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Stainless Steel Guidelines For Corrosion Prevention

Technical Report · September 2014

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2740.6882

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Stainless Steels
in Architecture,
Building and
Construction

Guidelines for
Corrosion Prevention
Nickel Institute Reference Book Series No 11 024
Stainless Steels
in Architecture,
Building and
Construction

T he material presented in this publication has been

prepared for the general information of the reader
and should not be used or relied on for specific
applications without first securing competent advice.

The Nickel Institute, its members, staff,

and consultants do not represent or warrant its
suitability for any general or specific use and assume no lia-
bility or responsibility of any kind in connection with
the information herein.

This report was prepared by Catherine Houska,

Technical Marketing Resources Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, USA,
consultant to the Nickel Institute.

Front Cover: The Gateway Arch (completed in 1965)

in St. Louis, Missouri, is the second largest structural
application for stainless in the world (904 metric tons)
and is exposed to moderate pollution levels. The exterior
Type 304 plate has a No. 3 polished finish and is cleaned
only by natural rain washing.
(Courtesy United States National Park Service)
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Design, Fabrication, Maintenance and Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Practical Guidelines for Design and Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Surface Finish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Atmospheric Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Atmospheric Exposure Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Selecting Suitable Grades for Specific Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Rural Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Urban Sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Industrial Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Coastal and Marine Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Deicing Salt Exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Sheltered Exterior Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Atmospheric Corrosion Comparisons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Mechanical Properties After Long-Term Atmospheric Exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Sample Photos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Forms of Stainless Steel Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Tarnishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Galvanic Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Embedded or Transferred Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Erosion-Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking, SCC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Environmental Benefit of Stainless Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Trade Names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
BLANK
 INTRODUCTION
Stainless steel is one of the most durable
materials used in architecture, building, and
construction. With appropriate grade and finish
selection, design, fabrication, and maintenance,
the appearance and properties of the stainless
steel will remain unchanged over the life of the
building. These properties make stainless steel a
popular choice for buildings designed to last 100
or more years, aggressive environments,
applications where security is a concern, and
high traffic areas.

Stainless steels are corrosion-resistant because

they form a thin, protective passive film on their
surface. This film forms spontaneously when
chromium in the stainless steel reacts with
oxygen in the air. If the film is damaged or
removed during fabrication or polishing, it self-
repairs quickly as long as the stainless steel
surface is clean. Because stainless steels do
not suffer general corrosion and become thinner,
the term “corrosion allowance” has no meaning
in stainless steel structural design.

Atmospheric corrosion, tarnishing, pitting, crevice

corrosion, embedded iron, erosion/corrosion,
galvanic corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking
can impact the performance and appearance of
building materials. This brochure discusses these
issues and stainless steel’s performance relative
to other construction materials.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•3

 they may get wet. This can be achieved using
DESIGN, inert washers, protective coatings like paint,
FABRICATION, and other physical barriers that prevent direct
MAINTENANCE AND contact. Dissimilar metals should be avoided in
applications where standing water is likely and
SURFACE FINISH it is not possible to insulate the metals.

PRACTICAL GUIDELINES FOR • If the design requires welding sections

heavier than about 0.125 inches (3 mm)
DESIGN AND FABRICATION and the weld area will be exposed to a
corrosive environment, use low carbon
This section provides an overview of general versions of the stainless steels (e.g., 304L
or 316L) to reduce the risk of sensitization and
design considerations. Examples of designs that
improve weld corrosion resistance.
can cause corrosion and alternate designs that
help prevent corrosion are illustrated. Qualified, • If a filler metal is used in welding, its
experienced stainless steel fabricators and corrosion resistance should be equivalent
contractors will be familiar with these guidelines, to or greater than the corrosion resistance
of the base metal.
but it is important for the designer to know them
as well. When designing and fabricating in
• Weld imperfections, such as blowholes,
stainless steel: cracks, slag or weld spatter, are potential sites
for corrosion and should be repaired
• Evaluate the environment and probable or removed.
cleaning regime to determine the likelihood of
accumulated deposits and air pollutants such • Visible welds should be ground smooth and
as soot, iron oxide particles, sulphur dioxide, polished to match the parent metal surface
and salt exposure before selecting the finish, taking care to remove any traces of
stainless steel grade. spatter and heat tint.

• Use a design that allows rain to rinse away • Do not use abrasive polishing or blasting
surface deposits. materials that have been used previously
on carbon steel. This will embed carbon steel
• Specify a higher grade of stainless steel in in the surface.
sheltered areas that are not washed regularly.
• Clean tools and work areas previously used for
• Seal crevices in areas exposed to carbon steel to remove iron particles and
moisture and/or aggressive corrodants. prevent their transfer to the stainless steel
surface.
• Use a stainless steel fastener with
equivalent or higher corrosion resistance than • Protect the stainless steel during fabrication,
the component being fastened. shipping, and installation with paper or
strippable plastic film.
• Never use carbon steel brushes or steel wool
on stainless steel. Use stainless steel brushes • Clean grease, oil, lubricants, paint, and
or soft-bristle brushes made of an inert crayon markings from the surface prior to
material. welding to prevent weld contamination.
Surface chromium depletion and a
subsequent reduction of corrosion
• Never use hydrochloric or muriatic acid on
resistance may be caused by inadequate gas
or around stainless steels. If muriatic acid is
shielding during welding or insufficient heat tint
accidentally splashed on stainless, it should be
removal.
washed immediately with large quantities of
water before the acid severely damages the
stainless steel. Stainless steel is specified for its corrosion
resistance and long service life. Even with
• Dissimilar metals should be electrically appropriate grade selection, corrosion problems
isolated from each other in applications where can occur in crevices and areas where water

4•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

collects. The design rules for other a
­ rchitectural
Table 1 International cross-reference to mill
metals are also important for stainless steel.
and polished finishes
Examples of design details that can lead to
Finish Type USA (ASTM A 480) Japan (JSSA) European Standard EN 10088
corrosion problems and alternatives that
minimize the potential for corrosion are shown Mill 2D 2D 2D
2B 2B 2B
in Figure 1.1, 21 Bright annealed (BA) BA 2R
Polished No. 3 No. 3 1G or 2G
No. 4 No. 4 1J or 2J
SURFACE FINISH – No. 240 1K or 2K
No. 7 No. 7 1P or 2P
No. 8 1P or 2P
Surface roughness is an important factor in
Note: In the European Standard, 1 indicates a hot rolled product and
corrosion performance in exterior applications. 2 a cold rolled product.
Table 1 provides an international cross-reference
to common finishes and Table 2 and Figure 2 locations. If the location tends to collect dirt and/
show the range of surface roughnesses or a rougher surface finish is selected, it may be
associated with those finishes in North America. necessary to use a more corrosion-resistant
Typical surface roughness ranges vary with the stainless steel to achieve the desired long-term
supplier. Polished finishes produced specifically corrosion performance.
for architecture are usually smoother, and lighter
gauge sheet and strip generally have smoother Electropolishing is sometimes used to make
finishes than heavier gauges. components with a No. 3 or No. 4 polish brighter
and more reflective. It also smoothes the surface,
Research has shown a direct correlation between typically reducing the original surface roughness
surface finish roughness and the likelihood of by about half, which can improve corrosion
corrosion.2 Smoother surface finishes typically performance.
retain less dirt and debris, and provide better
corrosion performance than rougher finishes. For Some finishes have obvious directionality. These
that reason, European Standard EN 10088 include the rougher polished (No. 3 and No. 4)
recommends a surface roughness of Ra 20 and embossed finishes. The surface will collect
micro-inches or 0.5 microns or less for polished less dirt and rain washing will be more effective if
finishes used in environments with high levels of the finish grain orientation is vertical rather than
particulate, corrosive pollution, and/or salt horizontal.
exposure and in applications where regular
maintenance is unlikely. Similar guidelines should MAINTENANCE
be followed for finishes produced by means other
than polishing. Stainless steel looks best and provides maximum
corrosion resistance when it is cleaned regularly.
For most coined or embossed finishes, the Corrosion may occur if dirt, grime and surface
roughness of the finish should be measured prior stains containing corrosive substances are left on
to pressing the pattern into the metal. There are the stainless steel surface. Routine cleaning
two exceptions. If the coined or embossed finish preserves stainless steel’s appearance. The
simulates another finish such as abrasive blasting frequency of cleaning will depend on aesthetic
or polishing, or if the pattern is likely to retain dirt requirements, severity of the environment,
and debris, the roughness of the final finish suitability of the stainless steel grade and finish for
should be measured. that environment, the presence or lack of heavy
rains to clean the surface, and the design.
Dirt accumulations are greater on horizontal
or semi-horizontal surfaces and in sheltered

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•5

Figure 1 Unsuitable metal design details for locations with potential
corrosion problems and typical solutions1, 21
Problem Typical Solution Problem Typical Solution
Backs of double angle create Design as single Dirt accumulates and mois- Consider using welded
a crevice where dirt and angle truss, or ture penetrates into crevices or butt-welded joints
moisture can accumulate use T-section created by bolted joints or sealing with mastic

Potential corrosion due to Close crevice by Lapped joint creates Arrange joint so that ledge
angles creating a crevice sealing or welding ledge exposed to weather is not on the weather side

Sharp corners and Round corners and Gussets create pockets Design without gussets
discontinuous welding continuous welding for dirt and moisture or allow drainage

Channels or I-beams could Invert section or design

collect dirt and moisture to avoid retention of
moisture and dirt

6•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

Figure 1 Unsuitable metal design details for locations with potential
(cont’d) corrosion problems and typical solutions1, 21
Problem Typical Solution Problem Typical Solution
Possible crevice corrosion Avoid crevice corrosion Angle collects Invert angle
where stainless steel with sealant dirt and moisture
enters concrete

Welding only the bottom of Weld the top of the joint

the joint creates a crevice

Base and bolts at ground Column baseplate Reinforcement Leave gap to allow drainage
level result in water retention above ground level. prevents drainage
and corrosion Holding-down bolts not
exposed to corrosion.
Stalk of column well
clear of ground level.
Slope for drainage.

A crevice is created Use a straight member

by welding a curved and weld both sides
member at one end

Table 2 Typical surface roughness ranges

for cold rolled sheet and strip from
North American stainless steel suppliers
ASTM A 480 Finish Ra and RMS Surface Roughness Equivalents
Descriptions Ra, micro-inches Ra, microns RMS, micro-inches RMS, microns

2D 5.0–39.0 0.13–1.0 6.4–49.2 0.16–1.25

2B 2.4–20.0 0.06–0.51 3.0–25.1 0.08–0.64
BA 0.5–4.0 0.01–0.10 0.49–4.9 0.01–0.13
#3 10.0–43.0 0.25–1.10 12.3–54.1 0.31–1.37
#4 7.0–25.0 0.18–0.64 8.9–31.5 0.23–0.80
6 12.0–18.0 0.30–0.46 14.8–22.6 0.37–0.57
7 2.4–8.0 0.06–0.20 3.0–9.8 0.07–0.25
8 0.74–4.0 0.019–0.10 0.9–4.9 0.02–0.13
Super No. 8 0.4–0.8 0.01–0.02 0.5–1.0 0.01–0.03
Hairline 5.5–8.0 0.14–0.20 6.9–9.8 0.18–0.25
Electropolished 4.0–16.0 0.10–0.41 4.9–20.2 0.13–0.50
Note: Data for sheet and strip were obtained from North American suppliers. The
highest and lowest values were used to create the surface roughness range and
include both light and heavy gauges. Lighter gauges generally have smoother
finishes than heavier gauges and would be at the bottom end of the range.
Surface roughness will vary across sheet width and length.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•7

 Figure 2 Typical surface roughness ranges for cold rolled sheet
and strip from North American stainless steel suppliers

Electropolished

Hairline

Super #8
Finish Descriptions

#4

#3

BA

2B

2D

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Ra, micro-inches

When possible, designs should take advantage not contain chlorides can be used on bare
of natural rain washing and include building stainless steel. More aggressive cleaning can
washing systems. Designing for rain cleaning damage the finish and the supplier should be
and stainless steel grade and finish selection consulted before proceeding. It is best to test
are particularly important in structures that will cleaning products on a stainless steel sample or
never or rarely be cleaned, like industrial inconspicuous location before use. Although
buildings and monumental structures such as buildings can often be restored to their original
the Gateway Arch. appearance after many years of neglect, remedial
cleaning is more costly and can have uncertain
Stainless steel is easy to clean and regular results. Cleaning guidelines can be found in the
cleaning with appropriate products will not NI publication 11 014, Guidelines for
change the appearance of the finish over time. Maintenance and Cleaning.
Loose dirt is rinsed off with clean water. A mild
detergent or 5% ammonia and water solution is
applied with a soft clean cloth. This is rinsed off
with clean water and then wiped or squeegeed
dry. A soft-bristle brush can be used to loosen
dirt and a degreaser to remove oil stains.
Cleaning products should not contain chlorides
or harsh abrasives.

If the surface has been neglected or there

are stubborn deposits, a mild, non-acidic,
non-scratching, abrasive powder that does

8•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

Courtesy Technical Marketing Resources, Inc.
Type 316,
2B finish.

Type 302,
2B finish.

Courtesy Technical Marketing Resources, Inc.

Type 316,
No. 4 polish.

Type 302,
No. 4 polish.

These Type 316 and 302 samples were exposed 800 feet (250 metres) from the ocean for forty years at Kure Beach,
North Carolina with only natural rain cleaning.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•9

 appropriate stainless steel. Localized pollution
ATMOSPHERIC
and the direction of the prevailing winds can
CORROSION
cause differences in the corrosiveness of sites
ATMOSPHERIC that are only a few miles or kilometres apart.
EXPOSURE TESTING
For testing and material selection, service
Potentially corrosive atmospheric pollutants, environments are classified as rural, urban,
wind-borne marine salt, temperature, humidity, industrial, and marine. These categories refer
rainfall, and deicing salt exposure must be taken to the general environment and not to localized
into consideration when selecting an conditions such as the immediate proximity of a
source of strong pollution like a smokestack.
Courtesy Specialty Steel Industry of North America
Possible environmental changes during the
building life should be evaluated. For example,
will a rural site become urban or industrial?

Within each category, levels of severity have

been established. To classify the severity of
an environment, rainfall, air temperature, pollution
and other factors have been monitored.
Because no two environments are exactly alike,
the data should be used as a general
performance guideline for localities with similar
pollution levels and climate in conjunction with
the guidelines in Table 3.

Carbon steel calibrating samples are used to

compare the severity of atmospheric corrosion
test sites around the world.3,4 See Table 4.
Comparative metal corrosion data from many
of these sites is provided in this brochure. This
data can be used in conjunction with Table 4 and
a thorough evaluation of the site to predict
probable metal performance in locations with
similar environments and carbon steel corrosion
rates. Although some of these sites are in
locations where deicing salts are used, the
calibrating samples were not exposed to salt.
Salt exposure makes an environment much more
Above – The Inland Steel Building aggressive. The likelihood of deicing salt
(completed in 1957) is on a busy street exposure should be considered when evaluating
the severity of sites.
in downtown Chicago and has Type 302
exterior wall panels with a No. 4 polish.
An electrolyte must be present for corrosion
They are exposed to deicing salt and
to occur. An electrolyte is a water solution
pollution. The panels have always been
that can conduct an electric current because
cleaned three to four times per year
it contains chemicals, such as chlorides. The
when the windows are washed.
water could come from rain, condensation of
It is in excellent condition.

10•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

 Table 3 Characteristics of the most and the least
corrosive environments
Most Corrosive Least Corrosive

• High pollution levels, especially sulfur dioxide(SO2), chlorides and • Low pollution levels
solid particles • Low rainfall with low humidity or
• Low to moderate rainfall with moderate to high persistent humidity heavy, frequent rainfall
• Moderate to high temperatures with moderate to high humidity • Low air temperatures, especially
and/or condensation extended periods below 32°F (0°C)
• Frequent, salt-laden ocean fog and low rainfall • High air temperatures with low
• Sheltered locations exposed to salt or corrosive pollutants humidity

Table 4 Corrosion rates of carbon steel calibrating samples at various test sites
Test Site Atmosphere Corrosion rate
mils/year mm/year

Canada
Norman Wells, Northwest Territories Polar 0.03 0.001
Esquimalt, Vancouver Island, British Columbia Rural marine 0.5 0.013
Montreal, Quebec Urban 0.9 0.023
Trail, British Columbia Industrial 1.3 0.033
England
Dungeness Industrial marine 19.22 0.49
Pilsey Island Industrial marine 4.04 0.103
London, Battersea Industrial 1.8 0.046
Panama
Fort Amidor Pier Tropical marine 0.57 0.014
Limon Bay Tropical marine 2.45 0.062
Miraflores Tropical marine 1.69 0.043
Galeta Point Tropical marine 27.14 0.69
South Africa
Durban, Salisbury Island Marine 2.20 0.056
Durban Bluff Severe marine 10.22 0.26
Cape Town Docks Mild marine 1.84 0.047
Walvis Bay military base Severe marine 4.33 0.11
Simmonstown Marine 0.63 0.016
United States
Phoenix, Arizona Rural arid 0.18 0.005
Point Reyes, California Marine 19.71 0.50
Waterbury, Connecticut Industrial 0.89 0.023
Cape Canaveral, Florida Marine
0.5 miles (0.8 km) from ocean 3.39 0.086
180 ft (55 m) from ocean
elevation 60 ft (18 m) 6.48 0.165
elevation 30 ft (9 m) 17.37 0.44
ground level 5.17 0.131
Beach 42.0 1.070
Daytona Beach, Florida Marine 11.63 0.295
East Chicago, Indiana Industrial 3.3 0.084
Detroit, Michigan Industrial 0.57 0.015
Moenci, Michigan Urban 0.77 0.020
Durham, New Hampshire Rural 1.1 0.028
Kure Beach, North Carolina Marine
800 ft (250 m) from ocean 5.73 0.145
80 ft (25 m) from ocean 21.0 0.53
Newark, New Jersey Industrial 2.0 0.051
Bayonne, New Jersey Industrial 3.1 0.079
Cleveland, Ohio Industrial 1.5 0.038
Columbus, Ohio Industrial 1.3 0.033
Middletown, Ohio Semi-industrial 1.1 0.028
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Industrial 1.5 0.038
Monroeville, Pennsylvania Semi-industrial 1.9 0.048
State College, Pennsylvania Rural 0.9 0.023
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Industrial 1.2 0.030
Potter County, Pennsylvania Rural 0.8 0.020
Brazos River, Texas Industrial marine 3.7 0.094

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•11

 humidity, or fog. The pattern and quantity of applications. The 400-series stainless steels, such
rainfall in an area are critical in determining the as Type 430, are iron-chromium alloys, have a
severity of an environment. Especially wet or ferritic microstructure and are magnetic.
especially dry climates tend to be less corrosive
but there are exceptions to this rule. If surfaces Types 316, 304, and 430 have been tested
are regularly damp because there are small extensively in rural, urban, industrial, and marine
amounts of rain at frequent intervals, persistent environments. In most applications, one of these
high humidity, regular fog or another source of stainless steels will meet aesthetic and service life
moisture and there are corrosive deposits on the criteria.
surface, a potentially aggressive environment
exists. Small amounts of moisture will not wash Highly alloyed stainless steels are sometimes
deposits from the surface and will combine with needed for aggressive environments. Because
them to create a corrosive solution. the corrosion resistance and mechanical
properties of these grades span a broad range, a
Heavier rains dilute the electrolyte and provide a specialist should be consulted for optimal material
washing action to remove potentially harmful selection. The following more highly alloyed
deposits. Thus a simple indication of annual austenitic grades are listed in order of increasing
rainfall at a particular site is not sufficient to corrosion resistance: Type 317L (S31703), Type
determine the severity of that location. 317LMN (S31726), Alloy 904L (N08904), and the
6% molybdenum stainless steels (i.e., S31254,
Air temperature is often reported and can N08367, N08926). Duplex stainless steels such
have contradictory effects. Corrosion proceeds as 2205 (S32205/S31803) have been used for
more rapidly with increasing temperatures but, if structural applications and provide corrosion
higher temperatures are associated with low performance that is comparable to 904L and
humidity, the water will quickly evaporate and the Type 317LMN. This list is not exhaustive and
corrosion risk will be reduced. other highly alloyed stainless steels may be
selected for specific applications.
SELECTING SUITABLE GRADES
FOR SPECIFIC LOCATIONS Alloying element additions enhance and modify
material properties. Molybdenum improves
The most commonly used stainless steels resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion and is
for architectural applications are Types 304 particularly helpful in preventing chloride damage.
(S30400) and 316 (S31600). The 300-series Increasing chromium improves overall corrosion
stainless steels, such as Types 304 and 316, are resistance and nickel increases toughness,
iron-chromium-nickel alloys. They have ductility, weldability, and resistance to reducing
an austenitic microstructure, which combines acids. Table 5 shows the chemical composition of
strength with ductility, and are not magnetic. The these stainless steels.
low carbon grades, Type 304L (S30403) and
Type 316L (S31603), improve weld corrosion Table 6 presents grade selection guidelines based
resistance when section thicknesses are greater on long-term stainless steel exposure data for
than about 0.125 inches (3 mm). marine and polluted locations reported by Baker
The general corrosion resistance of Type 304 and Lee5, Chandler6, Karlssen and Olsson7, and
is equivalent to Type 304L, and Type 316 is Evans.8,9 The location categories refer to general
equivalent to Type 316L. conditions. Localized factors, such as proximity to
a flue discharging corrosive gases, must be
Type 430 (UNS S43000) is less corrosion- considered when selecting an appropriate
resistant and less frequently used in exterior stainless steel.

12•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

 Table 5 Unified Numbering System (UNS) chemical compositions*
UNS No. Common or C Cr Cu Mn Mo N Ni P S Si Fe
Trade Name

S43000 430 0.12 16.0–18.0 – 1.00 – – – 0.040 0.030 1.00 rem

S30400 304 0.08 18.0–20.0 – 2.00 – – 8.0–10.5 0.045 0.030 1.00 rem
S31254 254 SMO 0.020 19.5–20.5 0.50–1.00 1.00 6.0–6.5 0.180–0.220 17.5–18.5 0.030 0.010 0.80 rem
S31600 316 0.08 16.0–18.0 – 2.00 2.00–3.00 – 10.0–14.0 0.045 0.030 1.00 rem
S31703 317L 0.030 18.0–20.0 – 2.00 3.0–4.0 – 11.0–15.0 0.045 0.030 1.00 rem
S31726 317LMN 0.03 17.0–20.0 0.75 2.00 4.0–5.0 0.10–0.20 13.5–17.5 0.045 0.030 0.75 rem
S31803 2205 0.030 21.0–23.0 – 2.00 2.5–3.5 0.08–0.20 4.5–6.5 0.030 0.020 1.00 rem
S32205 2205 0.030 22.0–23.0 – 2.00 3.0–3.5 0.14–0.20 4.5–6.5 0.030 0.020 1.00 rem
N08367 AL-6XN 0.030 20.0–22.0 – 2.00 6.0–7.0 0.18–0.25 23.5–25.5 0.040 0.030 1.00 rem
N08904 904L 0.020 19.0–23.0 1.00–2.00 2.00 4.0–5.0 – 23.0–28.0 0.045 0.035 1.00 rem
N08926 0.020 19.0–21.0 0.5–1.5 2.00 6.0–7.0 0.15–0.25 24.0–26.0 0.030 0.010 0.50 rem
* Maximum unless a range is given.

Smoother surface finishes provide better

RURAL SITES resistance to tarnishing and regular washing
helps retain a pristine finish.
Locations categorized as “rural” are not exposed
to industrial atmospheric discharges or coastal or Type 316/316L with a smooth surface finish
deicing salts. Suburban areas with low retains a bright appearance. Rougher surface
population densities and light, non-polluting finishes like a No. 3 or No. 4 polish may
industry may also be categorized as rural. Both experience slight tarnishing. Washing is not
migrant air pollution and future development generally necessary to maintain corrosion
should be considered when categorizing a site. performance although dirt film removal improves
appearance.
Type 430 will suffer light to moderate
staining and rusting on both exposed URBAN SITES
and sheltered surfaces. Smoother surface
finishes and regular washing help reduce Urban sites include residential, commercial
corrosion although some loss of brightness and light industrial locations with low to moderate
should be expected. pollution from vehicular traffic
and similar sources.
Type 304/304L exposed surfaces are
virtually unattacked but sheltered surfaces could Type 430 can become quite heavily rusted,
experience minor discolouration. especially in sheltered areas where pollutants

Table 6 Grade selection guidelines

Grade (Type) Location
Rural/Suburb Urban Industrial Marine/Deicing Salt
L M H L M H L M H L M H

Highly Alloyed ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ● ■ ■ ●
316, 316L ■ ■ ■ ■ ● ● ● ● (●) ● ● (●)
304, 304L ● ● ● ● ● (●) (●) (●) ✖ ● (●) ✖
430 ● (●) (●) ✖ ✖ ✖ ✖ ✖ ✖ ✖ ✖ ✖

L Least corrosive conditions within that category due to low humidity and low temperatures
M Fairly typical of category
H Corrosion is likely to be higher than typical for the category due to persistent high humidity, high ambient temperatures,
and/or particularly aggressive air pollution
■ Good service, but may be over-specified
● Most economical choice
✖ Corrosion likely
( ) Indicates that the grade may be suitable if a smooth surface finish is selected and it is washed regularly

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•13

Courtesy Allegheny Ludlum Corp.

Above the third floor, New York City’s

150 East 42nd Street (completed in 1954)
has Type 302 exterior wall panels with a 2B
finish (surface roughness of Ra 15 micro
inches or Ra 0.3 µm). Although their height
protected them from deicing salt, they were
exposed to pollution and coastal salt. They
were cleaned for the first time in 1995,
restoring their appearance. The Chrysler
Building can be seen in the background.
It is also Type 302 and has the same finish
and surface roughness. It has been cleaned
twice since 1930.

Courtesy J & L Specialty Steel

14•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

These Jones Beach,
New York, street
lights (installed in
1967) are Type 316
with a No. 4
polished finish.
They are exposed to
coastal and deicing
salts.

Courtesy Alpha Manufacturing, Orlando, Florida

Type 316
toll booths
are used in
Massachusetts,
New Jersey,
Florida and
where they
are exposed
to coastal salt,
automotive
pollution,
and, in the
northern states,
deicing salt.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•15

are not washed off by rain. Neither the surface Type 316/316L performs well in most locations.
finish nor regular washing has a significant effect A light tarnish or staining may develop but can
on performance. be minimized by regular washing and specifying
smoother finishes. For extremely aggressive
Type 304/304L can experience slight tarnishing. conditions, a more highly alloyed stainless steel
Regular washing will reduce this tarnishing. In may be needed.
most cases, smoother surface finishes provide
better performance. COASTAL AND MARINE SITES

Type 316/316L performs well with little or Seawater contains a mixture of salts. It is typically
no tarnishing. Regular cleaning is not strictly 2.5 to 4% sodium chloride with smaller quantities
necessary to prevent corrosion but will improve of magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, and
the overall appearance by removing dirt. potassium chloride. Chlorides in airborne sea
spray and dry salt particles may cause pitting and
INDUSTRIAL SITES rusting of stainless steels unless a sufficiently
corrosion-resistant grade is chosen. Evaporation
Industrial sites are locations with moderate and infrequent rain increase salt concentrations on
to heavy atmospheric pollution usually in exterior surfaces and corrosion rates.
the form of sulphur and nitrogen oxides from
coal combustion and gases released from Humidity levels are a critical factor in determining
chemical and process industry plants. Particulate corrosion potential. Each salt begins to absorb
deposits, such as soot from incompletely burned moisture and forms a corrosive solution at
fuel or iron oxides, will increase the severity of the different critical humidity and temperature levels.
environment. See Table 7.10 Corrosion is most severe at this
critical humidity level because the solution is highly
Type 430 is normally attacked quite severely. concentrated. The solution does not form at lower
A smoother finish and/or periodic washing is humidity or temperature levels.11,12 High salt
unlikely to produce a significant improvement. concentrations combined with high ambient
temperatures and moderate humidity create the
Type 304/304L will often suffer moderate to most aggressive conditions.
heavy attack although its performance can be
improved by washing and selecting a smoother The distance airborne salt is carried can vary
finish. In aggressive locations, upgrading to a significantly with local wind patterns. In some
more corrosion-resistant stainless steel may be locations, marine salt accumulations are only a
appropriate. In less aggressive locations, Type factor within the first 0.9 miles or 1.5 km from the
304 may be satisfactory if smooth finishes are shore3. In other locations, salt may be carried
selected, sheltered and low-slope or horizontal much further inland. Japanese researchers found
surfaces are eliminated to encourage natural rain annual salt (sodium chloride) accumulations of
washing, and supplemental washing is used as 4.9 mg/dm2/year at seaside, 3 mg/dm2/year
necessary to remove deposits. 984 feet (300 m) from the water, and

Table 7 Temperature and humidity levels at which selected marine and deicing salts
begin to absorb water and form a corrosive chloride solution
Temperature Critical Humidity Level
°F °C Sodium chloride Calcium chloride Magnesium chloride

77 25 76% 30% 50%

50 10 76% 41% 50%
32 0 – 45% 50%

16•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

1.3 mg/dm2/year 27 miles (50 km) inland.13 high chloride salt deposition rates; proximity to a
rocky shore; saltwater spray, splashing or
Figure 3 shows the average chloride concentration immersion; regular high salt content light rain or
(mg/l) in rainfall across the United States. The salt fog; minimal annual rainfall; high particulate
chlorides in rainwater are primarily marine salts accumulation; or high levels of industrial pollution.
carried inland by weather patterns.3 Figure 4 In such cases, a corrosion specialist's advice is
shows the influence of deicing and marine salts, suggested.
corrosive pollutants and particulate on North
American vehicle corrosion and is equally relevant DEICING SALT EXPOSURE
for street-level applications. SO2 and NOx can
form sulfuric and nitric acid in the atmosphere and Typically, salt accumulations on handrails,
become acid rain. This does not show the severity doorstops, and other street-level applications are
of some west coast locations. US National heavier in areas where deicing salt is used than
Atmospheric Deposition Database chloride in coastal locations. Deicing salt carried by road
deposition data should be referenced. Deicing salt mist and wind has been found as high as the
use has doubled since this map was developed 59th floor of buildings and up to 1.2 miles (1.9
expanding the size of the moderate and severe km) downwind from busy highways. The Nickel
corrosion areas. Institute article, “De-Icing Salt – Recognizing the
Corrosion Threat”, provides more detailed
Generally, locations within five to ten miles information. Figure 4 shows the impact of deicing
(9 to 18 km) of salt water are considered at salt use on motor vehicle corrosion and coastal
risk for chloride-related corrosion, but local exposure on street-level corrosion in North
weather patterns and the performance of metals America.
near the site should be evaluated prior to material
selection. To accelerate corrosion testing, most Deicing salt is typically a mixture of calcium
sites are on or near the coast because salt chloride and sodium chloride. Salt gradually
concentrations are higher. begins to absorb water and forms a corrosive
chloride solution at critical humidity and
Type 430 experiences severe rusting over a large temperature levels. Corrosion is most severe
proportion of its surface and is unsuitable for at these threshold absorption levels because the
marine exposures. solution is highly concentrated. When several
salts with different critical humidity levels are
Type 304/304L generally performs better combined, the temperature and humidity range
than Type 430 but may experience severe pitting at which corrosion can occur is broadened.
and should be used with caution. Locations which combine the humidity and
temperature ranges shown in Table 710 with
Type 316/316L is commonly used for coastal high levels of deicing salt use and close
architectural applications and will generally proximity to the ocean have the greatest
provide good service. A pristine appearance can chloride corrosion risk.
usually be maintained by selecting a smooth
surface finish and washing regularly to remove Type 316 is usually suitable if there is a regular
contaminants. If unwashed, some discolouration cleaning program to remove salt deposits. In
may occur after long-term exposure. particularly aggressive environments with high
salt and pollution exposure, a more highly alloyed
Type 316 may suffer unacceptable attack and a stainless steel may be needed.
more highly alloyed stainless steel may be
necessary under the following coastal conditions:

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•17

The deicing salt damage visible on this welded Type 304L railing occurred after only one winter in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. Although there was some deicing salt used on the parking lot and stairs, the primary source of salt is a
busy highway several hundred feet downhill from the building. Salt-laden road mist was blown onto the railing by the

Courtesy Technical Marketing Resources, Inc.

18•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

wind and deposited salt. The rough mill finish increased salt
adherence. The discolouration was removed with a mild abrasive
cleaner. Corrosion damage could have been avoided or minimized
with frequent cleaning or selection of Type 316L with smooth finish.

Courtesy Technical Marketing Resources, Inc.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•19

 Figure 3 Average chloride concentration (mg/l) in rainwater
in the United States and the eastern coast of Canada

2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0

0.6 0.4 0.6 4.0
0.3 0.4 8.0
22.58 0.2 0.2 0.3 8.85
2.0
0.31
1.0 0.20
0.17 0.26
0.6 0.68 0.13
0.1
0.15 0.14 0.10 0.25
0.21 0.08
0.27 0.23
0.22 1.19
0.27 0.11 0.2
0.6 0.15
0.31 0.40 3.89
0.35 0.14
0.27 0.17
0.67 0.35
1.0 0.16
0.23
2.0 0.1
0.13
0.17 0.09 0.27 6.90 12.41
2.0
0.5 0.24 0.21 0.62 8.0
0.4 0.3
0.35
0.3 0.43
0.37 1.02 4.0
0.4
0.76 0.66
0.6 3.81 0.80
1.0 2.44
21.96 1.0
2.0
4.0 1.0 2.0
4.0 8.0 8.0 2.0

Figure 4 North American corrosion environment for vehicles and street-level applications

Negligible
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Extremely
Severe

20•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

Courtesy Lohan Associates, Architect, and James Steinkamp, Steinkamp Ballogg Photography

Chicago’s Blue Cross Building

(completed in 1998) has
Type 316 exterior wall panels
for the first 30 feet to avoid
deicing salt damage. The
remaining panels are Type 304.
The panels have a lightly coined
finish that resembles fabric.

G. Stone for Nickel Institute

This highly
polished
Type 316
bike rack in
Toronto, Ontario,
is exposed to
deicing salts
and automotive
pollution.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•21

 Table 8 Grade selection for roof applications
Environment Rural and Suburban Coastal, Industrial, Severe Urban
Application Roof or wall, Eaves and under-eave Roof or wall, Eaves and under-eave
rain washed wall, no rain washing rain washed wall, no rain washing
Deposit Accumulation No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes

S30400 ● ■ ■ ▼ ■ ▼ ▼ ▼
S31600 ● ● ● ■ ● ■ ■ ▼
Highly alloyed ● ● ● ◆ ● ◆ ◆ ◆

● Suitable ▼ Unsuitable
■ Not suitable unless there are no corrosive deposits or ◆ Suitability is dependent on the grade selected
deposits are removed by regular cleaning

Table 9 Suggested cleaning frequency for Type 304 in different environments

Environment Rural and Suburban Coastal, Industrial, Severe Urban
Application Roof or wall, Eaves and under-eave Roof or wall, Eaves and under-eave
rain washed wall, no rain washing rain washed wall, no rain washing
Deposit Accumulation No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes

Suggested cleaning
frequency (times/year) 0 1 1 2–12 1 1 3–4 4–12

Table 10 Comparison of atmospheric corrosion rates and pit depths in exposed and
sheltered samples after 11.9 years’ exposure in Bayonne, New Jersey
Grade Composition, wt. pct. Sheltered Exposed
Cr Ni Other Corrosion rate, Pit depth, Corrosion rate, Pit depth,
mg/dm2/year mils (mm) mg/dm2/year mils (mm)

317 18.6 14.1 3.5 Mo 0 <1.18 (<0.03) 0 0

316 17.8 13.1 2.8 Mo 0 <1.18 (<0.03) 0 0
304 18.4 8.9 – 22.63 7.09 (0.18) 0 0
430 17.1 0.3 – 10.95 7.87 (0.20) 0 0

Note: The test samples were mounted vertically in sheltered and in boldly exposed orientations.

SHELTERED the corrosion rates and pit depths for various

EXTERIOR APPLICATIONS stainless steels after 11.9 years in Bayonne, New
Jersey, a polluted, coastal location, and illustrates
Atmospheric dust frequently contains corrosive the beneficial effect of increasing chromium and
sulphides, marine salts, deicing salt, iron oxide, molybdenum.17 Although the corrosion rates of
and other contaminants. If sheltered areas, such some of the exposed samples were the same,
as building eaves, are not cleaned regularly, dust differences in appearance were observed.
accumulates, creating a more aggressive
corrosion environment.15 The presence of ATMOSPHERIC
chlorides and moderate levels of humidity may CORROSION COMPARISONS
facilitate corrosion of a susceptible stainless steel
or other metals in sheltered applications. See Atmospheric corrosion tests have been
Table 7. Sheltered locations, like building eaves, conducted in many parts of the world to compare
tend to have more moderate humidity levels than the performance of metals in different
exposed locations, thereby adding to the environments. These data are helpful in selecting
corrosiveness of those environments.15 appropriate metals for similar environments and
preparing life-cycle cost analyses. Although the
The suggested grades (Table 8) and cleaning same average corrosion rates were measured for
frequency (Table 9) are based on Japanese stainless steels with different levels of corrosion
research on sheltered locations.16 Table 10 shows resistance in some geographic locations,

22•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

 NI stock photo

Corrosion of
unwashed
stainless steel
pipes sheltered
by building
eaves.

C. Houska for NI

The polished Type 302

former Toronto Stock
Exchange doors
(installed in 1936) are
exposed to pollution
and deicing salt. Minor
pitting occurred when
they were neglected for
several years. They
were restored and
regular cleaning keeps
them attractive now.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•23

 Table 11 Average corrosion weight loss in mils/year (mm/year)
at Japanese sites after four or five years’ exposure
Material Pacific Coast Sea of Japan, Inland Industrial
coastal
City Omaezaki Makurazaki Wajima Takayama Obihiro Kawasaki Tokyo

Type 304 0.003 0.006 0.0035 0.0055 0.0059 0.033 0.037

(0.00008) (0.00015) (0.00009) (0.00014) (0.00015) (0.00084) (0.00093)
Aluminum 0.157 0.118 0.118 0.071 0.122 2.421 0.118
(0.004) (0.003) (0.003) (0.0018) (0.0031) (0.0615) (0.003)
Weathering 30.12 20.63 19.29 14.094 14.45 72.24 44.13
steel (0.765) (0.524)* (0.490) (0.358) (0.367)* (1.835) (1.121)
Carbon 41.42 32.05 27.68 19.21 16.97 156.81 70.75
steel (1.052) (0.814) (0.703) (0.488) (0.431) (3.983) (1.797)
* Samples were exposed for four years.

appearance differences were observed. These in a semi-urban location with prevailing winds from
appearance differences were incorporated into the the land to the ocean. The Cristobal site is a marine
grade selection guidelines in Table 6. location on a roof 52 feet (16 m) above the shore,
facing wind from the ocean. In both locations, the
The corrosion weight loss of carbon steel, panels were angled 30 degrees from the horizontal.
weathering steel, Type 304, and aluminum were See Table 12.19
measured after either four or five years’ exposure at
seven coastal, inland, and industrial sites in Japan. In the United States, extensive marine testing of
The results are summarized in Table 11.18 metals has been conducted at Kure Beach, North
Carolina. Table 13 compares the average corrosion
Tropical environments can range from arid deserts to rates of Types 304 and 316 with carbon steel,
humid, industrial sites. The U.S. Naval Research Galvalume®‚ and galvanized steel.3,20
Laboratory in Washington, D.C. conducted a
16-year study of 54 metals at two sites in Panama. Various architectural metals have been tested at six
The Miraflores site is 4.3 miles (8 km) from the coast

Table 12 Atmospheric corrosion data for two tropical sites in Panama

Constituent Cristobal (coastal) Miraflores (inland)
mg/10m3 Max. Min. Avg. Max. Min. Avg.

Total dissolved solids 19.35 1.06 2.47 9.11 0.53 3.04

Organic and volatile matter 6.07 0.56 2.61 2.44 0.39 1.20
Sulphate 2.26 0.11 0.71 3.99 0.04 0.88
Chloride 1.48 0.12 0.81 0.56 0.05 0.19
Nitrate 0.39 0.00 0.11 0.42 0.00 0.14

Metal Avg. metal loss Avg. annual Deepest pit, Avg. metal loss Avg. annual Deepest pit,
after 16 years, corrosion rate, mils (mm) after 16 years, corrosion rate, mils (mm)
mils (mm) mils/year (mm/year) mils (mm) mils/year (mm/year)

Type 316 <0.01 (<0.0003) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125) 0 (0) 0 (0) <4.92 (<0.125)
Aluminum 1100 0.11 (0.0028) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125) 0.07 (0.0019) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125)
Aluminum 6061-T6 0.11 (0.0028) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125) 0.06 (0.0015) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125)
Nickel (99.9%) 0.20 (0.005) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125) 0.09 (0.0024) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125)
Alloy 400 0.22 (0.0056) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125) 0.14 (0.0036) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125)
Cartridge brass 0.33 (0.0084) 0.02 (0.0005) <4.92 (<0.125) 0.25 (0.0063) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125)
Nickel-silver 0.37 (0.0094) 0.02 (0.0005) <4.92 (<0.125) 0.28 (0.0071) 0.02 (0.0005) <4.92 (<0.125)
Muntz metal 0.43 (0.011) 0.03 (0.0008) <4.92 (<0.125) 0.32 (0.0081) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125)
Cast bronze 0.79 (0.020) 0.02 (0.0005) 5.98 (0.152) 0.39 (0.0099) <0.01 (<0.0003) 32.99 (0.838)
Copper (99.9%) 0.79 (0.020) 0.03 (0.0008) <4.92 (<0.125) 0.26 (0.0069) <0.01 (<0.0003) <4.92 (<0.125)
Lead (99%) 0.79 (0.020) 0.05 (0.0013) <4.92 (<0.125) 0.55 (0.014) 0.04 (0.001) <4.92 (<0.125)
Low alloy steel 7.80 (0.198) 0.04 (0.001) 17.01 (0.432) 5.67 (0.144) 0.28 (0.007) 22.01 (0.559)
Cast gray iron 7.72 (0.196) 0.32 (0.0081) 37.01 (0.940) 5.94 (0.151) 0.28 (0.007) 37.01 (0.940)
Cast iron (18% Ni) 9.17 (0.233) 0.59 (0.015) 59.02 (1.499) 2.91 (0.074) 0.24 (0.006) 9.02 (0.229)
Carbon steel 10.63 (0.270) 0.47 (0.012) 39.02 (0.991) 8.58 (0.218) 0.43 (0.011) 25.98 (0.660)
Wrought iron 18.70 (0.475) 0.94 (0.024) 60.98 (1.549) 12.20 (0.310) 0.63 (0.016) 37.01 (0.940)

24•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

 Table 13 Average corrosion rates 250 m (800 ft) from
mean high tide at Kure Beach, North Carolina
Metal Exposure time, years Avg. corrosion rate, mils/year (mm/year)

Type 316 15 <0.001 (<0.000025)

Type 304 15 <0.001 (<0.000025)
Galvalume® 13 0.33 (0.0084)
Galvanized steel 13 0.68 (0.0173)
Carbon steel 16 5.8 (0.147)

Table 14 Average annual corrosion rate after 20 years’ exposure in South Africa
Pretoria- Durban Bay Cape Town Durban Bluff Walvis Bay Sasolburg
CSIR Docks
Environment

Location Type rural, very low marine, moderate marine, moderate severe marine, severe marine, industrial, high
pollution pollution pollution moderate/low low pollution pollution
pollution
SO2 Range µg/m3 6–20 10–55 19–39 10–47 NA NA
Fog days/year NA NA NA NA 113.2 NA
Avg. rainfall, in/year (mm/
29.4 (746) 40 (1,018) 20 (508) 40 (1,018) 0.31 (8) 26.7 (677)
year)
Relative humidity range % 26 - 76 54 - 84 52 - 90 54 - 84 69 - 96 49 - 74
Temp. range F (C) 43–79 (6–26) 61–80 (16–27) 48–77 (9–25) 61–80 (16–27) 50–68 (10–20) 41–67 (5–20)
Unpainted galvanized steel
5 - 15 3-5 3-7 3-5 0.6 - 2 5 - 15
life, years*
Stainless steels Annual Corrosion Rate mils/year (mm/year)
Type 316 0.001 (0.000025) 0.001 (0.000025) 0.001 (0.000025) 0.01 (0.000279) 0.004 (0.000102) NA
Type 304 0.001 (0.000025) 0.003 (0.000076) 0.005 (0.000127) 0.02 (0.000406) 0.004 (0.000102) NA
Type 430 0.001 (0.000025) 0.02 (0.000406) 0.01 (0.000381) 0.07 (0.001727) 0.02 (0.000559) 0.004 (0.000107)
Aluminum alloys
AA 93103 0.01 (0.00028) 0.21 (0.00546) 0.17 (0.00424) 0.77 (0.01946) 0.18 (0.00457) 0.11 (0.00281)
AA 95251 0.01 (0.00033) 0.14 (0.00353) 0.15 (0.00371) 0.66 (0.01676) 0.16 (0.00417) NA
AA 96063 0.01 (0.00028) 0.12 (0.00315) 0.14 (0.00366) 0.79 (0.020) 0.19 (0.00495) NA
AA 96082 0.01 (0.00033) 0.14 (0.00366) 0.13 (0.0034) 1.09 (0.02761) 0.23 (0.00587) NA
AA 96261 NA NA NA 0.93 (0.02364) 0.15 (0.00375) 0.12 (0.00317)
Copper 0.22 (0.00559) 0.37 (0.0094) 0.28 (0.00711) 0.97 (0.0246) 1.51 (0.0384) 0.55 (0.014)
Zinc 0.13 (0.0033) 0.91 (0.0231) 1.14 (0.029) 4.37 (0.111) NA 0.60 (0.0152)
Weathering steel 0.9 (0.0229) 8.35 (0.212) 3.60 (0.0914) 31.89 (0.810) 45.28 (1.150) 4.21 (0.107)
Mild steel 1.70 (0.0432) 14.61 (0.371) 10.12 (0.257) 86.22 (2.190) 33.31 (0.846) 5.91 (0.150)
Life in years = defined as red rust on 5% of the surface area
NA = data was not available for this site

test sites in South Africa. Table 14 and Figure 5 determine if long-term atmospheric exposure
show the characteristics of each site and the affected their strength.
average annual corrosion rate of mild steel and
the service life of galvanized steel in years, in the After 26 years’ exposure to wind-blown salt spray,
twenty-year test program.21 rain and hurricanes, tensile tests were performed
and the strength and ductility were compared
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES with identical samples that had been stored
AFTER LONG-TERM indoors. Similar tests were conducted at a
coastal site in India with a ten-year exposure.
ATMOSPHERIC EXPOSURE
The austenitic 300-series steels had no significant
change in strength or ductility after long-term
In some architectural applications, stainless steel
exposure in these aggressive coastal
is a load-bearing member. Samples of austenitic
environments.
stainless steels were exposed at 25 and 250
metres from the mean high tide in a marine,
coastal location in North Carolina, U.S.A. to

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•25

 Figure 5 Atmospheric corrosion map of South Africa

ZIMBABWE
NAMIBIA
Walvis Windhoek
Bay • BOTSWANA
•

I po
po
Lim
F
F

Pretoria
•
RSA G
Luderitz • •
Johannesburg SWAZILAND
I K. • •
Sasolburg
B l D
a
Va
E Orange F A
Alexander • Kimberley
Bay •
•
Bloemfontein
LESOTHO
Durban •
H A
B D
F
Oli DBN
fan I
ts
F
C
D
C.T. H
•
C East London
↑
Cape
N A • Town F C
Cape Town
•
area Port Elizabeth

LEGEND
Mild steel* Galvanized
Map
Code Description Type of corrosion corrosion rate steel sheet**
identif. µm/yr life in years†

A Intertidal to 5 km inland Severe marine 100 – 300 Up to 3

B Desert marine (mists) Severe marine 80 – 100 0.5 – 2

C Temperate marine Marine 30 – 50 3–7

D Subtropical marine Medium to severe marine 50 – 80 3–5

E Desert inland dry Desert <5 > 30

F Inland Rural 10 – 20 > 20

G Inland urban Inland industrial†† 15 – 40 5 – 15

H Urban coastal Marine industrial†† 50 – 150 1–3

I Inland arid Semi desert 5 – 10 > 30

* Higher corrosion rate usually indicates proximity of sea.

** Commercial grade Z 275 g/m2 (unpainted)
† Life in years – until 5% of surface area showing red rust.
†† Industrial implies pollution present in atmosphere.
C and D usually from 5 km inland up to first mountain range.

26•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

 ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION SAMPLE PHOTOS
The atmospheric corrosion test samples shown in the following 13 photos are at the LaQue Center for Corrosion
Technology, Inc., an internationally respected corrosion research facility in Kure Beach, North Carolina. The samples
have been exposed to the elements and are only cleaned by rain. Except where noted, the samples are 820 feet
(250 m) from the ocean’s mean high tide. These photos were taken in 2000.

Type 316
stainless
steel and
copper
combination
is performing
well.

The mild
steel plate’s
corrosion
product has
expanded and
broken the
copper
saddle.

The above Statue of Liberty corrosion demonstration panels have been in place since 1984. Type 316 and carbon steel
plate samples were attached to copper sheets with a saddle which is riveted in place.

Stainless Steels: Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•27

 Aluminum
alloy 6061
exposed since
1982 about
82 feet (25 m)
from the
mean high
tide.

Anodized
aluminum
exposed
since
1942.

Painted
cast
aluminum
alloy 360
exposed
since 1988.

28•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

Coated (60 Zn, 20 Al, 20 Mg) carbon steel exposed since 1952.

Bare G-90 galvanized steel exposed since 1981.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•29

 Painted
cold
rolled
steel
exposed
since
1988.

High-strength,
low-alloy
weathering
steel exposed
since 1968.

30•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

 Type 316
exposed
since 1941.

Type 304
exposed
since
1941.
Pure zinc
exposed
since 1960
about 82 feet
(25 m) from
the mean
high tide.

Zinc tin
alloy
exposed
since 1960
about 82 feet
(25 m) from
the mean
high tide.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•31

 FORMS OF corroded appearance. If the attack is mild,
the pits may not detract from the general
STAINLESS STEEL
appearance but the area below them may
CORROSION
be stained as rust leaches out. Selecting
If stainless steel is selected, installed, and an appropriate stainless steel and cleaning
maintained correctly, it does not suffer regularly to remove surface deposits
corrosion. However, if the environment reduce the potential of pitting damage.
exceeds the corrosion resistance of a
particular stainless steel in a specific location, CREVICE CORROSION
some corrosion may occur. Only certain types
of corrosion may affect stainless steels. Crevice corrosion is similar to pitting but occurs
over a larger area when deposits or other
TARNISHING materials block the oxygen access needed to
maintain the passive film. Corrosion can occur
Tarnishing is a fairly uniform discolouration of if salt and moisture (rainwater, humidity, fog or
a metal’s surface. With exterior stainless steel condensation) is present in a tight crevice. It is
applications, there may be a slight yellow more likely with lower-alloyed stainless steels,
tarnishing of the surface and some loss of particularly where the crevice gap is very small
brightness, especially if fine particles of dirt such as under a fastener head, in a rolled joint
are incorporated into the surface deposit. or between overlapping pieces of metal.
Some improvement may be obtained from Correct design reduces the potential for crevice
washing but the overall effect on appearance corrosion. In water shedding applications,
is small and may not be apparent when viewed designers should avoid crevices, seal them
from a distance. (welding, sealant or a flexible inert washer), or
consider a more corrosion-resistant, higher-
PITTING alloyed grade. Flexible inert washers are not
suitable for curved surfaces or immersed
If a stainless steel corrodes, pitting is the applications. See Figure 7.
most likely form of corrosion. If the environment
overwhelms the capability of the stainless steel, GALVANIC CORROSION
the protective, passive film is disrupted and
cannot heal itself. This is shown schematically Galvanic or “bimetallic” corrosion can
in Figure 6. (See Atmospheric Corrosion occur when two metals of differing
Section.) Pitting starts as tiny points of attack electrochemical potential are electrically
and is usually black or dark brown in colour. In coupled in a conducting liquid, usually
called an electrolyte. Several factors
the most severe cases, the number and depth
determine galvanic corrosion potential: the
of the pits can increase to give an extensively

Figure 6 Pitting corrosion

Solution

Passive film

Stainless steel

32•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

 Figure 7 Crevice corrosion
Metal or non-metal
Solution

Passive film

Stainless steel

electrochemical potential difference, the ratio is reversed and the less corrosion-resistant
presence of moisture to connect the metals material has a large surface area, the corrosion
on a regular basis, and the relative surface rate of the less corrosion-resistant metal is only
area ratio of the metals. If no moisture is slightly increased.
present or an inert, electrically insulating
material prevents electrical contact, galvanic
Dissimilar metal combinations should be
corrosion cannot occur.
avoided in areas where moisture is likely to
Figure 8 illustrates galvanic corrosion. Figure 9 accumulate and remain for long periods.
shows examples of when galvanic corrosion In well-drained exterior applications, dissimilar
can and cannot occur. Figure 10 shows the metals can be used together if a favourable
galvanic series in seawater. The metals are surface ratio exists, but they should be
arranged in order from the least noble electrically insulated from one another.
(least corrosion-resistant) to the most noble Neoprene washers, roofing felt, paint, and other
(most corrosion-resistant). inert materials or coatings are effective barriers.
When painted carbon steel and stainless steel
Galvanic corrosion may be a concern if there
are welded together in an exterior application,
is a significant difference in electrochemical
the welded joint should be painted. Hidden and
potential and the metals are not electrically
exposed stainless steel fasteners with neoprene
isolated from one another. If two metals are
or other inert washers are used regularly in
close together in the galvanic series (e.g.,
aluminum, zinc, and painted galvanized steel
two stainless steels or copper and stainless
roof applications. The inert washer separates
steel), the potential for galvanic corrosion is
low in all but the most aggressive the metals in case water is frequently present
environments. or infiltrates under the head of the fastener.

The relative surface area of the two metals is

important. When the surface area of the
more corrosion-resistant metal is large Figure 8 Galvanic corrosion
relative to the less corrosion-resistant metal,
Stainless steel
an unfavourable ratio exists and there is an
increase in the corrosion rate of the less
corrosion-resistant metal. For example,
Current Solution
coupling a small piece of carbon steel to a
large piece of stainless steel could cause
rapid corrosion of the carbon steel. If the
Less noble metal

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•33

Figure 9 Dissimilar metal and electrolyte combinations where galvanic corrosion can and cannot occur
No Galvanic Corrosion Galvanic Corrosion
Cathode Anode Cathode Anode

Electrolyte

Electrical
Insulator

Metallic
Conductor

34•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

 22
Figure 10 Galvanic series in seawater at 77˚F (25˚C)

Least noble = anodic = most susceptible to corrosion

Magnesium and its alloys

Zinc
Galvanized steel or galvanized wrought iron
Aluminum alloys 3004, 3003, 1100, in this order
Cadmium
Low carbon steel
Wrought iron
Cast iron
Nickel cast irons
50-50 lead-tin solder
Lead
Tin
Muntz metal, C28000
Yellow brass, C27000
Aluminum bronzes, C61400
Red brass, C23000
Commercially pure copper, C11000
Silicon bronze, C65500
Alloy 200
Alloy 600
Alloy 400
Stainless steel, Type 410
Stainless steel, Type 304
Stainless steel, Type 316
Alloy 825
Alloy 625
Alloy C
Silver
Titanium
Gold

Most noble = cathodic = most corrosion-resistant

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•35

EMBEDDED OR systems. Resistance to erosion-corrosion is
TRANSFERRED IRON not related to hardness or strength, but flow
velocity, high turbulence, or changes in flow
Iron or carbon steel can become transferred direction can have a significant impact
to or embedded in the surface of stainless on performance in susceptible metals.23
steel and other architectural metals and begin Stainless steels are virtually immune to
to rust within a few hours or days. This can erosion-corrosion because they form thin,
give the incorrect impression that the material tightly adherent, protective passive films. High
underneath is rusting. However, in severe flow velocities are beneficial to stainless steel
cases, the rusting steel may actually cause corrosion performance because they help keep
the stainless steel under it to corrode because the stainless steel surface clean.
the protective passive film cannot re-form.
CHLORIDE STRESS
The source of iron can be steel tools, abrasive CORROSION CRACKING, (SCC)
polishing or blasting media or fabrication areas
previously used on carbon or low-alloy steels, Chloride stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
use of carbon steel wool or carbon steel may occur in Types 304 and 316 exposed
brushes during cleaning, and accidental to chlorides and tensile residual stress at
scratching. Ideally, the fabrication area should temperatures above about 150˚F (65˚C).
be dedicated to stainless steel. If that is not These conditions are unlikely in most
possible, the area should be cleaned prior to architectural applications.
stainless steel fabrication to remove residual
iron particles. To prevent accidental SCC has occurred at lower temperatures in
contamination, the stainless steel surface unusually severe indoor environments, such
should be protected with protective paper or as swimming pool suspended ceilings. The
strippable plastic films during fabrication, Nickel Institute publication No. 12 010,
handling, storage and transport. Stainless steel in swimming pool buildings, and
The purchaser can specify that stainless steel Nickel Institute article Successful Stainless
products pass one of several non-destructive Swimming Pool Design provides additional
tests for detection of embedded iron such as information about appropriate grades for this
ASTM A 967. A particularly simple and application. The potential for SCC in an
straightforward test is to thoroughly wet the aggressive marine environment was evaluated
surface with clean water and wait for 24 hours in a five-year study of 300-series stainless
to see if rust appears. Additional information steels in three metallurgical conditions:
about preventing, detecting and removing annealed (the normal as-delivered mill
embedded iron and steel can be found in the condition), as welded, and cold-worked. The
Nickel Institute publication, Fabrication and site for these tests, Kure Beach, North Carolina,
post-fabrication cleanup of stainless steels, U.S.A., experiences hot summers. The
No. 10 004. underside of the panels reached temperatures
of about 120˚F (50˚C) and the exposed side
EROSION-CORROSION 140˚F (60˚C).24 None of the samples
experienced stress corrosion cracking.
Erosion-corrosion is accelerated metal loss
caused by a flowing corrosive liquid which
contains abrasive particles such as sand or
debris. It can be a problem with aluminum,
copper and other susceptible materials in
applications like piping and roof drainage

36•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

 C. Houska for NI

This infrequently
cleaned statue of
Sun Yat Sen
(installed in the
1930s) in San
Francisco’s
Chinatown
combines stain-
less steel (body)
and copper
(hands and head).
Moisture is only
present for short
periods of time.
The two metals
are in close
proximity in the
galvanic series
and there is no
sign of galvanic
corrosion.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•37

 The ratio between the dissimilar metals
is important in evaluating the potential
for galvanic corrosion. The fastener
should always be of equivalent or higher
corrosion resistance. Stainless steel
fasteners with inert washers are
often used for Weathering steel (left),
carbon steel, copper aluminum
and zinc roof and wall panels.
Galvanized steel fasteners should
never be used for stainless
steel panels. (below).

C. Houska for NI

38•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

 ENVIRONMENTAL
BENEFIT OF
STAINLESS STEEL
The environmental impact of construction
materials is a growing concern. If an
appropriate grade and finish are selected,
there should be no need to replace stainless
steel, even if the building life spans hundreds
of years. Stainless steel scrap has a high
value – so it is not discarded. Stainless steel
is 100% recyclable and there is no limit to
how much recycled scrap can be used to
produce new stainless steel.

Metal loss due to corrosion can potentially

add toxic elements to the environment and
the lost metal cannot be recycled. Replacing
lost metal adds an additional environmental
burden (energy consumption, mining,
mineral extraction). Stainless steel corrosion
loses are negligible. (See comparative
corrosion data.)

Because stainless steels are inherently

corrosion-resistant, no protective coatings
are needed, and the adverse environmental
impact associated with coatings (out-gassing
of volatile organic compounds [VOC],
replacement, and removal for recycling)
is eliminated. No acids or harsh chemicals
are needed to clean stainless steel.

Stainless fasteners and anchors help ensure

that stone, masonry, pressure-treated lumber,
slate, and tile reach their full service life
potential.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•39

 A

B
C
C. Houska for NI

Careful evaluation of a site is important because factors that influence the corrosiveness of a site may not be immediately
apparent. This stainless steel arbour is in a park in a suburban area adjoining downtown Minneapolis. Normally a location
of this type would be considered a low to moderately corrosive urban environment, but this park is beside an elevated
highway and deicing salt laden road mist blows into the park, making the environment more aggressive.

All the arbour’s components are rough, abrasive blasted Type 304 (surface roughness of Ra 281 micro-inches or
7.3 µm) except for the tension rods and lights which are highly polished Type 316. Photo A shows Type 304 deicing salt
damage. The rough finish retains more salt, making natural rain washing less effective. Sheltered surfaces experienced
significantly more corrosion than components boldly exposed to rain. The Type 316 was untouched by the deicing salt
except where crevices trapped salt and water. Photo B shows crevice corrosion. Photo C shows embedded iron on one
of the Type 304 vertical support members.

Corrosion of the attractive design could have been avoided if the entire arbour were Type 316 with a smooth finish, crev-
ices were sealed or eliminated, salt had been washed off the arbour in the spring, and the surfaces were protected
from embedded iron during transport, fabrication and installation.

40•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge the Nickel Institute, EURO INOX and the authors responsible for
the creation of Advantages for Architects and their contribution through that work to this brochure.
This brochure is a revision of Advantages for Architects. The author would also like to thank the
Nickel Institute for its support in the development of this brochure and everyone who contributed to
it through their comments, particularly Dr. James D. Redmond, David Cochrane, Geoff Stone, Curtis
Kovach and Dr. Ralph Davison. The author also wishes to acknowledge the authors of the other
publications cited in this brochure for their contributions to industry knowledge of this subject and
the South African Stainless Steel Development Association for their assistance in obtaining technical
data.

TRADE NAMES
Galvalume® is a registered trade name of BIEC International, Inc.
AL-6XN is a trademark of ATI Properties, Inc.
254 SMO is a trademark of Outokumpu OYJ.

Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•41

REFERENCES
1. Architect’s Guide to Stainless Steel, publication SCI-P-179, The Steel Construction Institute, Berkshire, England, 1997.
2. Oka, Y., Sato, S., Kuriyama, N., Application of stainless steel to the architectural exterior materials, Innovation Stainless
Steel Conference, Florence, Italy, October 11-14, 1993.
3. Heidersbach, Robert H., Marine Corrosion, Metals Handbook Ninth Edition, Volume 13 Corrosion, ASM International,
pages 893–918.
4. Slater, John E., Corrosion in Structures, Metals Handbook Ninth Edition, Volume 13, Corrosion, ASM International,
page 1300.
5. Baker, E. A. and Lee, T. S. Long Term Atmospheric Corrosion Behaviour of Various Grades of Stainless Steel. ASTM
Symposium on Degradation of Materials in the Atmosphere. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, May 12-13, 1986.
6. Chandler, K. A. Stainless Steels for Decorative Uses in Architecture. I.S.I. Publication No. 117, 1969.
7. Karlsson, A. and Olsson, J. Atmospheric Corrosion of Stainless Steels. Byggmastaren, 10, 1976, pages 71-86.
8. Evans, T. E. 12- and 20-Year Atmospheric Corrosion Tests on Stainless Steels and Anodized Aluminum.
Inco Europe Ltd. Report No. 8022/No. 1.
9. Evans, T. E. Atmospheric Corrosion Behaviour of Stainless Steels and Nickel Alloys. Proceedings 4th International
Congress on Metallic Corrosion. Amsterdam, September 7-14, 1972.
10. Baboian, Robert, Chemistry of the Automotive Environment, Texas Instruments, Inc., Electrochemical and Corrosion
Laboratory, Attleboro, Massachusetts.
11. Rice, D.W., Peterson, P., Journal of Electrochemical Society, No. 128, 1981, page 1619.
12. Oshikawa, W., Proceedings of the 40th Japan Corrosion Conference, November 1993, Tokyo, Japan Society of
Corrosion Engineering, page 345.
13. Satoh, Y., Furumi, K.O., and Kaneko, S. Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels. Proceedings of
International Conference on Stainless Steels, 1991, Chiba, pages 324-330.
14. “Working with the Customer”, The Catalyst, Issue No. 2, 1997, ARMCO, Inc.
15. Tochihara, M., Ujiro, T., Yazawa, Y., and Satoh, S., Atmospheric Corrosion of Stainless Steel Used for the Eaves
of Buildings. Materials Performance, December 1996, pages 58-62.
16. Successful Use of Stainless Steel Building Materials, Japanese Stainless Steel Association and Nickel
Institute, December, 1998.
17. Johnson, M.J. and Pavlik, P.J., Atmospheric Corrosion of Stainless Steel, Atmospheric Corrosion, published by
J. Wiley & Sons, 1982, Pages 461-473.
18. Technical Manual for the Design and Construction of Roofs of Stainless Steel Sheet, NI publication
No. 12 006, Japanese Stainless Steel Association, and the Nickel Institute,1989.
19. Southwell, C.R. and Bultman, J.D., Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in the Tropics, Atmospheric Corrosion, published by
J. Wiley & Sons, 1982, Pages 943-967.
20. Galvalume® Sheet Steel Spec-Data Sheet, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, August, 1992.
21. Callaghan, B.G., Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Southern Africa: Results of a twenty year national exposure
programme, Division of Materials Science and Technology, CSIR.
22. Baboian, Robert, Galvanic Corrosion, Metals Handbook Ninth Edition, Volume 13, Corrosion, ASM International,
pages 83–84.
23. Kobrin, G., Materials Selection, Metals Handbook Ninth Edition, Volume 13 Corrosion, ASM International.
24. Money, K. L. and Kirk, W.W. Stress Corrosion Cracking Behaviour of Wrought Fe-Cr-Ni Alloys in Marine
Atmosphere. Materials Performance, 17, No. 7, July 1978, pages 28-36.

42•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

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Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention•43

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44•Guidelines for Corrosion Prevention

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primary nickel producers who together account for
approximately 85% of worldwide annual nickel production
outside China. Our mission is to promote and support the
use of nickel in appropriate applications. NI grows and
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NiPERA (www.nipera.org), we also undertake leading edge
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