Endogenous processes on Earth take place within or in the interior of Earth.

The driving forc vbe is the

Most of the thermal energy originates from the decay and disintegration of radioactive elements in
Earth's core. The endogenous processes on Earth are responsible for earthquakes, of continents
Mountain building, volcanic activities, and other movements related to Earth's crust. Here are some of
the endogenic processes that play a role in the evolution of landforms on Earth: Magmatism, Volcanism,
Metamorphism

1. Magmatism – magma is the original material that make up igneous rock. Originally found
beneath the surface of the earth. Magma is very hot and is constantly moved by the internal
heat that reaches the mantle of Earth through convective flow. Magmatism happens magma is
generated and develops into igneous (magmatic) rocks. The process can take place either under
the surface or on the surface of Earth.
2. Volcanism - It is the process that usually happens after magma is formed. Magma tries to escape
from the source through openings such as volcanoes or existing cracks on the ground. Magma
comes out with extreme heat and pressure and may cause destructive explosions. As soon as
magma reaches the surface of Earth, it is now called lava.
3. Metamorphism - It is the process of changing the materials that make up a rock. The chemical
components and geologic characteristics of the rock changed due to heat and pressure that are
increasing or decreasing. The minerals in the rock may change if the rock does not melt. It
should be noted that rocks changing due to and sedimentation are not considered to have
undergone metamorphism.

FOUR TYPES OF STRESS:

a. Compression - In compression stress, rocks push or squeeze against one another where the
stress produced is directed toward the center. When these rocks meet, the orientation could
either be horizontal or vertical. Horizontally, the crust may thicken or shorten. Vertically, the
crust can thin out or break off. Compressional stress is usually what takes place in folding which
results in mountain building.

b. Tension - In tensional stress, rocks are pulled apart. Rocks may separate in opposite directions.
The rocks may move farther away from one another. It is speculated that this type of stress is
what separated all the continents in the world during the breaking away of the super continent
known as Pangaea.

c. Shearing - In shear stress, some of the portions of a plate at the edges may break away
indifferent directions, eventually making the plate smaller in size. Depending on the conditions
of the environment, shear stress usually happens in different rates at the boundaries of the
plate. The friction caused by this stress can cause earthquakes.

d. Confining - In confining stress, the crust becomes compact, thus making it look smaller. This is
different from shearing as none of its edges break away. However, if breaking away should
happen, the movement would come from the inside. When this happens, the shape or crust can
be retained, though not its weight. Confining stress can cause sinkholes where the inside portion
of the ground have already disintegrated without manifestation on the surface.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

 In 1912, geophysicist Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) developed the concept and hypothesized the
continental drift theory.

 He claimed that Earth used to have only one supergiant land mass where all the continents
came from. He called this massive land mass Pangaea.

 According to the hypothesis, Pangaea broke apart and each landmass "drifted" away from each
other in different locations.

 Initially, two giant continents were formed: Laurasia which comprised the northern continents
of today's times, and Gondwanaland which comprised the continents in the present southern
hemisphere.

 The separation continued until the present-day continents were formed. Wegener supported his
theory with references from past authors with similar ideas, such as Eduard Suess (1831-1914)
who also recognized the existence of Gondwanaland.

 Suess is better known to have proposed the existence of Tethys Sea, the only recognized body of
water during those ancient times.

EVIDENCES ABOUT CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

1. Similarity of fossils found in different continents - Many similar plant and animal fossils were
found in continents that are presently far from each other such that it is unimaginable for an
animal to have flown or swum to get to the other continent.
 For example, the fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile, was found in Brazil and in
Africa. Freshwater reptiles are not capable of swimming to distances between
continents unless the continents of Africa and South America were once together.
 Still another interesting find was the Glossopteris, a fern plant, which was found to have
thrived in five different continents (Africa, India, Australia, South America, and
Antarctica) that are presently separated by oceans and seas and are thus miles away
from one another.
 With the absence of flying vehicles during that time, it would be impossible for any
avian organism to have carried with it seeds of this fern for pollination as it flew from
continent to continent unless again, those continents were close to each other. Only the
drifting of continents could explain this phenomenon.

2. Presence of tillites in areas whose present climates do not suggest glacial formation – Tillites
are glacial deposits from rock strata in areas that were once covered with snow. These deposits
were found in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica, and Australia. It is
understandable if tillites are found in polar climates or areas where there is snow. However, for
places that are presently known to be tropical and desert-like, such as Africa, Madagascar, and
India, finding ice deposits would seem unreasonable if not for the concept of drifting continents.
 3. Presence of coal seams in polar regions - Wegener used to question why coal would be found in
polar regions such as the North Pole and Antarctica because usually, coal is found in tropical
areas because the climate is warm and ideal for propagation of organisms.
4. Continuity of rock layers found in different continents. - Rock layers may be prolled to determine
the history, age, and composition of materials in the environment. Part of the evidences of
continental drift is the similarity of rock layers found in mountains that are on the opposite sides
of the Atlantic Ocean.
5. Similarity of rock types in different continents - The rock types found in Brazil, India, South
Africa, and Antarctica seem to have similar layers and sequence.

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

As early as 1929, Arthur Holmes (1890-1965), a British geologist, suggested the idea of thermal
convection as the driving force for the movement of the continents.

 The concept of thermal convection, as Holmes put it, is based on the fact that as a substance is
heated, its density decreases and rises to the surface until it is cooled and then sinks again. The
repeating process of heating and cooling may produce a current that is strong enough to make
continents move.

 Holmes further suggested that thermal convection works like a conveyor belt" where the
pressure that goes up could break apart a continent.

 The broken pieces can be carried by the same currents to opposite directions.

 In the later years, the concept of thermal convection was changed to mantle convection
currents to specify that the heat is actually radiating from the mantle.

 While the basis for the movement of continents progressed, geologists started to use a more
precise term to refer to the moving piece of crust as "plate" because itis believed that
continents are not the only ones moving(as explained by Wegener).

 The boundaries of tectonic plates were accidentally discovered and eventually studied during
the magnetic surveys of the ocean floor and the seismic studies for nuclear testing.

 As a background, the lithosphere refers to the crust and the upper mantle of Earth. It is broken
up into several tectonic plates that glide over the mantle.

 Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere (oceans and seas) and a denser and thicker
continental lithosphere (land).

 After the plate boundaries were discovered, scientists were able to identify the seven major
plates (Pacific Plate, Eurasian Plate, North American Plate, South American Plate, Indo-
Australian Plate, Antarctic Plate, and African Plate) and several minor plates, one of which is the
Philippine plate.

TYPES OF BOUNDARIES

a. Convergent (collisional) boundaries are where plates meet.

-They are driven by compressional forces.

-One is trenches from subduction where a less dense plate sinks (subducts) under the other plate, while
the other is mountain sand volcanoes where neither plate is subducted but instead is pushed upward or
sideward.

-Convergent boundaries are where most of the destruction of crust takes place, specifically in the
subduction zone.

b. Divergent plates are where plates move away from each other.

-Plates move apart because of the magma that is being pushed upward in boundaries of the plates.

-When this happens, the slowly moving plates transport newly formed crust away from the ridge toward
the directions where the plates go.

C. Transform boundaries

-Neither plate gets subdued Plates slide past each other and the sudden movement can cause
earthquakes.

-Transform faults usually happen in the fracture zone in areas that connect spreading centers deep-sea
trenches in subduction zones. There are transform faults near Taiwan and the Philippine Trench.