LESSON 11

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

Are those characteristics which are determinable only after the manufacture of the
firearm. They are characteristics whose existence is beyond the control of man and
which have random distribution. Their existence in a firearm is brought about by the
tools in their normal operation resulting through wear and tear, abuse, mutilation,
corrosion, erosion and other fortuitous causes.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION OF BULLETS

A. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surfaces of their bores all
possess individual and characteristics markings of their own.

B. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the rifling and
this engraving will vary in its minute details with every individual bore. So it
happens that the engravings on the bullet fired from one barrel will be different
from that on a similar bullet fired from another barrel. And conversely, the
engraving on bullets fired from the same barrel will be the same.

C. Every barrel leaves its thumb mark on every bullet which is fired through it, just
as every breech face leaves its thumb mark on the base of every fired cartridge
case.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION OF BULLETS

1. The breech face and striker of every single firearm leave microscopically individual of
their own.

2. The firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb mark” on every cartridge case which it
fires.

3. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact since the breech face of
every weapon must be individually distinct; the cartridge cases which it fires are
imprinted with this individuality. The imprint on all are always the same, those on
cartridge cases fired from difference weapons must always be different.
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS

1. LANDMARKS – depressed portion caused by the lands.

2. GROOVEMARKS – raised on elevated portions caused by the grooves.

La ndmark

Groove mark
 3. SKIDMARKS – when the bullet enters the rifled bore from a stationary position
and is forced abruptly into the rifling, its natural tendency is to go straight toward
before encountering the regular rifling twist.

4. SLIPPAGE MARKS – bullets fired from a worn-out barrel, oily barrels and
slightly over-sized barrels.

5. SHAVING MARKS – most commonly these marks are found on bullets fired from
a revolver due to a poor alignment of the cylinder with the bore.

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS

Page 2

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED CARTRIDGE CASES

1. FIRING PIN IMPRESSION – the indentation in the primer of a center-fire

cartridge case or in the rim of a rim-fire cartridge case cause when it is struck by
the firing pin.
 2. BREECH FACE MARKINGS – negative impression of the breech face of the
firearm on the head of the cartridge case after firing.

Gas pressure created during the firing process exerts pressure in all directions,
including forcing the head of the cartridge against the breech face. Hence, the surface
area of the cartridge head may pick up negative impressions of any linear striations or
other features left on the breech face when it is filed and machined. Some of these
marks may register on the relatively hard cartridge brass that forms the outer ring (head
stamp area) of the cartridge case, but most of the features show up in the softer surface
of the primer cap. Hence, what is known as the breech face mark is the pattern of linear
striations and other textural features on the surface of the primer, surrounding the
indentation of the firing pin impression.

Breech Block
3. CHAMBER MARKS – individual microscope placed upon a cartridge case by the
chamber wall as a result of any or all of the following:

a. Chambering

b. Expanding during firing

c. Extraction
4. EXTRACTOR MARKS – tool marks produced upon a cartridge or cartridges case on
the head, generally at or near the rim, from contact with the ejector.

Note: Among the marks found on the fired cartridge the most reliable is the firing pin
mark. Because some firearm user just refilled the empty cartridge after firing that’s why
it happens that there are many striations on the shell that very hard to examine, not
unless the evidence cartridge case found are brand new.

TOOL MARKS IDENTIFICATION

TWO GENERAL TYPES OF TOOLS MARKS

1. IMPRESSION TYPE

Which as its name implies a little more than a dent. A pry – bar may leave an
impression – type mark on a window frame to which it is applied. The shape and size of
the mark, plus irregularities caused by nicks or breaks in the pry bar, may be such as to
permit a positive statement as to its source.

2. STRAITED TOOL MARK

Is left by a tool scraping over an object or surface softer than itself. Thus, a pry bar
which slips during application may scrape over the jamb of a door, leaving striae. Tin
snips or bolt cutters have blades which frequently leave striae on the edges of metal
cut. An axe will leave striae on wood chips, as well as an auger or blade of a plane.
Mechanical tools such as planer, joiner and lathe all have blades and edges which
leave striae on chips, shavings, and stock being worked. Many examples could be given
but these are typical if the tools most commonly encountered in criminal investigations.
Striated marks are often referred to a “Friction Marks, Abrasion Marks or Scratch
Marks.”
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF STRIATIONS DEPEND UPON THE FOLLOWING
FACTORS

1. The size and shape of the microscope irregularities on the acting tool.
2. The original surface smoothness of the object acted upon.
3. Relative hardness of the two materials.
4. Speed of application or rate of relative motion.
5. Pressure areas involved.
6. Texture and uniformity of material acted upon.

METHODS OF EXAMINATION ON IMPRESSION – TYPE MARK

1. A comparison may be made between the impression and the tool itself.
2. The comparison may be made between the impression in evidence and a test
impression made by the suspected tool.
LESSON 12

ACQUIRING TEST BULLETS/CARTRIDGE CASES

1. Function.

1. Load firearm with one cartridge.

2. Announce intention to fire.
3. Discharge firearm.

2. Bullet recovery.

 Properly mark cartridge case and bullets.

 Full automatic firing.

2. Determine appropriate recovery medium (water, cotton, etc.).

3. Load firearm with one marked cartridge.
4. Place the firearm into the recovery system firing opening.
5. Announce intention to fire.
6. Discharge the firearm.
7. Repeat steps c – f until number of test fires required (by laboratory policy)
is complete.
8. Recover bullets and cartridge cases.

3. Additional Testing.

2. Single-action.
3. Double-action operation.

Note:
When testing for firearm function of semiautomatic pistols and full automatic firearms, more
than one cartridge should be used. Laboratory protocol should be followed for this functionality
testing.

Special Considerations
Revolvers In double-action revolvers with the capability of operating in single- or
double-action mode, test fires should be obtained using both modes;
markings may vary depending on the mode of discharge.

Multi-barreled In multi-barrel firearms, each barrel must be test fired; marked

firearms bullets/cartridges must be readily identifiable back to the barrel and
breech that discharged them.

Rifles High-powered rifles can present difficulties in the recovery of fired

bullets due to potential bullet fragmentation. Refer to laboratory policy for
the correct methodology.

Firearms unsafe Using casting material, cast the barrel or the breech face firing area to
to discharge provide microscopic detail for examination and comparison.

Drop Testing

When firearms submitted to the crime laboratory are involved in an alleged accidental
discharge case, a special test may be required. If a defect is not discovered during the
basic examination that supports an accidental discharge, an additional test, called the
drop test is performed.

This test enables the examiner to determine if there is a possibility the firearm will
discharge if dropped. This is a time-consuming examination, which has potential to
damage the tested firearm. Therefore, when necessary, it should be the last
examination conducted.

The results of the following drop test examination should be documented:

 Place a one-inch-thick rubber pad onto a solid floor (such as concrete).

 Place a primed cartridge case in the chamber that will receive the hammer strike.
 ** the firearm.
 Disengage the external safety.
 Drop the firearm from a height of about three feet onto the pad.
 Test all positions of the firearm - top, bottom, left side, right side, rear, and
muzzle. (Before each drop, the primed case should be checked for firing pin
indentations and the findings recorded.)

There are two possible outcomes.

The primed case does not detonate, indicating that the firearm will not discharge when
dropped.

The primed case detonates:

  Field strips the firearm.
 Examine the major internal components to determine if there are any broken or
missing parts.

Shock Test

Dead blow hammer

SK Hand Tool Corporation

A modification of the drop test can be conducted using a dead blow hammer. The shock
test is performed as outlined for the drop test with one exception. Instead of dropping
the firearm onto the rubber mat, the firearm is struck with the dead blow hammer.

The following applies to both drop testing and shock testing:

 If the firearm is a double-action type, it should be tested in both single- and double-action
modes.
 If the firearm has an external safety device, it should be tested with the safety engaged.

How It’s Done

Firearms Evidence that May be Found

The range of evidence in firearms-related cases can be as small as a piece of a bullet

fragment which has rifling marks or as large as hundreds of bullets and cartridge cases
and numerous firearms. Even from small samples, information can be developed to
indicate the type of firearm used and possibly identify the actual firearm that was used.

Other firearms evidence that could be found at a shooting scene includes shotshell
wads and shot pellets; these can indicate the gauge of the shotgun. Wads and pellets
can be gathered and preserved in the same manner as bullets and cartridge cases.
By examining wadding materials, the examiner may be able to determine the gauge of
the shotgun the manufacturer or marketer a range of possible shot sizes based on
impressions in the shotshell wad individual characteristics (in some cases)

Gunshot residues fall into two categories.

 The first type is gathered from the suspected shooter’s hands with a collection
kit. The purpose of the examination is to determine if a person has recently
handled or fired a weapon. Since it doesn’t determine which firearm was fired or
when, this testing has limited value, and many laboratories have stopped
performing these examinations.
 The second type looks for residues on items such as a victim’s clothing in an
effort to determine the muzzle-to-target distance. Many times, this type of
evidence is not visible to the naked eye and requires microscopic examination
and chemical testing to develop. The victim’s clothing must be handled with care,
air dried and stored in paper containers in order to provide useful evidence.

Propellants and other gunshot residues expelled during the firing process. (Courtesy of
Jack Dillon)

How the Samples are Collected

Firearms evidence can be recovered in a number of ways and areas. Firearms

themselves can be recovered at shooting scenes by crime scene investigators and sent
to the laboratory. Bullets, bullet fragments, cartridge cases, shotshell wadding, etc., are
normally collected individually after proper documentation/photography and sent to the
laboratory. Bullet evidence can also be obtained at autopsy or in an emergency room
setting. In these cases, the sample should be marked as a biohazard and then sent to
the laboratory. Each laboratory has written procedures for packaging and submitting
evidence.

Bullets/slugs that do not strike a person are often imbedded into a nearby surface such
as wood/drywall. This evidence is best gathered by cutting out a section of the material
and submitting it to the laboratory to allow a firearms examiner to carefully extract it.
This prevents adding or destroying any markings that could be crucial to identifying or
matching the suspected firearm.

Who Conducts the Analysis

A well-trained firearms examiner should perform the evaluation and comparison of this
evidence. These examiners will have received extensive training on all matter of
firearms and ammunition manufacturing; evidence detection, recovery, handling and
examination procedures; comparison microscope equipment and procedures;
courtroom testimony and legal issues; and casework.
How and Where the Analysis is Performed

Most examinations are performed by crime laboratory employees who are trained to
conduct this type of examination. However, there are private laboratories/companies
that can also perform this type of examination for a fee; often these are staffed by
retired examiners. Whichever is selected, the evidence needs to be submitted for
examination along with any firearms collected following the policies and procedures set
down by the submitting agency.

Actual items of evidence are submitted to either crime laboratories or private

laboratories according to the requesting agency’s policies and procedures. These items
should be submitted in a manner that follows good chain-of-custody protocols.

The laboratory will have certain items of equipment available to conduct the
examinations required. Measuring devices such as calipers and balances are used to
weigh and measure bullet evidence. Stereo microscopes are used to determine basic
class characteristics of fired bullets, bullet fragments and cartridge/shotshell cases. A
comparison microscope is used for the examination of fired bullets, bullet fragments and
cartridge/shotshell cases. Equipment used for the examination of firearms include the
above items plus special equipment to measure the trigger pull of the firearm and
examine the interior of the barrel. Also, there must be facilities to test-fire the submitted
firearm and recover fired bullets and cartridge cases. Most laboratories use a water
recovery method, which is a large tank of water with a port into which the firearm is
discharged. There are other systems used as well, such as metal boxes containing
cotton waste material.

Examiner using a comparison microscope to analyze two .22 caliber casings. (Courtesy
of NFSTC)
LESSON 13

Crime Scene processing for firearms, bullet, cartridge case, ammunition, and
firearm accessories in the crime scene.

SHOOTING SCENE RECONSTRUCTION

Shooting incidents are dynamic and varied, as is the evidence produced during such an
event. At shooting scenes, the crime scene team will identify, reconstruct, and
document projectile paths, called trajectories, based on impact marks including
penetrating, perforating, or non-penetrating points of impact. Reconstruction of a
shooting incident relies on careful examination and processing of a scene for pertinent
physical evidence including defects and holes caused by projectiles. Accurate
reconstruction typically requires the identification and collection of associated evidence
and its subsequent analysis in the Laboratory.

The examination of defects and holes caused by projectiles from firearms can provide
information useful in the reconstruction of a shooting incident. Observations of impact
sites can provide information about the projectile, the firearm, intermediate objects in
the path of the projectile, direction of travel of the projectile, order of shots and other
information. In some circumstances, the trajectory of the projectile may be determined,
and this can assist in determining possible positions from where a shot originated as
well as locating additional items of forensic significance such as cartridge cases.

FIREARMS EVIDENCE COLLECTION PROCEDURES

Firearms evidence is usually encountered in crimes against persons such as homicide,

assault and robbery; but may also be found in other crimes such as burglary, rape, and
narcotics violations. While comparisons of bullets and cartridge cases to specific
firearms are the most common examinations requested, other examinations are
possible such as: distance determinations based on powder residue or shot spread;
examination of firearms for functioning or modification; sequence of shots fired and
trajectories; list of possible weapons used; serial number restoration and ownership
tracing.

Evidence of firing or handling a firearm may be detected through the analysis of gunshot
residue.

collected from a person’s hands or other body surfaces.

EVIDENCE FIREARMS-HANDLING AND SAFETY:

The location and condition of firearms and related evidence at a crime scene should be
diagramed and photographed before recovering and securing. Although physical
evidence is important, safety must

be the first consideration. Each situation should be evaluated before deciding to unload
an evidence firearm. (Caution, treat a firearm at all times as if it were loaded). If the
weapon is a type that can be

safely transported in a loaded condition, this can be done. However, depending on the
circumstances it may be unnecessary or unwise to transport a loaded firearm. It should
then be unloaded, with care taken to preserve all types of possible evidence. This
evidence includes fingerprints, blood, hair or fibers, cylinder "halos", and debris in the
barrel and/or cylinder. The weapon should be handled on those areas least likely to
retain latent fingerprints such as knurled or checkered areas.

UNLOADING REVOLVERS:

Prior to moving the cylinder, it should be marked to indicate its position as found. This
can be done by two pen or scribe marks on the top of the cylinder along each side of
the top strap of the frame. The position of each cartridge/case in the cylinder should be
recorded in field notes as diagramed below.

All cartridges/cases removed should be handled so as to preserve possible fingerprints.

Each cartridge case should be packaged separately and referenced to the information
in the field notes. Do not mark the actual cartridge/case.
FACING REAR OF CYLINDER

EXAMPLE NOTES

Chamber Position Condition Cartridge Head stamp e.g.

1 Fired U.S.C. Co.

2 Fired REM-UMC

3 Fired WRA

4 Misfired D.C. Co.

5 Loaded WESTERN

6 Loaded PETERS

UNLOADING SINGLE SHOT OR AUTOLOADING FIREARMS:

Before securing the firearm as evidence make a record of the position, as found, of any
safety, **ing indicator, loaded chamber indicator, selector, or other control feature. With
the firearm pointed in a safe direction, remove the magazine. Next, clear the chamber
by slowly drawing back the slide/bolt handle.

With the slide/bolt to the rear, examine the chamber visually to insure that no cartridge
is in the chamber. Separately package the firearm, any detachable magazine, and/or
extracted cartridges/cases. Again, take care to preserve any possible fingerprints or
trace evidence. Do not remove cartridges from the magazine, or mark the
cartridges/cases directly.
TRACE EVIDENCE AND FINGERPRINTS:

Examine the weapon for possible trace evidence such as blood, hair, fibers, tissue, or
paint that may be relevant. If it doubts, do not dust for prints. Submit in person to the
laboratory and request that the firearm be processed for prints.

TRANSPORTATION TO LABORATORY:

Personal delivery is preferred. A loaded handgun may be transported in a specially

constructed box which has a means of securely holding the firearm and has a metal
plate blocking the muzzle. If the firearm is to be sent by mail it must be unloaded and
securely packaged.

NOTE TAKING AND EVIDENCE MARKING:

Make a sketch of the area which shows the location of each evidence item collected.
The sketch should contain location measurements which reference each evidence item
to a fixed object or a reference point.

Photographs should be used to supplement notes and sketches, but not as a substitute
for them. For later identification the serial number of a firearm should be recorded.
Some older rifles and shotguns,

however, may not have a serial number. If the firearm is marked for identification by
scribing, the marks should be placed in a location were they will not damage the
appearance or value of the firearm.

BULLETS EMBEDDED IN WOOD OR PLASTER:

Do not attempt to dig a bullet out. Remove by cutting out a portion of tile material in
which the bullet is embedded. Send the piece of material containing the bullet to the
laboratory.

REMOVAL OF AN EVIDENCE BULLET FROM THE BODY OF A DECEASED

PERSON:

X-ray the body first. Ask the doctor not to use forceps, but, if possible, to use his fingers
or rubber tipped forceps to remove bullets. Bloody bullets should be washed in running
water without scrubbing. Do not wash a projectile if trace evidence might be present
such as may occur in a ricochet or deflection.
If a bullet is washed do not use a brush or other item for cleaning. After washing it is
IMPERATIVE bullets be dried prior to packaging. Dry the bullets by blotting (not rolling)
with a soft dry facial or toilet tissue. Sealing a bloody or wet bullet in an air-tight package
can cause corrosion of identifiable detail on the bullet. Wrap in soft tissue paper and
seal in a labeled paper envelope or box. Package each bullet separately. DO NOT
MARK the bullet or allow it to be marked. Mark the sealed container with a description
of the bullet and all other pertinent data. You may wish to make a sketch of the bullet for
your records. If you wish consultation on these procedures as they relate to your
specific case, call the local criminalistics laboratory.

FIRED CARTRIDGE CASES, WADS AND PELLETS:

CARTRIDGE CASES: It may be possible to determine the position of a shooter by the

location of ejected cartridge casings. Make a sketch with ACCURATE measurements of
the location of fired cartridge cases. Again, package each item separately and mark the
packages with the pertinent information.

SHOT WADS: When a shotgun is fired, the wads travel along with, or behind, the shot
charge for a short

distance. In those cases, involving close shots, wadding may be found in either the
victim's body or in his clothing. Follow same packaging procedure as for bullets.

SHOT PELLETS: For pellets embedded in wood, plastic, etc., handle in same manner
as bullets embedded in solid objects. If it is not possible to submit the material in which
pellets are embedded, pellets may be dug out, taking care not to mutilate them any
more than is absolutely necessary. In removal of pellets from the body of a deceased
person, x-rays can help locate the pellets. Use special care in recovering pellets so that
there will not be undue damage to them. Rubber-tipped forceps should be used. After
washing, wrap collected pellets in soft tissue paper and place in a labeled pill box, or
small envelope.

NOTE TAKING AND EVIDENCE MARKING:

Make a sketch of the area which shows the location of each evidence item collected.
The sketch should contain location measurements which reference each evidence item
to a fixed object or a reference point.
Photographs should be used to supplement notes and sketches, but not as a substitute
for them. For later identification the serial number of a firearm should be recorded.
Some older rifles and shotguns,

however, may not have a serial number. If the firearm is marked for identification by
scribing, the marks should be placed in a location were they will not damage the
appearance or value of the firearm.

BULLETS EMBEDDED IN WOOD OR PLASTER:

Do not attempt to dig a bullet out. Remove by cutting out a portion of tile material in
which the bullet is embedded. Send the piece of material containing the bullet to the
laboratory.

REMOVAL OF AN EVIDENCE BULLET FROM THE BODY OF A DECEASED

PERSON:

X-ray the body first. Ask the doctor not to use forceps, but, if possible, to use his fingers
or rubber tipped forceps to remove bullets. Bloody bullets should be washed in running
water without scrubbing. Do not wash a projectile if trace evidence might be present
such as may occur in a ricochet or deflection.

If a bullet is washed do not use a brush or other item for cleaning. After washing it is
IMPERATIVE bullets be dried prior to packaging. Dry the bullets by blotting (not rolling)
with a soft dry facial or toilet tissue. Sealing a bloody or wet bullet in an air-tight package
can cause corrosion of identifiable detail on the bullet. Wrap in soft tissue paper and
seal in a labeled paper envelope or box. Package each bullet separately. DO NOT
MARK the bullet or allow it to be marked. Mark the sealed container with a description
of the bullet and all other pertinent data. You may wish to make a sketch of the bullet for
your records. If you wish consultation on these procedures as they relate to your
specific case, call the local criminalistics laboratory.

FIRED CARTRIDGE CASES, WADS AND PELLETS:

CARTRIDGE CASES: It may be possible to determine the position of a shooter by the

location of ejected cartridge casings. Make a sketch with ACCURATE measurements of
the location of fired cartridge cases. Again, package each item separately and mark the
packages with the pertinent information.
SHOT WADS: When a shotgun is fired, the wads travel along with, or behind, the shot
charge for a short distance. In those cases, involving close shots, wadding may be
found in either the victim's body or in his clothing. Follow same packaging procedure as
for bullets.

SHOT PELLETS: For pellets embedded in wood, plastic, etc., handle in same manner
as bullets embedded in solid objects. If it is not possible to submit the material in which
pellets are embedded, pellets may be dug out, taking care not to mutilate them any
more than is absolutely necessary. In removal of pellets from the body of a deceased
person, x-rays can help locate the pellets. Use special care in recovering pellets so that
there will not be undue damage to them. Rubber-tipped forceps should be used. After
washing, wrap collected pellets in soft tissue paper and place in a labeled pill box, or
small envelope.

LOADED SHELLS OR CARTRIDGES: Collect and submit to the laboratory all

ammunition associated with a case. It can be used for test firing and distance
determinations. Exactly duplicating the ammunition used may be critical. Document
where such ammunition was found. If the number of cartridges are relatively few, they
can be handled in the same manner as fired bullets. Large quantities should be placed
in a cardboard box or wooden container. Label, seal, and deliver to the laboratory.

Note: Postal regulations prohibit shipment of explosive substances through the mail.
Loaded ammunition should be personally delivered or sent by UPS with the proper
warning labels.

DISTANCE DETERMINATIONS:

In some cases, such as suicides and alleged struggles for the gun, the distance
between the muzzle of the gun and the victim may become an issue and it will be
desirable to examine garments for powder residue and other indications of close firing.
For protection in transporting, the clothing of the victim should be rolled (after air drying)
with paper on each surface. Package separately so that the area surrounding the bullet
hole does not rub against other clothing or objects. When bullets have passed through
garments into the body, a clear photograph of the bullet hole positions in the victim is
desirable. Include a ruler in all photographs. Submit the firearm and the unfired
ammunition associated with the incident. The use of identical ammunition is an essential
part of firing distance determinations.

Firearms as evidence

Firearms and ballistic marching play an important role in criminal investigations, as

“every firearm tells a story”. The information required to depict their story can be
obtained from both the exterior and interior of a firearm, or from ammunition, and can be
used to further investigations and prosecutions which contribute to intelligence
gathering and analysis.

Firearms and their surrounding area at a crime scene can furnish a variety of evidence.
These crime scenes can include, but are not limited to any place where:

 A victim has sustained a firearms-related injury;

 A firearm has been criminally discharged;
 A firearm/firearm parts or components/ammunition/ammunition components
believed to have been used in or linked to a crime is discovered; and
 A firearm/firearm parts or components/ammunition has been unlawfully
manufactured, converted, or test fired.

A ‘crime gun’ is a firearm that is possessed unlawfully and/or has been used in the
commission of a crime. Proper examination and tracing (see below) of these items may:

Confirm/eliminate the weapon as the source of shots fired during the commission of a
crime;

 Enable the identification of persons of interest;

 Reveal links to related crimes;
 Indicate evidence of an illicit trafficking network; or
 Indicate evidence of illicit manufacturing.

Firearms-related evidence can be used both in relation to the main crime but can also
lead to the building of strong parallel criminal cases, such as international firearms
trafficking. Sometimes, one piece of evidence can help in both investigations. For
example, a ballistic comparison can confirm that a firearm was used in a murder case
but also in other crimes committed in another country, which is already an indicator of
the routing of that firearm.

Too often, the value of evidence that firearms, ballistics and ammunition provide is
overlooked in criminal investigations; enforcement operations stop at the point of
seizure or recovery. Yet, seized and recovered firearm-related items may themselves
provide critical evidence of a broad range of additional crimes, such as firearms
trafficking and illicit manufacturing.
Firearms chain of custody

Ensuring the chronological and careful documentation of evidence relating to a crime

scene, or alleged crime, is vital; this is known as the ‘chain-of-custody’. If during the
investigation, steps are taken to ensure ‘traceability and continuity’ of the evidence for
the duration of the investigation from crime scene to courtroom, it is possible to
establish its connection to an alleged crime (UNODC, 2009). It is important to preserve
the value of any evidence that is collected during an investigation. The chain-of-custody
can present a significant opportunity for error if it is not maintained correctly (UNODC,
2009).

Health and safety procedures are of paramount importance when arriving at crime
scenes and should remain a priority throughout the process, to ensure the safety of
officers and others present. Accordingly, crime scene examinations must be undertaken
with the support, guidance and supervision of suitably trained firearms and other
experts, and/or forensic firearms experts, who can help ensure all activity is safe while
not compromising potential forensic evidence.

Firearm identification

Firearms identification, as detailed in Module 2, is a fundamental step in firearms

trafficking investigations because it provides the essential elements for the unique
identification and tracing of the firearm.

There are at least five key identifiers of a firearm: the make, model, caliber,
manufacturer, and serial number. Other markings (import or proof house markings), the
year of manufacture or import, as well as additional specific characteristics, may
contribute to its identification.

Firearms identification can sometimes be challenging because of the large variety of

firearms producers, makes and models. Sometimes, the same producer may
manufacture different models of firearms with the same serial number. However, when
adding the make, model and caliber to the serial number, it will be possible to uniquely
identify and distinguish one firearm from another.
LESSON 14

MARKING THE EVIDENCE AND TEST FIRED BULLET/CARTRIDGE CASE, AND

FIREARMS

MARKING AND PRESERVING EVIDENCE

INVOLVING SHOOTING INCIDENT

MARKING AMMUNITION RECOVERED IN WEAPONS

REVOLVERS

FACING REAR OF CYLINDER

Scratch across on rear face of the cylinder to indicate the chamber position under
hammer and firing pin line with barrel when recovered. Then prepare diagram
numbering in clockwise direction the remaining chambers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.
Mark loaded and fired cartridges cases with initials, dates, and numbers to correspond
with numbered chambers in diagram.

Mark of Camber Position Condition Maker

Identification
CP/1 1 Fired Armscor

CP/2 2 Fired Armscor

CP/3 3 Fired Armscor

CP/4 4 Loaded Armscor

CP/5 5 Loaded Armscor

CP/6 6 Loaded Armscor

AUTO LOADING WEAPONS

 Remove magazine from auto loading weapons.

 Unload chamber.
 Mark magazine and cartridges with initials, date, and number to indicate cartridge
recovered from chamber and position of each in magazine.
 Check weapon, magazine, and cartridges for firing, but before test firing let
fingerprint examine conduct examination for possible present of latent print.
 Mark magazine and cartridges for fingerprints.

MARKING FIREARMS EXHIBITS FOR PURPOSES OF IDENTIFICATION

For marking use scriber needle, or sharp knife. As mark of identification use two initials
of recovering officer with date of recovery and item number. Do not use “X” as mark of
identification.

LOADED CARTRIDGES & FIRED CARTRIDGES CASE

Mark initials of recovering officers on side of cartridge case near mouth or inside mouth.
Do not mark or mutilate rim, head, or primer cup of fired cartridge cases.
For paper shot shells – loaded or fired – use either ink or indelible pencil to inscribe
initials of recovering officer on paper tube. For plastic empty shell you may use scriber
or pointed metal to scratch an initial for identification.

Mark initials of recovering officers on side of cartridge case near mouth or inside mouth.
Do not mark or mutilate rim, head, or primer cup of fired cartridge cases.

For paper shot shells – loaded or fired – use either ink or indelible pencil to inscribe
initials of recovering officer on paper tube. For plastic empty shell you may use scriber
or pointed metal to scratch an initial for identification.

FIRED BULLET

Mark on ogive near nose or base

Mark initials of recovering officer, date, and case involve, if possible, in area indicated.
Wrap bullets individually in clean cotton or tissue paper.

If more than one bullet is recovered, use initials of person recovering and date, case
involve and designate each bullet with letter of numerical. Keeping notes as to source of
each.

Note: Do not mark or mutilate sides or cylindrical portion containing rifling marks.

HAND ARMS – REVOLVERS, AUTOMATIC PISTOLS, SINGLE SHOT PISTOLS

Inconspicuously mark initial of recovering officer with date of recovery on barrel,

cylinder, frame, receiver, or magazine as indicated on diagram.

On Revolver mark the following:

1. Barrel

2. Cylinder

3. Frame
On pistol mark the following:

1. Barrel

2. Slide

3. Frame

4. Magazine

RIFLES, SHOTGUNS, MACHINE GUNS

Mark initial of recovering officer with date

item number on barrel, frame, and
breechblock, etc. as indicated. Do not
mark removable parts of stocks. Either
check for fingerprinting or suspend
weapon by wooden dowel; through trigger
guard for transmission to laboratory to the
checked for fingerprint. Do not place
weapons in plastic bags.
EVIDENCE IN FIREARMS CASES

TABLE NO. 1 POSSIBLE DETERMINATIONS ADMISSIBLE AS EXPERT

TESTIMONY FROM EXHIBITS

EXHIBIT POSSIBLE LABORATORY REQUIRED BY

DETERMINATION LABORATORY
Make, Caliber, Type of
Firearms from which each
could have been discharged;
Type of propellant used in
firing; Name of maker and
maker’s designation as to
FIRED BULLET type, caliber, etc. Fired Bullet
Make, Caliber, Type of
Firearm in which each could
have been fired; type of
propellant used in firing;
name of maker and maker’s
designation as to type,
FIRED CARTRIDGE caliber, etc. Fired Cartridge Case
CASE
In addition to determination
positive with a single fired
bullet, whether two or all
were fired from the same
TWO OR MORE FIRED firearm. Two or all fired bullets
BULLETS
In addition to determination
possible with a single
TWO OR MORE FIRED cartridge case. Whether two
CARTRIDGE CASES OR or all were fired in the same
SHOT SHELLS firearm. Two of all fired cartridge
cases
In addition to determination
possible with a single fired
bullet, whether bullet was
fired from suspected firearm.
FIRED BULLET AND Suspected firearm and fired
SUSPECTED FIREARM bullet
SUSPECTED FIREARM, Approximate distance at Suspected firearm,
 AMMUNITION, SCALED which shot was discharged ammunition, scaled
PHOTOGRAPH OF photograph or powders, or
POWDER OR SHOT shot pattern, and victim’s
PATTERN AND VICTIM’S clothing.
CLOTHING.
Size of shot, and gauge Shot pellets and/or shot
designation of arm firing wads.
SHOT PELLETS AND wads.
WADS

INSTRUCTIONS FOR HANDLING, MARKING, AND SHIPPING FIREARMS EXHIBITS

DESCRIPTIVE INSTRUCTIONS
RECORD TO BE FOR PACKING,
KEPT BY RECOMMENDED FOR SHIPPING
PERSON METHOD OF TO
EXHIBIT GENERAL RECOVERING MARKING FOR LABORATORY
INSTRUCTION (NOTE 1) IDENTIFICATION
S
FIREARMS Check for A record of make, Scratch initials or Place in heavy
fingerprints. model, type, marks of paper enveloped.
Remove caliber or gauge identification on Forward to
magazine from designation, side of frame,
auto loading serial and the receiver, back laboratory.
weapons. Do numbers should strap, barrel, etc.
not operate be relieved by Do not use “X”. Do
mechanism person and not mark places,
except to agency side plates or part
unload. If recovering. that can be readily
loaded with fired removed or
shells in replaced.
revolver mark
positions.

Every Assumed caliber. Scratch initials on Wrap in clean

precaution Notes as to ogive near nose at cotton clothes or
should be taken marks of bullet. Do not use tissue paper.
to prevent identification. “X”. If more than place in
 mutilating rifling Description of one bullet cardboard pill
surfaces in any any distinctive recovered, use box or rigid
way. Do not features. initials of person container. Mark
wash or clean. recovering and on container
designate the source of each
several bullets by bullet, forward to
A, B, etc. keeping laboratory.
notes as to source
of each.

FIRED
BULLETS
Do not mark, Notes as to mark Scratch initials or Roll individually
mutilate, scratch of identification mark of in paper. Place
on nick, head of used. Head identification near rubber bond
shell. It designation of mouth of shell, around paper.
recognized in make. Sketch preferably inside Place wrapped
revolver showing relative of mouth of shell, cartridge in
cylinder. Mark position of shell if preferably inside heavy paper as
chambers to recovered on of mouth. Do not envelope, then
correspond with floor, street, etc. scratch, mutilate forward to
shell Transmit this head or rear laboratory.
designation information to portion of cartridge
laboratory. case.
FIRED
METALLIC
CARTRIDGE
CASES
Do not mark, Notes as to mark With ink or Roll individually
mutilate, scratch of identification indelible pencil in paper. Place
FIRED on head of shell. used. Scratch mark inside of rubber bond
PAPER showing relative mouth of shell around paper.
SHOT position of shell using initials of Place wrapped
SHELLS which recovered. person recovering. cartridge in
If shell recovered Do not scratch or heavy paper as
on floor, street mutilate brass envelope, then
etc. Transmit this head of shell. forward to
information to laboratory
laboratory.
SHOT Recover as source and Seal container, Use pill box.
PELLETS many as position of marking seal with Place box in
possible. recovered pellets. mark of envelope, sealing
Record of identification on envelope.
number sent to seal on envelope. Indicate source
 laboratory. Notes of pellets on
on marks as envelope.
identification Forward to
used on seal. laboratory.
Recover as Source of wadsUsing ink or Place in paper
many as recovered. indelible pencil envelope
possible Transmit this inscribed initials of indicating source
information toperson recovering on envelope.
laboratory. Notes
as mark of Forward to
on marks of identification. Do laboratory.
identificationnot use “X”. place
used. in envelope,
sealing for
identification to
SHOT WADS laboratory.
LOADED If loaded Source of where Brass cartridges – Roll individually
SHELLS OR ammunition or found. Read scratch mark on in paper. Place
CARTRIDGE fired cartridge designation of side of case near rubber bond
S cases are maker. Notes on mouth. Paper shot around paper.
recovered in marks of shells – use ink or Place wrapped
investigation, identification indelible pencil. cartridge in
forward to used. Mark side of shell. heavy paper as
laboratory. Do not mutilate on envelope, then
nick head of shell. forward to
laboratory.
SHOT OR If on clothing Description of Clothes, attach tag Wrap clothing on
POWDER send only garments to each article or clean paper.
PATTERNS clothing to containing shot or clothing, indicating Forward to
laboratory that powder patterns source. Mark lining laboratory.
contains or smudges of with ink or
powders, shot or powder indelible pencil.
powders residue patterns if on Use initials of
or bullets or walls, doors or person
shell other immovable recovering.
penetration. If objects.
street, doors,
walls etc.,
consult
laboratory
concerning
scaled
photograph.
LESSON 15
GUNSHOT WOUND INVESTIGATION

Gunshot Wounds

Guns are the most frequently used weapons in murders, and firearms account for more
than half of the slayings today. Forensic scientists have consequently put a substantial
amount of work into the study of how to interpret gunshot wounds, in an effort to
determine precisely how and when a specific crime took place. The examination of
gunshot wounds has been performed in thousands of cases, and has often been the
deciding factor in the prosecution or exoneration of the accused.

Possible Question Involving Gunshot Wound:

1. Distinguishing a gunshot wound from one not caused by firearms.

2. At what distance was the firearm discharge?
3. How was the wound inflicted?
4. Was it accident, suicide or homicide?

"Shoring" of entrance wounds can occur when firm material is pressed against the skin,
such as when a victim is shot through a wooden, glass, or metal door while pressing
against it to prevent entry of an assailant. A study by Dixon (1980) showed that such
wounds have a greater wound diameter and demonstrate greater marginal abrasion
than control wounds produced by the same weapons. The features were directly
proportional to the KE of the projectile and the rigidity of the shoring material. Stellate
radiating lacerations of some shored wounds could lead to misinterpretation of distant
range of fire as a contact wound. (Denton et al, 2006)

Classification

One of the commonest determinations of the forensic pathologist is the range of fire.
Gunshot wounds are typically classified as:

1. Contact
2. Intermediate range
3. Distant range
Example images demonstrating gross and microscopic appearances of gunshot
wounds:

1. Sooting of hand, gross

2. Contact range gunshot wound, gross

This is an contact gunshot entrance wound. Since the barrel contacts the skin, the
gases released by the fired round go into the subcutaneous tissue and cause the star-
shaped laceration. Note also the grey-black discoloration from the soot, as well as the
faint abrasion ring.
3. Contact range gunshot wound, gross

An abrasion ring, formed when the force of the gases entering below the skin blow the
skin surface back against the muzzle of the gun, is seen here in this contact range
gunshot wound to the right temple.

4. Contact range gunshot wound, gross

The abrasion ring, and a very clear muzzle imprint are seen in this contact range
gunshot wound.
5. Contact range gunshot wound, gross

This is a contact range gunshot entrance wound with grey-black discoloration from the
burned powder.

6. Blood spatter on hand, gross

With a contact or very close range gunshot wound, it is possible to have blood spatter
as well as sooting on the hand of the person firing the weapon.

7. Gunshot entrance wound with GSR, microscopic

Histologic examination of the entrance wound site on the skin demonstrates black
gunshot residue and coagulative necrosis.

8. Intermediate range gunshot wound, gross

Powder tattooing is seen in this intermediate range gunshot wound. The actual entrance
site is somewhat irregular, because the bullet can tumble in flight.

9. Intermediate range gunshot wound, gross

This is an intermediate range gunshot entrance wound in which there is powder

"tattooing" around the entrance site.
10. Entrance-exit wound in close proximity from low angle of bullet entrance,
gross

Displayed here is an entrance at the left and an exit at the right. This particular bullet
struck at an angle to produce the ovoid entrance. Exit wounds vary considerably in size
and shape because the bullet can be deformed in its transit through the body. There
may be no exit wound at all if the bullet's energy is absorbed by the tissues. Some
bullets (such as "hollow-point") are designed to deform so that all their energy will be
converted to tissue damage and not exit.

11. Exit gunshot wound, gross

Here is a slit-like exit wound. Note that there is no powder or soot visible.
Distinguishing a Gunshot Wound

Strangely enough it is not always easy at first glance to tell whether or not a wound was
inflicted by a bullet, but a close examination will remove all doubt except when only a
superficial scratch is found, such as is caused by a bullet which only grazes the victim.

Entrance wounds

Contact wounds characteristically have soot on the outside of the skin, and muzzle
imprint, or laceration of the skin from effects of gases. Contact wounds of airguns
usually lack these features (Cohle et al, 1987). Intermediate, or close-range, wounds
may show a wide zone of powder stippling, but lack a muzzle imprint and laceration.
The area of powder stippling will depend upon the distance from the muzzle. (Denton et
al, 2006)

Distant range wounds are lacking powder stippling and usually exhibit a hole roughly
the caliber of the projectile fired.

The most difficult problem is distinguishing a distant from a contact wound. The factors
that can affect the amount and distribution of gunshot residue (GSR) on skin and
clothing include: (1) firing distance, (2) length and diameter of the firearm barrel, (3)
characteristics of the gunpowder, (4) angle between the firearm barrel and target, (5)
characteristics of the cartridge, (6) the environment (moisture, wind, heat), (7) type of
clothing, (8) intermediate targets, and (9) characteristics of the target (tissue type,
putrefaction, blood marks) (Tugcu et al, 2006).
12. Skull, contact range gunshot wound, gross

The surface of the skull demonstrates the heavy soot in this contact range entrance
wound, as well as radiating fracture lines. The direction of fire was thus toward the back
of this picture.

13. Bullet track through skull, diagram

The upper diagram illustrates the basic differences between the skin appearance of a
contact, close (intermediate), and distant (indeterminant) range gunshot wound. The
appearance of the wounding characteristics in the skull is shown in the lower diagram in
which there is bevelling of the skull outward away from the direction of origin of the
bullet.
Gunshot Wounds

Guns are the most frequently used weapons in murders, and firearms account for more
than half of the slayings today. Forensic scientists have consequently put a substantial
amount of work into the study of how to interpret gunshot wounds, in an effort to
determine precisely how and when a specific crime took place. The examination of
gunshot wounds has been performed in thousands of cases, and has often been the
deciding factor in the prosecution or exoneration of the accused.

Possible Question Involving Gunshot Wound:

1. Distinguishing a gunshot wound from one not caused by firearms.

2. At what distance was the firearm discharge?
3. How was the wound inflicted?
4. Was it accident, suicide or homicide?

"Shoring" of entrance wounds can occur when firm material is pressed against the skin,
such as when a victim is shot through a wooden, glass, or metal door while pressing
against it to prevent entry of an assailant. A study by Dixon (1980) showed that such
wounds have a greater wound diameter and demonstrate greater marginal abrasion
than control wounds produced by the same weapons. The features were directly
proportional to the KE of the projectile and the rigidity of the shoring material. Stellate
radiating lacerations of some shored wounds could lead to misinterpretation of distant
range of fire as a contact wound. (Denton et al, 2006)

Classification

One of the commonest determinations of the forensic pathologist is the range of fire.
Gunshot wounds are typically classified as:

1. Contact
2. Intermediate range
3. Distant range

Wounds of Entrance and Exit

All gunshot wound has an entrance and all those which go clear through have a wound
of exit. It is highly important to know which the entrance wound is and which is the exit.
This is especially important in cases where self-defense is alleged. If the victim has a
hole straight through the body a certain identification of the wound of entrance and of
exit will show whether or not, he was approaching or running away when shot. If, as is
often the case, the victim was shot in the back, the allegation of self-defense would fail.
Wound of Entrance

When the skin wound entrance always corresponds in size to the diameter of the bullet
used. It is very common for the aperture of entrance to appear similar than the diameter
of the bullet, but this is an illusion, since the wound invariably admits a projectile similar
to the one which caused it. The small appearance is due to elasticity and shrinkage of
the skin. Direct impact causes a round wound of entrance, while glancing shots, or
those striking the skin at an angle, show oval openings. A wound of entrance in skin
lying over loose tissue may appear much smaller than the projectile, on account of the
extreme elasticity of the skin in certain regions of the body. Bullets from high powered
rifles may show only a mere slit in skin which is wrinkled like that of the neck, elbow or
knee, etc. on the other hand, wounds in skin over-lying bones or other highly resistant
tissues may show openings exceeding the size of the bullet.

Bullet Tracks

Deformation of the bullet, fragmentation of the bullet or secondary targets such as bone,
and amount of kinetic energy imparted to tissues, as well as tissue characteristics affect
patterns of tissue injury. The higher the specific gravity of tissue, the greater the
damage. Elasticity reduces damage. Thus, lung tissue of low density and high elasticity
is damaged less than muscle with higher density but some elasticity. Liver, spleen, and
brain have little tensile strength and elasticity and are easily injured, as is adipose
tissue. Fluid-filled organs (bladder, heart, great vessels, bowel) can burst because of
pressure waves generated. A bullet striking bone may cause fragmentation of bone
and/or bullet, with numerous secondary missiles formed each producing additional
wounding. Fragmentation increases the permanent cavity size (Maiden, 2009).

Wound of Exit

The wound of the exit is usually larger than the wound of entrance, and in case a bone
is struck it may exceed the size of the projectile very greatly. In general, it is more
irregular than the wound of entrance, and frequently it shows the print of a bullet which
has passed out sideways, having been turned over during its passage through the body,
especially if a bone has been struck.

The exit wound never exhibits tattooing, burning or other such disfigurement, nor does it
show pieces of cloth from the clothing driven into the wound, as is often the case with
the wound of entrance. The edges of the wound are usually pushed outward, and fat or
tissue may protrude from it. Bleeding is much more marked, at the wound of exit.

Sequence of fire

In some situations, pathologic findings may help to establish in what sequence the
bullets were fired that caused the injuries. For example, multiple gunshot wounds to the
head may produce fracture lines, and a subsequent fracture line typically does not cross
a pre-existing fracture line (Viel et al, 2009).

Subjective reasoning would suggest that the first shot may be horizontal (victim upright)
but subsequent shots would be oriented down or to the back of the victim as he fell or
fled. Without witnesses and scene investigation, such opinions would be conjectural.

Radiologic Imaging

Radiographic imaging may be needed to account for retained bullets and fragments and
to help determine the bullet track. This has been accomplished for decades with plain
film radiography, utilizing multiple projections. Bullets and fragments, including primer
and jacket, are radiopague, improving ease of detection. (Folio, McHugh, and Hoffman,
2007).

Manner (Mode) of Death

The manner of death from firearms injuries can be classified as homicide, suicide,
accident, or undetermined. There is no single characteristic appearance of a gunshot
wound that defines the manner of death. Such a determination requires analysis of
multiple pieces of evidence, including the scene investigation, the examination of the
body, ballistics evidence, analysis for gunshot residue, and interviews of persons
involved with the decedent and the scene of death.

In many cases, the distinction between death from homicide and suicide must be
determined. The presence of multiple entrance wounds may not exclude suicide.

Definitions:

Fouling – soot residue of completely burned powder, dust-like, wipes off.

Stippling (Tattooing) – unburned powder and debris, causing punctuate abrasion on

target. Larger and heavier so travels farther. Does not wipe off.

Margin Abrasion – characteristics of entrance wound but can be seen in shored exit.
Range of Fire:

Contact – muzzle of gun touches target

- Tight – fouling in tissue, muzzle stamp

- Loose – fouling on skin and in tissue, searing

Close: ˂6” Stippling and fouling

Intermediate: 6-30” Stippling

Bullets:

Hollow Point: tend to stay or break up if they hit a hard surface; no visible difference in
wounding (most KE from velocity, not mass). If jackets separate, seldom leaves body.
Aluminum jackets be seen on X-ray. Jackets carry rifling marks.

SHOTGUNS: Smooth bore long gun that fires multiple balls encased in a plastic tube with wad (plastic
Guage: barrel caliber. # lead balls of a certain diameter that weigh 1 pound. Has nothing to do with siz

Wad: On Xray faint circle (due to thin coat of lead); enters body at 8 -10 feet and can travel up to 50'
Choke: degree of narrowing of barrel to control spread of shot. For first 10 feet there is no choke effec
CHOKE % of shot that fall within a 30" circle at 40 yards.
Cylinder bore = no choke 35%
Modified 55-65%
Full 65 - 75%
Shot: Two categories of size, Bird and Buck; smaller # = larger diameter

Bird No. 12 0.05" diameter 2400 pellets/ounce

Buck No. 4 0.24" diameter 27, 41 or 54 pellets in a standard load
00 0.33" diameter 9, 12 or 15 pellets
000 (largest) 0.36" diameter 8, 10 pellets

Background on Gunshot Wounds

Gunshot wounds can be either penetrating or perforating. In a penetrating wound, the

bullet enters an object and remains inside, while in a perforating wound, the bullet
passes completely through the object. In some cases, the wound can be both
penetrating and perforating, in that it penetrates some part of the body, such as the
head, but perforates certain parts, such as the skull or brain.

In a perforating wound, the bullet creates an exit wound as it escapes the body. An exit
wound differs greatly from an entrance wound. An entrance wound is surrounded by a
reddish-brown area of abraded skin, known as the abrasion ring, and small amounts of
blood escape through. An exit wound, on the other hand, is larger and more irregular,
with extruding tissue and no abrasion ring. There is far more blood that escapes an exit
wound, and it can possibly be profuse.

Determining the Distance of the Shooter from the Victim

Examination of the gunshot wound can help determine many factors involved in the
shooting, including the distance of the shooter from the victim. Gunshot wounds can be
classified based on the range from the muzzle of the gun to the target. These
classifications include contact, near-contact, intermediate, and distant wounds.

Determining Whether or Not the Victim Was Alive Before the Shooting

An examination of the wound can also indicate whether or not the victim was alive when
he was shot. If a reddish-brown to orange-red powder tattooing exists, that indicates
that the individual was in fact alive when the wound was inflicted. However, if the
powder has produced gray or yellow marks instead, the individual was dead before the
shooting.
Determining the Type of Gun Used in the Shooting

The type of gun used in the shooting can usually be determined by examining the
gunshot wound. The shotgun, particularly the 12-gauge, is the most common and most
deadly weapon in America today. Fired at close range, the shotgun is the most
destructive of all small arms. Shotgun wound scan be characterized by massive tissue
destruction and embedded wadding if the shot was within ten feet. By examining the
wadding, one can determine the type of shot, gauge of gun, and possible evidence to
identify the gun.

The handgun and .22 caliber rimfire weapons produce wound variations based on
whether the gunshot was contact, near-contact, intermediate or distant. Generally
speaking, handguns produce larger and more prominent tattoo patterns than rimfire
weapons because of the use of flake powder. Rimfire weapons instead use ball powder,
which produces extremely fine but faint tattooing. The extent of the injuries that both
handguns and .22 caliber rimfire weapons inflict are usually confined to the tissues and
organs directly in their path.

Gunshot Residue

Scientists have used many methods over the years to determine whether an individual
has fired a firearm. By the mid 1980's, scientists had come up with three generally
accepted methods of analyzing gunshot residues- neutron activation, flameless atomic
absorption spectrometry (FAAS), and scanning electron microscopic-energy dispersive
x-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX). These three methods were all based on the detection
of metallic elements on the back of the hand that fired the weapon. By the mid-1990's
neutron activation was discarded because it could not detect lead, which is used in
rimfire weapons, and also because a nuclear reactor was needed to perform the tests.

Flameless atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) detects many elements,

including lead. In this method, the scientist uses cotton swabs dipped into nitric or
hydrochloric acid to wipe the palms and backs of hands. The scientist then looks at the
distribution of antimony and barium, and can determine whether the amounts
discovered are consistent with the gunshot residue one would acquire from firing a
weapon. One also must consider where the gun residue is found; if the residue is on the
back of the hands, the individual likely fired the weapon, whereas if the residue is on the
palms, it indicates a defensive gesture or the handling of a gun with residue on it. When
the weapon is a rifle or shotgun, the residue is usually detected on the non-firing hand
because it is used to hold the gun steadily.

Scanning electron microscopic-energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry (SEM-

EDX) uses computer-controlled analysis to test residue. Material is removed from the
hand using adhesive lifts. The particles are scanned using SEM, and analyzed by EDX.
SEM-EDX is far more reliable than FAAS in revealing positive results. Residue is
detected in 90% of the cases where people have fired a handgun. Rifles, however,
account for the majority of the negative results. Unlike FAAS, particles observed under
this analysis can be identified absolutely as gunshot residue. Also, with SEM testing, the
analysis has been positive up to 12 hours after the firing of the weapon. The only
weakness of SEM is that scientists cannot differentiate between those individuals that
fired a gun, handled a gun, or made a defensive gesture while being shot or shot at. To
distinguish such individuals, a more thorough examination would have to be undertaken
to determine how the residue was distributed.

Trace Metal Detection Technique (TMDT) is another method that is used by some
police agencies to determine if gunshot residue is on the hand of the suspect. This
method requires the police to spray a reagent on the hand which changes colors based
on its reaction with the different metals on the hand. There are many problems with this
technique, however, including the fact that results are affected by how long the weapon
was held and whether the defendant was sweating. The test is also not specific, and the
metal that is traced could have come from many other sources over the last 48 hours.

Wounds Through Clothing

The passage of a bullet through clothing can alter the appearance of the wound and
cause the examiner to reach different conclusions regarding factors such as the range
of the gunshot. When there is clothing between the firearm and the skin, you will not find
soot and powder on the skin, and searing is lessened or can be prevented. Therefore,
the usual methods of determining the distance of the shooter from the victim cannot be
used. Whether the powder passes through the clothing depends on the material, the
number of layers of clothing, and the form of the powder. Ball powder can penetrate up
to three layers of clothing, while flake powder may fail to penetrate a single layer.

Identifying a bullet

The bullet itself is often analyzed in an attempt to determine the weapon that was used
in the shooting. Forensic experts examine the appearance of grooves, the number of
grooves, the diameter of the lands and grooves, the width of the lands and grooves, the
depth of the grooves, the direction of the rifling twist, and the degree of the twist.
Imperfections of the bullets may be specific to only one weapon, identifying that weapon
as distinctly as fingerprints. If there are no grooves on the bullet, it was likely fired from
an oversized weapon, such as a rifle. If there are elongated grooves with deep
incisions, it was likely fired from an undersized weapon.

Skid marks are another characteristic that one might notice when examining a bullet. If
skid marks exist, the bullet was likely fired from a revolver. Skid marks occur when the
grooves are wider at the nose of the bullet than at the base.

Bullet Damaged by shots from a distance

In most cases formed the cross-cutting, blind and tangential gunshot wounds.

Transverse bullet wounds

Input gunshot hole.

Typical entrance gunshot wound is small size, round shape, in the center - blemishes,
uneven, sometimes crosswise raised edges, with short breaks radial surface of the skin,
not beyond the belt surrounding the defect.

Damage when fired from close range.

Traces Close Shot

Factors close shot can provide mechanical, thermal and chemical action. Emerging at
the same damage and deposits are calling the next close shot, by the following are:

1. Damage from the mechanical action of powder gases and air from the bore:

2. Damage the temperature of the gases, soot and powder particles:

3. Damage the chemical action of gases:

4. Deposition and introduction of soot in the fabric of clothing, skin, the walls of the
wound channel.

5.) Deposition and introduction of particles of powder grains and metal particles in the
fabric of clothing, skin covers the walls of the wound channel; traces the impact of these
particles in the form of small abrasions the skin and tissues of the assignment over to
the clothing.

6.) Deposition spray of rifle grease on clothing or skin.

Lesson 16

Forensic instruments related to the examination of evidence and test fired

bullet/cartridge case, and examination procedures.

AFTE Theory of Identification

In 1985, the Criteria for Identification Committee formalized the AFTE Theory of
Identification as it Relates to Toolmarks. The theory articulates three principles that
provide the conceptual basis for comparing toolmarks for the purpose of identifying
them as having a common source.

For the purpose of this module, consider any reference to the word “tool” in this section
as a reference to the machined surfaces of the action and mechanism of a firearm. Any
reference to the term “toolmark” refers to striated or impressed marks on a fired
cartridge case or unfired cartridge cycled through the action of a firearm.

The three principles of the AFTE Theory of Identification as it Relates to

Toolmarks:

1. The theory of identification as it pertains to toolmarks enables opinions of

common origin to be made when the unique surface contours of two toolmarks
are in sufficient agreement.

2. This sufficient agreement is related to the significant duplication of random

toolmarks as evidenced by the correspondence of a pattern or combination of
patterns of surface contours. Significance is determined by the comparative
examination of two or more sets of surface contour patterns comprised of
individual peaks, ridges, and furrows. Specifically, the relative height or depth,
width, curvature and spatial relationship of the individual peaks, ridges and
furrows within one set of surface contours are defined and compared to the
corresponding features in the second set of contours. Agreement is significant
when it exceeds the best agreement demonstrated between two toolmarks
known to have been produced by different tools and is consistent with agreement
demonstrated by toolmarks known to have been produced by the same tool. The
statement that “sufficient agreement” exists between two toolmarks means that
 the likelihood another tool could have made the mark is so remote as to be
considered a practical impossibility.
3. The current interpretation of individualization/identification is subjective in nature,
founded on scientific principles and based on the examiner’s training and
experience.

1. COMPARISON MICROSCOPE

This valuable instrument is specially designed to permit the firearms examiner to

determine the similarity and dissimilarity between two fired bullets or two fired cartridge
cases by simultaneously observing their magnified image. It is actually two microscope
couple together with a single or two eyepieces, so that when one looks through this
comparison eyepiece, he is seeing one-half of what is under the other – in other words,
half of the evidence bullet and half of the test bullet.

With this microscope, the firearm examiner can take photographs of his observation and
findings under the eyepiece of the comparison microscope.

A comparison microscope is a device used to analyze side-by-side specimens. It

consists of two microscopes connected by an optical bridge, which results in a split view
window enabling two separate objects to be viewed simultaneously. This avoids the
observer having to rely on memory when comparing two objects under a conventional
microscope.

2. STEREOSCOPE MICROSCOPE

This is generally used in the preliminary examinations of fired bullets and fired shells. To
determine the location of the extractor marks and ejector marks for orientation
purposes. It can be used also in the close-up examination of tampered serial numbers
of firearms. This equipment can be able to show three dimensional images.

3. COMPARISON PROJECTOR – CP 6

This is similar to a comparison microscope. Two fired bullets or two fired shells can be
compared in one setting of the firearm examiners. A magnified image appears on a
large screen and can be observed in a comfortable viewing of evidence is faster, easier
and less tiresome, thus allowing a more efficient and productive use of investigative
time in the criminal laboratory.

4. BULLET RECOVERY BOX

For obtaining test fired bullets or test fired cartridge cases from the suspected firearms
submitted to the Ballistics Laboratory. In test firing suspected firearms, it is standard
procedure to use ammunition that are of the same, make or brand and manufactured in
the year with that of the evidence bullet or shell.

Water is one of the means to obtain test bullets and test shells because the microscope
marks on the cylindrical or peripheral surface of the bullets are preserved for good use.
The same is true with cotton.

Were the penetration of bullets constant we could make a recovery box sufficiently long,
and figured mathematically, which would hold bullets fired from the highest speed
ammunition. For most investigators, however, this would be highly impractical because
of size and also because of other factors, chief among which is the destruction of the
very elements which are necessary for perfect recoveries, even though there were no
distortion.

It is believed that the following arrangement and recovery media are the most effective
for recovering undistorted, clean-cut bullets having a maximum number of gun barrel
markings on their surfaces.

5. MEASURING PROJECTOR – MP 6 This projector determines the width of lands,

width of grooves, diameter and twist of a fired bullet.

6. VERNIER CALIPERS - This instrument determined the bullet diameter and barrel
length.

7. ANALYTICAL BALANCE - This determines the weights of the bullets, shots and
pellets for possible type, caliber and make for firearm from which they were fired.
8. TAPER GAUGE - Used for determining the bore diameter of the firearm.

9. ONOSCOPE - For examining the interior surface of the gun barrel.

10. HELIXOMETER - For measuring the pitch of rifling. Pitch of rifling is the distance
advanced by the rifling in one complete turn or the distance traveled by the bullet in one
complete turn.

11. CHRONOGRAPH - For determining the speed of the bullet or the muzzle velocity of
the bullet.
Sufficient Agreement and Best Known Nonmatch

The second of the three principles of the AFTE Theory of Identification indicates that the
degree of correspondence which must be exceeded to constitute sufficient agreement
for an identification is the best known nonmatch (by each individual examiner) to have
been produced by different tools. Ideally, the examiner would gain experience in this
during their initial training period rather than when they begin to perform actual
examinations on their own.

The third principle of the AFTE Theory of Identification indicates that, although founded
on the scientific method and reproducibility of results, the interpretation is subjective in
nature. It is the policy of most laboratories that a second qualified examiner verify the
findings of the first examiner.

Ultimately, sufficient agreement is the product of the examiner’s personal training, skills,
and experience in

 recognizing corresponding patterns of matching striations,

 recognizing corresponding patterns within impressed toolmarks,
 determining the best-known non-match in their personal experience,
 training and experience in comparing striated and impressed toolmarks.

It is incumbent on each examiner to rely on their training and experience to identify and
to be able to articulate the process used to determine sufficient agreement and best
known nonmatch.

AFTE Range of Conclusions

For purposes of this module, typical fired cartridge case and shotshell case
comparisons fall into two broad categories:

 An evidence cartridge case or shotshell case from a crime scene is identified as

having been fired in a particular evidence firearm.
  Evidence cartridge cases or shotshell cases recovered from the same or
separate incidents are identified as having been fired in a single firearm (no
firearm submitted).
 Based on the AFTE Theory of Identification, there are four categories of
examination outcomes (Range of Conclusions Possible When Comparing
Toolmarks) typically used by firearm examiners in the microscopic comparison of
fired cartridge cases and shotshell cases.

These categories are accepted for all types of toolmark comparisons:

 Identification
 Inconclusive
 Elimination
 Unsuitable for comparison

Identification

The AFTE Glossary defines an identification as follows:

“Agreement of a combination of individual characteristics and all discernable class

characteristics where the extent of agreement exceeds that which can occur in the
comparison of toolmarks made by different tools and is consistent with the agreement
demonstrated by toolmarks known to have been produced by the same tool.”

This statement reflects the concepts of sufficient agreement and best known nonmatch.
All identifications are based on pattern matching. It is possible to go beyond this
qualitative match to the quantifiable consecutive matching striae (CMS) approach to
further support an identification.

Inconclusive

An inconclusive result is noted as the outcome of a comparison in which there is

 some agreement of individual characteristics and all discernable class

characteristics, but insufficient for identification,
 agreement of all discernable class characteristics without agreement or
disagreement of individual characteristics due to an absence, insufficiency, or
lack of reproducibility,
  agreement of all discernable class characteristics and disagreement of individual
characteristics, but insufficient for an elimination.

Elimination

Elimination on individual characteristics

As defined in the AFTE Glossary, elimination is a significant disagreement of

discernable class characteristics and/or individual characteristics. For purposes of fired
cartridge case and shotshell case comparisons, an elimination is most often based on
observed differences in any class characteristic.

However, an elimination based on individual characteristics is more complex.

Conceptually, an elimination based on individual characteristics means that if a firearm
can be shown to have never been subjected to significant use or abuse over a period of
time, the qualitative aspects of the striations produced on fired cartridge cases and
shotshell cases should remain the same. A difference in these qualities indicates an
elimination.

Elimination based on individual characteristics requires a detailed knowledge of the

history and treatment of the firearm, as well as documentation to support the history. It
is the responsibility of the examiner to provide this historical documentation. This type of
elimination should be approached with caution. Many experienced examiners have
never made such an elimination, and the protocols of many laboratories do not allow it.

Eliminations are as sensitive and important as identifications. When eliminations based

on microscopic marks alone are permitted by laboratory protocols, the process should
adhere strictly to the criteria for an elimination set out in those protocols. When a firearm
is included in the evidence and an elimination is based solely on individual
characteristics, examiners may add phraseology to their report indicating that their
conclusion was based on the condition of the firearm as received or the firearm in its
current state of assembly.
Unsuitable

The AFTE Glossary designates this category as unsuitable for comparison. This
outcome is appropriate for fired and mutilated cartridge cases and shotshell cases that
do not bear microscopic marks of value for comparison purposes.

Fired Case Examination

Side by side comparison of breech face marks

Courtesy of Jack Dillon

As in the case of fired bullets, the microscopic comparison and potential identification of
fired cartridge cases and shotshell cases as having been fired from the same firearm is
at the core of forensic firearms work.

The comparison will involve one of the following situations:

Firearms Without Related Evidence

Test cartridge cases or shotshell cases should be intercompared to determine if the

firearm in question is reliably reproducing microscopic detail of value for comparison
and identification with a single firearm. The results of this intercomparison will provide
an examiner with a basis for assessing the potential of the firearm for reproducing
microscopic marks. It also provides a preview of the order of difficulty of the
comparisons with actual evidence items.

The following intercomparison procedure applies to cases:

1. Mount one of the test cartridges cases or shotshell cases on the right stage with
the base oriented upwards.
2. Orient the light source to illuminate the marked area of the base obliquely.
3. At low magnification (10x-20x), carefully examine the base and primer area.
Rotate the cartridge case or shotshell case slowly around its long axis to find the
best areas of individual characteristics on the primer and/or the surrounding base
area. Once the best area is located, the case should remain in that position on
the right stage.
 4. Mount another test cartridge case or shotshell case on the left stage and rotate it
on its long axis until it is in the same orientation as the case on the right stage.
5. Adjust the light source for the left stage at the same oblique lighting angle as the
light source for the right stage.
6. Manipulate both microscope stages so as to align any corresponding microscopic
impressions or striated marks that may be present on the primers and/or the
base areas. If corresponding microscopic detail is present for comparison
purposes, the examiner can then conclude whether or not there is sufficient
agreement in quality and quantity of the individual characteristics to substantiate
an identification. The corresponding areas should be indexed using a permanent
felt tip marker for possible future reference.
7. To further evaluate the potential value of test cartridge cases and shotshell
cases, their firing pin impressions should also be examined and compared. In
order to better illuminate the interior of firing pin impressions and to compensate
for depth-of-field limitations of the microscope, it may be necessary to tilt both
test specimens relative to their respective light sources. It will be necessary to
incrementally rotate both cartridge cases around their long axes in order to fully
evaluate the microscopic detail within the firing pin impressions.
8. If corresponding microscopic detail is present for comparison purposes on the
firing pin impressions, the examiner can then conclude whether or not there is
sufficient agreement in quality and quantity of the individual characteristics to
substantiate an identification. The corresponding areas should be indexed using
a permanent felt tip marker for possible future reference.
9. In addition, the extractor marks, ejector marks, chamber marks, magazine lip
marks, anvil marks, ejection port marks, and other possible mechanism marks
should be evaluated. Comparison of these marks may require a number of
reorientations on the microscope stages in order to best view the areas of
interest.
10. As with the other comparisons, if corresponding microscopic detail is present, the
examiner can then conclude whether or not there is sufficient agreement in
quality and quantity of the individual characteristics for an identification of the test
cartridge cases or shotshell cases as having both been fired in the same firearm
or cycled through the action of the same firearm, depending on the type of mark
being identified. The corresponding areas should be indexed using a permanent
felt tip marker for possible future reference.

At this point, the examiner has observed the types of microscopic marks being
produced by an evidence firearm, assessed the quality of these marks for comparison
purposes, noted the peculiarities of the particular firearm, documented the pertinent
observations.

Advanced Case Linkage and

Fired Cartridge Case Comparisons
IBIS image data acquisition workstation

Courtesy of Forensic Technology, Inc.

Advanced computer-based tools are widely used by laboratories for screening

thousands of firearms-related evidence items for potential linkages of incidents. These
tools include computer and optical hardware as well as software for managing a
combination of specialized algorithms, pattern recognition, and digital imaging. The
product is a preliminary computer-based selection of high-probability associations that
may be subsequently confirmed or eliminated by a firearms examiner.

The current predominant system for accomplishing these comparisons is the Integrated
Ballistics Identification System (IBIS), developed by Forensic Technology, Incorporated
(FTI).

It should be stressed that a high correlation score by the IBIS system is not a sufficient
basis for court testimony; an examination by a qualified firearm examiner is required for
courtroom presentation. Technology has provided for more efficient handling of steadily
mounting caseloads and the increasing volume of firearms-related evidence.
Lesson 17

Evidence Submission

An established format for evidence submission and documentation assists in providing

consistent information. The submission of evidence and the request for examination(s)
can be documented using a laboratory request form or a letter of transmittal. This
documentation is not only required by the laboratory for the acceptance of submitted
evidence, but is also subject to discovery.

Evidence that is hand-carried or shipped should include the following:

 Individually packaged evidence items

 Packaged items inside a sealed container
 Letter of transmittal or laboratory request form from the submitting agency
requesting examination(s)
 Copy of letter or form enclosed within the sealed container
 Copy of letter or form affixed to the exterior of the shipping container
 Since transmittal letters can vary greatly in format, laboratories frequently request
that agencies use an established form or format when submitting evidence.

Documentation

Elements for evidence submission transmittal letters or laboratory forms may include
the following:

 Agency identification
 Names of suspect(s) and victim(s)
 Numerical agency case identifier
 Characterization of the violation (e.g., homicide, burglary, assault, etc.)
 Date and location of the crime
 Investigative summary of the incident
 Related photographs and other crime scene documentation
 Method of delivery (hand-carried, shipped)
 Description of the items of physical evidence, including the corresponding item
number
 List of requested examinations
 Notation of interrelated past or current case(s)
 Reference to any relevant previous submission(s)
 Request for expedited treatment of the case
 Chain of custody
Receipt of Evidence
Evidence label

Based on laboratory protocol, evidence is typically delivered to evidence reception

personnel rather than directly to an examiner. The evidence reception personnel should
provide a receipt for each submission as documentation for laboratory and agency
records. Personnel receiving evidence should immediately inventory and document the
contents of the submission, reporting any discrepancies.

Proper delivery assists in maintaining the chain of custody, enabling laboratory

management to assign and track case progress, maximizing the effectiveness of the
laboratory’s internal case-tracking system.

Laboratory Evidence Handling

Most jurisdictions have their own specific requirements in regard to evidence handling.

The general principles are

 safety,
 integrity,
 chain of custody.

Safety

 A taped up carboard box with the evidence sticking out of one end. Unsafely
packaged evidence
 Upon arrival at the laboratory evidence reception area, a number of initial safety
concerns must be addressed. Depending upon the protocols of a given
laboratory, these safety concerns are the responsibility of the evidence reception
personnel and/or the examiner initially receiving the evidence.

Safety concerns include the following areas:

 Determine that each firearm is in a safe (properly unloaded) condition.

 Evaluate the safe packaging of potential biohazards, such as blood-stained
clothing.
 Ensure that any tool considered a sharp is properly packaged and contained.

Integrity

The laboratory must store the evidence in environmental conditions that ensure its
integrity. Many laboratory facilities have dedicated areas for the drying of biological
evidence. All have temperature-controlled chambers or rooms allocated for the storage
of biological material and reagents that are affected by temperature and humidity.

Most laboratories have strict evidence acceptance procedures and will not accept
evidence unless it has been properly packaged to prevent loss or contamination.

The general principle of packaging to preserve the integrity of evidence should also
apply to evidence that is awaiting disposition or that has been transferred to the custody
of the court. Further testing or re-testing may be required at some future date.

Chain of Custody

Passage of evidence into the control of the laboratory must be affected with proper
attention to chain of custody. Records of the receipt, within-laboratory transfers, and
disposition of evidence out of the custody of the laboratory must be complete and permit
full reconstruction of events.

Computer-based laboratory information management systems (LIMS) are now widely

used; many systems permit integration of analysis data with chain-of-custody
information. Many jurisdictions have their own standard forms to record receipt and
internal and external evidence transfers.

Case Tracking Within the Laboratory

Crime laboratories must have in place a system that allows for the tracking of the status
of an individual submission of evidence, overall caseload status within a given
discipline, subdiscipline, unit, or section. System goals are to organize information in a
manner that enables all personnel to actively manage cases in a systematic way,
discuss case status with client agencies, respond to inquiries from senior management.

Prior a discussion on the current view courts takes regarding the admissibility of
Forensic Ballistic expert’s testimony concerning the identification of a particular weapon
the following knowledge will provide the basics.

While this paper will attempt to use the term Forensic Ballistics exclusively at times the
term ballistics will be used for short hand. In the world of forensic science, a “toolmark”
refers to any mark left on an object by coming into contact with another, typically harder,
object.5 Expert criminal laboratory technicians examine shell casings and bullets to
match identifying marks to a particular weapon under the assumption that guns leave
individually indefinable marks and if necessary, will testify to in court.

Although Forensic Ballistics is currently allowed in the courtroom through the testimony
of qualified government and occasionally academic experts recently judges are
examining the underpinnings of the science and questioning the precision of
identification in the testimony. This has resulted in rulings, which limit the once accepted
“a match to the exclusion of all other weapons in the world” testimony of experts.

Forensic Ballistics experts use markings on shell casings or bullets to determine the
match to a particular weapon. Once the evidence chain of custody is proven a court is
concerned with matching of markings to prove the identification of a weapon associated
with the suspect. Under this second question the court primarily questions of the
expert’s experience in the field or certifications earned to ensure the expert meets the
requirements. Currently forensic ballistics testimony is allowed if the court is satisfied
with the evidence and the qualifications of the expert. The history of gun identification
and current state of forensic ballistics will provide a glimpse into the world of forensic
ballistics allowing one to better understand the complexity of the issue.

The Use of Forensic Ballistics in the Courtroom

1. When the evidence and testimony will assist a jury in reaching a verdict by having the
benefit of the opinion, as well as the information needed to evaluate the limitations of
such an opinion and the weight it deserves.

2. The defense counsel is furnished in discovery with the documentation needed to

prepare an effective cross-examination or sufficient date to repeat the expert’s
identification in an attempt to rebut the government’s expert witness.

3. The jury is provided necessary background concerning the theory and methodology
of forensic ballistics.

4. Where an opinion matching a particular firearm to recovered projectiles or cartridge

casings, if necessary is limited to a “reasonable degree of ballistic certainty”.

The argument that forensic ballistic experts are admissibly because they have been in
the past rings hollow and focuses on the matching of the evidence in a particular case
instead of the scientific foundation of the opinion.

Ultimately the basis which allows forensic ballistic evidence in the courtroom will not be
changed until the forces holding it in place realize that long accepted “scientific”
evidence has a presumed admissibility difficult for the average defendant to overcome.

The emphasis courts give to the experience of law enforcement experts who spend
sometimes years in the field of ballistic examination even if entirely understandable
creates a barrier for a defendant looking to rebut the evidence.

In the area of forensic ballistics, a large study examining the science in the assumption
every tool leaves a unique individualized mark identifiable by an experienced and
trained expert needs to be undertaken. The reluctance courts have shown reluctance
academic experts testifying in the field of forensic ballistics create a disadvantage to
defendants hoping to rebut a government expert.
Lesson 18

Relevant Jurisprudence in the Study of Forensic Ballistics

In forensics, ballistics is the science which helps deduce information admissible in the
court of law or any other part of the legal system that is pertaining to the use of bullets in
a crime. This is possible by the scientific analysis of bullets and bullet impacts to arrive
at logical inferences about the incident.

It is the science of analyzing firearms usage in crimes. It involves analysis of bullets and
bullets impact to determine information of use to a court or other part of legal system.

Ever wondered what a host of information a bullet can provide to forensic investigators
involved in a criminal investigation? This has been made possible by a branch of
forensic science called Ballistics. Forensic ballistics or ballistic fingerprinting as such is
a field of mechanics that is applicable to the launching, behavior, flight, and effect of
projectiles. It is particularly applicable to bullets, rockets, and unguided bombs. Simply
put, ballistics is the application of science to inspect the path of a bullet from source to
target.

In forensics, ballistics is the science which helps deduce information admissible in the
court of law or any other part of the legal system that is pertaining to the use of bullets in
a crime. This is possible by the scientific analysis of bullets and bullet impacts to arrive
at logical inferences about the incident. In layman’s language, forensic ballistics
involves the matching of recovered bullets and their casings to the firearm from which
they are likely to have been fired.

So, what are the vital information that a ballistics specialist can draw from a bullet or
even a bullet impression? For instance, a forensic ballistics expert can precisely
determine the distance, angle and even the time when a gun was fired by carefully
analyzing the damage that the bullet suffers upon hitting a rigid surface. Additionally,
forensic ballistics has the potential to assist investigators in ascertaining the identity of
the shooter. One way of achieving this is by examining any residue on the bullet and
comparing it with that found on the suspect’s hand or body, the firearm used or any
other object recovered from the crime site.
Remarkable ways of linking a Gun to a Crime Scene

Although guns and bullets are associated with the most serious and deadly crimes, they
also tend to leave behind the most explicit evidence. The crucial clues sought by crime
scene investigators include bullet cavities, shell casings, blood spatter patterns and
even dropped weapon(s). Once the crime scene has been photographed, diagrammed
and all evidence listed, the bullet casings, bullet fragments and other significant
evidence are gathered, preserved and transferred to forensic labs for study. In case of
bullets embedded in furniture or soft plaster, the portion around and containing the
bullet is carefully removed. This ensures that the channel made by the bullet is
preserved for further study by forensic experts.

The theory underpinning forensic ballistics is that all firearms possess distinctive
features that in turn impart distinctive markings or “toolmarks” onto projectiles and
cartridge casings when the weapon is fired. Using a microscope, firearms examiners
compare toolmarks found on spent projectiles and cartridge casings to determine
whether they were fired from a particular weapon, generally by comparing projectiles
and cartridge casings found at the scene of a crime or in an autopsy with one’s test-fired
from a seized weapon.

Although Forensic Ballistics is currently allowed in the courtroom through the testimony
of qualified government and occasionally academic experts recently judges are
examining the underpinnings of the science and questioning the precision of
identification in the testimony. This has resulted in rulings, which limit the once accepted
“a match to the exclusion of all other weapons in the world” testimony of experts.

Forensic Ballistics experts use markings on shell casings or bullets to determine the
match to a particular weapon. Once the evidence chain of custody is proven a court is
concerned with matching of markings to prove the identification of a weapon associated
with the suspect.

Currently forensic ballistics testimony is allowed if the court is satisfied with the
evidence and the qualifications of the expert. The history of gun identification and
current state of forensic ballistics will provide a glimpse into the world of forensic
ballistics allowing one to better understand the complexity of the issue.

The Philippine National Police issued a memorandum to make Mandatory Examination

of All Firearms, Shells and Slugs Recovered During Police Operations.

Be informed that the PNP has very recently acquired the Integrated Ballistics
Identification System (IBIS) and it is now being operated and maintained by the PNP
Crime Laboratory. The IBIS is a computer-based system which has the capability to
capture, store, rapidly compare and retrieve digital images of cartridge casings (shells)
and bullets for the purpose of connecting or tracing this to the guns from which these
were fired. The IBIS therefore provides a more efficient firearm cross-matching
capability for the PNP.

The IBIS technology greatly enhances the capability of the PNP to investigate and
cross-match criminal incidents that involve firearms. However, this multi-million
investment of the PNP will not be effective or it might even put to naught if it cannot
build up on its crime database which can only be obtained from the field thru the
submission of all seized/recovered/captured firearms, cartridges and slugs to the CL for
processing and examination.

Ballistics experts often conduct comparative examinations of two bullets to determine if

their rifling patterns match and if they came from the same gun. This can be useful in
prosecutions by identifying a suspect based on his or her possession of the firearm
used to fire the bullets found at the crime scene.

The Use of Forensic Ballistics in the Courtroom

1. When the evidence and testimony will assist a jury in reaching a verdict by having the
benefit of the opinion, as well as the information needed to evaluate the limitations of
such an opinion and the weight it deserves.

2. The defense counsel is furnished in discovery with the documentation needed to

prepare an effective cross-examination or sufficient date to repeat the expert’s
identification in an attempt to rebut the government’s expert witness.

3. The jury is provided necessary background concerning the theory and methodology
of forensic ballistics.

4. Where an opinion matching a particular firearm to recovered projectiles or cartridge

casings, if necessary is limited to a “reasonable degree of ballistic certainty”.

Currently forensic ballistics testimony is allowed if the court is satisfied with the
evidence and the qualifications of the expert.