 carriers / cubic centimeter
► GERMANIUM = 2.5 x 10 13 carriers / cubic centimeter
▪ An increase in temperature of a semi-conductor can
result in a substantial increase in numbers of free
electrons.
Electron Movement in Silicon
However, if we apply a
little heat to the silicon….
An electron may gain
enough energy to break
free of its bond…
It is then available for
conduction and is free to
travel throughout the
material
Slide
Hole Movement in Silicon
Let’s take a closer look at
what the electron has left
behind
There is a gap in the
bond – what we call a
hole
Let’s give it a little more
character…
Slide
Hole Movement in Silicon
This hole can also move…
An electron – in a nearby
bond – may jump into
this hole…
Effectively causing the
hole to move…
Like this…
Slide
Heating Silicon
We have seen that, in
silicon, heat releases
electrons from their
bonds…
This creates electron-
hole pairs which are
then available for
conduction
Slide
Intrinsic Conduction
Take a piece of silicon…
And apply a potential
difference across it…
This sets up an electric
field throughout the
silicon – seen here as
dashed lines
When heat is applied an electron is released
and…
Slide
Intrinsic Conduction
The electron feels a force
and moves in the electric
field
It is attracted to the
positive electrode and re-
emitted by the negative
electrode
Slide
Intrinsic Conduction
Now, let’s apply some
more heat…
Another electron breaks
free…
And moves in the electric
field.
We now have a greater
current than before…
And the silicon has less
resistance…
Slide
Intrinsic Conduction
If more heat is applies
the process continues…
More heat…
More current…
Less resistance…
The silicon is acting as a
thermistor
Its resistance decreases with
temperature
Slide
Extrinsic Materials
► Current induced in pure semiconductor are
relatively small. Conductivity of a semiconductor
can be greatly increased when small amount of
impurities are introduced into the crystal. This
process is called “DOPING”.
► There are two extrinsic materials of immeasurable
importance to semiconductor device fabrication:
The N – type and P – type materials.
N – Type Material
► Created by introducing those impurity elements
that has five valence electrons (pentavalent), such
as antimony, arsenic and phosphorous.
► Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are
called donor atom.
► It is referred to as N-type material because the
majority charge carriers are negative electrons.
Phosphorous Atom
Silicon Atom Doped w/
Phosphorous Atom
Doped Silicon Lattice
P – Type Material
► Created by introducing those impurity elements
that has three valence electrons (tetravalent),
such as boron, gallium and indium.
► Diffused impurities with three valence electrons
are called acceptor atom.
► It is referred to as P-type material because the
majority charge carriers are Positive holes.
Boron Atom
Silicon Atom Doped w/
Boron Atom
Doped Silicon Lattice
The P-N Junction
• Suppose we join a piece of p-type silicon to a
piece of n-type silicon, we get what is called the P-
N junction.
The P-N Junction
Suppose we join a piece of p-type silicon to a
piece of n-type silicon
We get what is called a p-n junction
Remember – both pieces are electrically neutral
The p-n Junction
When initially joined
electrons from the
n-type migrate into the p-
type – less electron density
there
When an electron fills a
hole – both the electron
and hole disappear as the
gap in the bond is filled
This leaves a region with no free charge carriers – the depletion layer – this layer
acts as an insulator
The p-n Junction 0.7 V
As the p-type has gained
electrons – it is left with
an overall negative
charge…
As the n-type has lost
electrons – it is left with
an overall positive
charge…
Therefore there is a voltage across the junction – the junction voltage – for
silicon this is approximately 0.7 V
The Reverse Biased P-N Junction
Take a p-n junction
Apply a voltage
across it with the
p-type negative
n-type positive
Close the switch
The voltage sets up
an electric field
throughout the
junction
The junction is said to be reverse – biased
The Reverse Biased P-N Junction
Negative electrons in
the n-type feel an
attractive force which
pulls them away from
the depletion layer
Positive holes in the p-
type also experience an
attractive force which
pulls them away from
the depletion layer
Thus, the depletion layer ( INSULATOR ) is widened
and no current flows through the
p-n junction
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
Take a p-n junction
Apply a voltage
across it with the
p-type postitive
n-type negative
Close the switch
The voltage sets up
an electric field
throughout the
junction
The junction is said to be forward
– biased
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
Negative electrons in
the n-type feel a
repulsive force which
pushes them into the
depletion layer
Positive holes in the p-
type also experience a
repulsive force which
pushes them into the
depletion layer
Therefore, the depletion layer is eliminated and a
current flows through the p-n junction
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
At the junction
electrons fill holes
Both disappear as
they are no longer
free for conduction
They are replenished
by the external cell
and current flows
This continues as long as the external voltage is greater
than the junction voltage i.e. 0.7 V
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
If we apply a higher
voltage…
The electrons feel a
greater force and
move faster
The current will be
greater and will look
like
this….
The arrow shows the
The p-n junction is called a DIODE and is direction in which it
represented by the symbol… conducts current
END
Next topic DIODE…..
