Topic - Research Methodology, Meaning ,definition Unit -I

• Introduction to research

• Research Methodology Definition

• Types of Research

1. Basic Research,

2. Applied Research,

3. Qualitative Research,

4. Quantitative Research

• How to select a topic for study project?

What Is Research ?

• Research is the process of solving problems and finding facts in an organized

way.

• Sometimes, Research is used for challenging or making contribution to

knowledge.

• We may have to find some new , methods or replicate existing method to against
others by

proving the facts.

• Research is done by applying what is known (if anything), and building on it.

• Additional knowledge can be discovered by proving existing theories, and by

trying to better explain observations.

• Research should be systematic, organized and objective.

• "If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would
it?" — Albert Einstein

Features of Research
• Empirical - based on observations and experimentation on theories.

• Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.

• Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept
constant.

• Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process

• Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in
their interpretation

• Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical

• Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical

measures and are treated statistically.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

• Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to

answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain
characteristics: it must, as far as possible,

• be systematic,

• controlled,

• rigorous,

• valid and verifiable,

• empirical and critical.

• Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation

follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a aphazard

way. Some procedures must follow others.

• Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept
of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors)
• Rigorous-you must be careful in ensuring that the procedures followed to find
answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.

 Again, the degree of Materials & Methods 174 rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences

• Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever we conclude on

the basis of our findings is correct and can be verified by us and others.

• Empirical-this means that any conclusion Should be based upon hard

evidence gathered from information collected from real life experiences or

observations.

• Critical- critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods

employed is crucial to a research enquiry.

• The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks.

The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand

critical scrutiny.

What is research methodology?

• Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of any

given piece of research.

• More specifically, it’s about how a researcher systematically

designs a study to ensure valid and reliable results that address the

research aims and objectives.

• For example, how did the researcher go about deciding:

• What data to collect (and what data to ignore)

• Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)

• How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)

• How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis methods”)

• In a dissertation, thesis, academic journal article , we ’ll find a research

methodology which covers the aspects mentioned above. Importantly, a good
methodology chapter in a dissertation or thesis explains.

The Department of Education and Training Training defines research as follows:

1. Research is the creation of new knowledge knowledge or or the use of existing

knowledge in a new and creative the use of existing knowledge in a new and
creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. so
as to generate new methodologies and understandings. This This could include
synthesis and analysis of previous research could include synthesis analysis of
previous research to the extent that it leads to new and to extent that it leads to new
and creative outcomes outcomes. .

2. A detailed and careful study of something to find out more something to find out
more information about it. information about it.

4. Research is the process of solving problems and finding facts in an organised

way.

5. Sometimes, Research is used for challenging or making contribution to

knowledge.When we have to find some new methods or replicate existing method
to against others by proving the facts.

7. Research is done by applying what is known (if anything), and building on it.

8. Additional knowledge can be discovered by proving existing theories, and by

trying to better explainobservations.

9. Research should be systematic, organized and objective.

10. "If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would
it?" — Albert Einstein

• Features of Research Empirical - based on observations and experimentation on

theories. Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure. Controlled - all
variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant.
Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in
their interpretation Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically
based on empirical quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into
numerical measures and are treated statistically. The characteristics of a good
research are as follows:

1 . Sc ie n t if ic M e t h o d : Research uses scientific method to find facts or to

provide solutions to specific problems. The researcher needs to follow a systematic
procedure to conduct research. There are set guidelines to use in a research.

2 . Objective and Logical : The research is objective and logical in nature.

Research is based on valid procedures and principles. There is a need to collect
relevant, accurate and objective data to investigate into the research problem.

3 . Empirical Nature of Research : Research can be based on direct experience or

observation by the researcher. Empirical research is undertaken to study certain
situations based on experiments, observation and surveys. Here, the researchers
develops an hypothesis.

4. Generalisation : Research findings can be applied to larger population. As

researcher can conduct a research on a sample of respondents that represent the
universe.

5. Multipurpose activity : Research is a multipurpose activity. It helps to discover

new facts or innovate old facts.

6. Development of Principles and Theories : A systematic research helps to

develop new principles and theories. Such principles and theories can be useful to
several to manage and deal with people and things in a better way.

7. Manipulation of Concepts : researcher tries to manipulate things. The

manipulation of concepts is done with a definite purpose.

• What is research methodology? •

Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of any given of steps
of research.
• More specifically, it’s about how a researcher systematically designs a studyto
ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims and objectives.

• For example, how did the researcher go about deciding:

1. What data to collect (and what data to ignore)

2. Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”) 3. How to
collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)

4. How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis methods”)

1 . In a dissertation , thes is , academic journal article you’ll find a research

methodology chapter (or section) which covers the aspects mentioned above.

2. Importantly , a good Research methodology chapter in a dissertation or the

is explains not just w h a t methodological choices were made, but also explains

w h y they were made .

3. In other words, the methodology chapter should justify the research design
choices, by showing that the chose n methds and techniques are the best fit for
the research a im s and objectives, and will provide valid and reliable results.

4. A good research methodology provides scientifically sound findings , whereas

a poor methodology doesn’t.

DATA COLLECTION
• DEFINITION: The Data Collection is a process by which the researcher collects
the information from all the relevant sources to find answers to the research
problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes.

• while collecting the data, the researcher must identify the type of data to be
collected, source of data, and the method to be used to collect the data.

• Also, the answers to the questions that who, when and where the data is to be
collected should be well addressed by the researcher.
• The choice of data collection methods depends on the research problem under
study, the research design and the information gathered about the variable.
Broadly,

• The data collection methods can be classified into two categories:

• Primary Data Collection Methods:

• The primary data are the first-hand data, collected by the researcher for the

first time and is original in nature.

• The researcher collects the fresh data when the research problem is unique,

and no related research work is done by any other person.

• The results of the research are more accurate when the data is collected

directly by the researcher but however it is costly and time-consuming.

• Secondary Data Collection Methods:

When the data is collected by someone else for his research work and
has already passed through the statistical analysis is called the secondary
data. Thus, the secondary data is the second-hand data which is readily
available from the other sources.

• One of the advantages of using the secondary data is that it is less

expensive and at the same time easily available, but however the authenticity
of the findings can be questioned.

• Thus, the researcher can obtain data from either of the sources
depending on the nature of his study and the pursued research objective.

• Primary Data Collection Methods

• Definition: When the data are collected directly by the researcher for the
first time is called as Primary Data.

• It is original in nature and is specific to a research problem under study.

• Primary Data Collection Methods

• A fresh data can be collected by using the following methods: 1. Interview
Method:

• It is the most widely used primary data collection methods wherein the
interviewer asks questions either personally, or through mail or telephone
from the respondents to obtain the insights of the problem under study.

• The researcher may either visit the respondent in personaly at his home or
meet him at the central location as mutually decided by them.

• And in case, a large group of respondents is to be contacted then the mail

and telephone survey can be used.

• In the mail survey, the questionnaires are sent to the respondent who is
expected to give answers to the questions via mail. In the case of a telephone
survey, the interviewees are called and asked questions (closed-ended)
specific to the research problem. 2. Delphi Technique: It is a forecasting
technique wherein the researcher elicits the information from the panel of
experts either personally or through a questionnaire sent through the mail.

1. • Here, each expert in his respective field is asked to give their opinions
on the problem concerned and the consolidated view of all is used to
reach for the most accurate answer.

2 Projective Techniques: The projective techniques are the unstructured

and an indirect interview method used where the respondents are
reluctant to give answers if the objective is disclosed. In order to deal
with such situation, the respondents are provided with the incomplete
stimulus and are required to complete it through which their underlying
motivations, attitudes, opinions, feelings, etc. related to the concerned
issue gets revealed. Some of the following projective techniques are used
to discover the ‘whys’ of the market and the consumer behavior:

3. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Here the respondent is presented

with multiple pictures and then is asked to describe what he think the
pictures represent.
 4. Role Playing: Under this method, the respondents are given the
imaginary situations and are asked to enact in a way they would have if the
situation is real.

5. Cartoon Completion: Here the respondents are shown the cartoon pictures
comprising of two or more characters and then are asked to give their ideas
and opinions about the characters.

6. Word Association: Here the researcher provides a set of words to the

respondent and then ask them to tell what comes to their mind when they
hear a particular word.

7. Sentence Completion: The researcher provides the incomplete sentences

to the respondents and asks them to complete it. This is done to check the
ideas of the respondents.

8. Focus Group Interview: It is one of the widely used data collection

methods wherein a small group of people, usually 6-12 members come
together to discuss the common areas of the problem.

• Here each individual is required to provide his insights on the issue

concerned and reach to a unanimous decision. In this interview, there is a
moderator who regulates the discussion among the group members.

4. Questionnaire Method: Questionnaire is the most evident method of data

collection, which is comprised of a set of questions related to the research problem.
This method is very convenient in case the data are to be collected from the diverse
population. It mainly includes the printed set of questions, either open-ended or
closed-ended, which the respondents are required to answer on the basis of their
knowledge and experience with the issue concerned.

• SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS

• Definition: When the data are collected by someone else for a purpose other than
the researcher’s current project and has already undergone the statistical analysis is
called as Secondary Data. • The secondary data are readily available from the other
sources and as such, there are no specific collection methods. The researcher can
obtain data from the sources both internal and external to the organization. The
internal sources of secondary data are:

1. Sales Report

2. Financial Statements

3. Customer details, like name, age, contact details, etc.

4. Company information

5. Reports and feedback from a dealer, retailer, and distributor

6. Management information system

There are several external sources from where the secondary data can be collected.
These are:

1. Government censuses, like the population census, agriculture census, etc.

2. Information from other government departments, like social security, tax

records, etc.

3. Business journals

4. Social Books

5. Business magazines

6. Libraries

7. Internet,

where wide knowledge about different areas is easily available.

• . The secondary data can be both qualitative and quantitative.

• The qualitative data can be obtained through newspapers, diaries, interviews,

transcripts, etc.,

• while the quantitative data can be obtained through a survey, financial statements
and statistics
 • One of the advantages of the secondary data is that it is easily available and
hence less time is required to gather all the relevant information. Also, it is less
expensive than the primary data. But however the data might not be specific to the
researcher’s needs and at the same time is incomplete to reach a conclusion. Also,
the authenticity of the research results might be skeptical.

• Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on

targeted variables in an established system, which then enables one to answer
relevant questions and evaluate outcomes.

• Data collection is a component of research in all fields of study including

physical and social sciences, humanities and business.

• While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest
collection remains the same.

• The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that allows analysis
to lead to the formulation of convincing and credible answers to the questions that
have been posed.

• Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative or

qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintain the integrity of
research.

• The selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or

newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce
the likelihood of errors.

• A formal data collection process is necessary as it ensures that the data gathered
are both defined and accurate.

• This way, subsequent decisions based on arguments embodied in the findings are
made using valid data.

• The process provides both a baseline from which to measure and in certain cases
an indication of what to improve.
THERE ARE 5 COMMON DATA COLLECTION METHODS:

• Closed-ended surveys and quizzes,

• open-ended surveys and questionnaires

• 1-on-1 interviews,

• focus groups, and

• direct observation.

There are several Methods of collecting Primary Data , Particularly in Survey and
descriptions Researches . Important are ones.

1. Observation

2. Interview Methods

3. Through Questionnaires,

4. Through schedules

5. Other Methods which include

• A closed-ended question refers to any question for which a researcher

provides research participants with options from which to choose a response.
Closed-ended questions are sometimes phrased as a statement which requires a
response.

• A closed-ended question contrasts with an openended question, which

cannot easily be answered with specific information.

• Examples of close-ended questions which may elicit a "yes" or "no"

response include:

• Were you born in 2010?

• Is Lyon the capital of France?

• Did you steal the money?

 • An open-ended question is a question that cannot be answered with a
"yes" or "no" response, or with a static response. Open-ended questions are
phrased as a statement which requires a response. The response can be compared
to information that is already known to the questioner.

• Examples of open-ended questions:

1. Tell me about your relationship with your supervisor.

2. How do you see your future?

3. Tell me about the children in this photograph.

4. What is the purpose of government?

5. Why did you choose that answer.

WHAT IS DATA ANALYSIS?

Data analysis is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and
modelling data to discover useful information for business decisionmaking.

1. The purpose of Data Analysis is to extract useful information from data and
taking the decision based upon the data analysis.

2. Whenever we take any decision in our day-to-day life is by thinking about

what happened last time or what will happen by choosing that particular decision.

3. This is nothing but analyzing our past or future and making decisions based on
it. For that, we gather memories of our past or dreams of our future. So that is
nothing but data analysis.

4. Now same thing analyst does for business purposes, is called Data Analysis. •

Why Data Analysis?

1. To grow your business even to grow in your life, sometimes all you need to
do is Analysis!
 2. If your business is not growing, then you have to look back and
acknowledge your mistakes and make a plan again without repeating those
mistakes.
3. And even if your business is growing, then you have to look forward to
making the business to grow more.
4. All you need to do is analyze your business data and business processes.

TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS: TECHNIQUES AND METHODS

There are several types of Data Analysis techniques that exist based on business
and technology. However, the major types of data analysis are:

1. Text Analysis

2. Statistical Analysis

3. Diagnostic Analysis

4. Predictive Analysis

5. Prescriptive Analysis

1. Text Analysis :

1. Text Analysis is also referred to as Data Mining.

2. It is a method to discover a pattern in large data sets using databases

or data mining tools.

3. It used to transform raw data into business information.

4. Business Intelligence tools are present in the market which is used to

take strategic business decisions.

5. Overall it offers a way to extract and examine data and deriving

patterns and finally interpretation of the data.

2. Statistical Analysis

A. Statistical Analysis shows "What happen?" by using past data in the

form of dashboards.
 B. Statistical Analysis includes collection, Analysis, interpretation,

presentation, and modelling of data.

1. It analyses a set of data or a sample of data.

2. There are two categories of this type of Analysis - Descriptive
Analysis and Inferential Analysis.
A. Descriptive Analysis analyses complete data or a sample of
summarized numerical data. It shows mean and deviation for
continuous data whereas percentage and frequency for categorical
data.
B. Inferential Analysis analyses sample from complete data. In this
type of Analysis, you can find different conclusions from the
same data by selecting different samples.

3. Diagnostic Analysis

 Diagnostic Analysis shows "Why did it happen?" by finding the cause from
the insight found in Statistical Analysis.
 This Analysis is useful to identify behavior patterns of data.
 If a new problem arrives in your business process, then you can look into
this Analysis to find similar patterns of that problem.
 And it may have chances to use similar prescriptions for the new problems.

4. Predictive Analysis

1. Predictive Analysis shows "what is likely to happen" by using previous

data. The simplest example is like if last year I bought two dresses based on
my savings and if this year my salary is increasing double then I can buy
four dresses.

2. But of course it's not easy like this because you have to think about
other circumstances like chances of prices of clothes is increased this year or
maybe instead of dresses you want to buy a new bike, or you need to buy a
house!

3. So here, this Analysis makes predictions about future outcomes based

on current or past data.
 4. Forecasting is just an estimate.

5. Its accuracy is based on how much detailed information you have and
how much you dig in it.

5-Prescriptive Analysis

1. Prescriptive Analysis combines the insight from all previous Analysis to

determine which action to take in a current problem or decision.

2. Most data-driven companies are utilizing Prescriptive Analysis because

predictive and descriptive Analysis are not enough to improve data performance.

3. Based on current situations and problems, they analyze the data and make
decisions.

Data Analysis Process • The Data Analysis Process is nothing but gathering
information by using a proper application or tool which allows you to explore the
data and find a pattern in it. Based on that information and data, you can make
decisions, or you can get ultimate conclusions. Data Analysis consists of the
following phases:

1. Data Requirement Gathering

2. Data Collection

3. Data Cleaning

4. Data Analysis

5. Data Interpretation

6. Data Visualization

1. Data Requirement Gathering

1. First of all, you have to think about why do you
want to do this data analysis? All you need to find out the
purpose or aim of doing the Analysis.
2. You have to decide which type of data analysis
you wanted to do! In this phase, you have to decide what
to analyze and how to measure it, you have to understand
 why you are investigating and what measures you have to
use to do this Analysis.

2. Data Collection

1. After requirement gathering, you will get a clear

idea about what things you have to measure and what
should be your findings.

2. Now it's time to collect your data based on

requirements. Once you collect your data, remember that
the collected data must be processed or organized for
Analysis. As you collected data from various sources,
you must have to keep a log with a collection date and
source of the data.

3. Data Cleaning

1. Now whatever data is collected may not be useful or

irrelevant to your aim of Analysis, hence it should be
cleaned.

2. The data which is collected may contain duplicate

records, white spaces or errors. The data should be
cleaned and error free.

3. This phase must be done before Analysis because

based on data cleaning, your output of Analysis will be
closer to your expected outcome.

4. Data Analysis

1. Once the data is collected, cleaned, and processed, it is

ready for Analysis.

2. As you manipulate data, you may find you have the

exact information you need, or you might need to collect more
data.
 3. During this phase, you can use data analysis tools and
software which will help you to understand, interpret, and
derive conclusions based on the requirements.

4. Data Interpretation

1. After analyzing your data, it's finally time to interpret

your results.

2. You can choose the way to express or communicate

your data analysis either you can use simply in words or maybe
a table or chart.

3. Then use the results of your data analysis process to

decide your best course of action.

5 Data Visualization

1. Data visualization is very common in your day to day life;

they often appear in the form of charts and graphs.

2. In other words, data shown graphically so that it will be

easier for the human brain to understand and process it. Data
visualization often used to discover unknown facts and trends.

3. By observing relationships and comparing datasets, you can

find a way to find out meaningful information.

• Summary:

1. Data analys is means a process of cleaning, transforming and

modeling data to discover useful information for business decision-
making.

2. Types of Data Analysis are Text, Statistical, Diagnostic, Predictive,

Prescriptive Analysis

3. Data Analysis consists of Data Requirement Gathering, Data

Collection, Data Cleaning, Data Analysis, Data Interpretation, Data
Visualization
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Basic Research,
2. Applied Research,
3. Qualitative Research,
4. Quantitative Research
1. BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH) • Basic research: A
basic research definition is data collected to enhance knowledge.
The main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-
commercial research that doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing
anything. For example: an experiment to determine a simple fact.
Basic Research Examples:- Examples of basic research in
psychology might include:
2. An investigation looking at whether stress levels influence
how often students engage in academic cheating
3. A study looking at how caffeine consumption impacts the
brain 3. A study assessing whether men or women are more likely
to be diagnosed with depression 4. A study looking at how
attachment styles among children of divorced parents compare to
those raised by married parents Notice in all of these examples,
the goal of the research is merely to increase the amount of
knowledge on a topic, not to come up with a practical solution to a
problem Basic Research • For example, researchers might conduct
basic research on how stress levels impact students academically,
emotionally, and socially. The results of these theoretical
explorations might lead to further studies designed to solve
specific problems. Researchers might initially observe that
 students with high stress levels are more prone to dropping out of
college before graduating. These first studies are examples of
basic research designed to learn more about the topic Applied
research: • Applied research: Applied research focuses on
analyzing and • solving real-life problems. • This type refers to the
study that helps solve practical problems using scientific methods.
• Studies play an important role in solving issues that impact the
overall well-being of humans. For example: finding a specific cure
for a disease. • Problem oriented research: As the name suggests,
problem-oriented research is conducted to understand the exact
nature of a problem to find out relevant solutions. The term
“problem” refers to multiple choices or issues when analyzing a
situation. • For example, revenue of a car company has decreased
by 12% in the last year. The following could be the probable
causes: there is no optimum production, poor quality of a product,
no advertising, or economic conditions. • Problem solving
research • Problem solving research: This type of research is
conducted by companies to understand and resolve their own
problems. The problem-solving method uses applied research to
find solutions to the existing problems •
4. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: • Qualitative research is a
process that is about inquiry. • It helps create in-depth
understanding of problems or • issues in their natural settings. •
This is a non-statistical method.
5. • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH is heavily dependent on the
experience of the researchers and the questions used to probe the
sample. • The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10 people.
• Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that
encourages answers that lead to another question or group
of questions.
• The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to gather as
much information as possible from the sample.
• The following are the methods used for qualitative
research:
• One-to-one interview
• Focus groups
• Ethnographic research
• Content/Text Analysis
• Case study research Quantitative research?
• What is quantitative research? •
Quantitative research is defined as a systematic
investigation of ph gathering data .
• performing statistical, mathematical, or
computational techniques. • Quantitative research
collects information from existing and potential
customers using sampling methods and • sending out
online surveys, online polls, questionnaires, etc., the
results of which can be in the form of numerical.
• After careful understanding of these numbers to
predict the future of a product or service and make
changes accordingly. • An example of quantitative
research is the survey conducted to understand the
amount of time a doctor takes to atend to a patient when
the patient walks into the hospital.
• A patient satisfaction survey template can be
administered to ask questions like how much time did a
doctor takes to see a patient, how often does a patient
walks into a hospital, and other such questions.
• Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in
the social sciences using the statistical methods used
above to collect quantitative data from the research
study. In this research method, researchers and
statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks and
theories that pertain to the quantity under question.
 SAMPLING DESIGN
1. Sampling design, also known as the sampling plan, is a critical component of the
research methodology that outlines the specific procedures for selecting a subset
(sample) from a larger group or population.

2. The primary purpose of sampling design is to ensure that the selected sample is
representative of the population, allowing researchers to make valid inferences
about the entire population based on the data collected from the sample.

SAMPLE DESIGN

1. A define plan for obtaining a sample from given population.

2. It referes to the technique or the procedure or the researcher would adopt in
selecting item for the sample

Characters of Good Sampling Design .

 A good sampling design is characterized by several key attributes that ensure the
reliability, representativeness, and validity of the sample, allowing for meaningful
inferences about the larger population. Here are the key characteristics of a good
sampling design:

1. Representativeness: A good sampling design ensures that the sample is a

true reflection of the target population. It accurately represents the characteristics
and diversity of the population, allowing for valid inferences.

2. Randomization: Random selection of the sample units is a fundamental

aspect of good sampling design. It minimizes bias and ensures that each unit in the
population has an equal chance of being selected. This is particularly important in
probability sampling methods.

3. Adequate Sample Size: The sample size should be sufficient to achieve

the desired level of statistical power and precision. It should be determined based
on statistical considerations, including the margin of error and confidence level.
 4. Clear Objectives: A good sampling design is aligned with welldefined
research objectives. The objectives guide the choice of sampling method, the
determination of the sample size, and the overall approach to sampling

5. Sampling Frame Quality: The sampling frame, which is the list or

representation of the population, should be complete, up-to-date, and free from
biases. It should accurately reflect the population under study to avoid
underrepresentation or overrepresentation of certain groups.

6. Appropriate Sampling Method:The choice of the sampling method

should be appropriate for the research objectives and the nature of the population.
Whether it's simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, or
another method, it should match the study's needs.

7. Transparency: A good sampling design is transparent and

welldocumented. It should clearly describe the sampling procedures, the selection
criteria, and the methodology used. Transparency allows for the replication of the
study and enhances the credibility of the research.

8. Efficiency:While representativeness is crucial, an efficient sampling

design also considers time and resource constraints. It aims to achieve the research
objectives with the least possible cost and effort.

9. Minimized Sampling Bias: Efforts should be made to minimize various

sources of sampling bias, including selection bias, non-response bias, and
measurement bias. This ensures that the sample accurately reflects the population's
characteristics.

10. Proper Data Collection: The data collection process should be conducted
rigorously and consistently, following the established sampling design. Careful
attention to data collection methods and quality control is essential to maintain the
integrity of the sample.

11. Accounting for Non-Sampling Errors: A good sampling design

recognizes and addresses potential sources of non-sampling errors, such as errors
in data collection and processing. Steps should be taken to reduce or account for
these errors.
 12. Adaptability: In some cases, sampling designs need to adapt to changing
circumstances or unexpected challenges during the research process.

13. A good design is flexible and can accommodate necessary adjustments

while maintaining its integrity.

14. Statistical Analysis: A good sampling design is developed with statistical

analysis in mind. It should facilitate the application of appropriate statistical tests
and techniques to make meaningful inferences from the sample to the population.

15. The sampling design, including all relevant details, should be clearly
reported in research publications. This transparency enables other researchers to
assess the quality and validity of the sampling process. A good sampling design is
essential for the success of a research study. It ensures that the data collected from
the sample is trustworthy and can be used to make reliable inferences about the
larger population. Careful planning and adherence to these characteristics are
crucial for the validity and generalizability of research findings.

Types of Sampling

Designs

Element Selection Probability Nonprobability

Unrestricted Simple random Convenience
Restricted 1. Complex random 1. Purposive

2. Systematic 2. Judgment

3. Cluster 3. Quota

4. Stratified 4. Snowball

5. Multistage sampling 14-9

 Simple Random Sampling:

 In simple random sampling, every member of the population has an equal

and known chance of being selected. This method is like drawing names out of a
hat, and it is highly unbiased and representative if executed correctly.

TERMINOLOGIES
1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING is based on the concept of random
selection.
2. NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING is non random sampling
3. When each sample element is drawn individually from the population at
large, then the sample so drawn is known as “UNRISTRICTED
SAMPLE”
4. Whereas all other forms of sampling are cover under the term ‘Restricted
Sampling’

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

1. Is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population has been
included in the sample.
2. Non probability sampling is also known by different name such as:
1. Deliberate Sampling.
2. Purposive sampling
3. Judgment Sampling

In this type of sampling ,item for the sample are selected deliberately b
the researcher; his choice concerning the iteam remain supreme.

ADVANTAGES

In small inquiries and researches by individuals, this design may be

adopted because of relative advantage of time and money inherent in the
method of sampling.

DISADVANTAGES

A. There is always the danger of bias entering into this type of

sampling technique.
B. Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated.
C. This type of sampling design in rarely adopted in large inquires of
importance.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
A. Also known as ‘Rondom Sampling’ or ‘Chance Sampling’
B. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equeal
chance of inclusion in the sample.
C. A lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole
group not deliberately but by some mechanical process.

ADVANTAGES

1. We can measure the errors of estimation

2. The sample will have same composition and characteristics.

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

1. Refers to that method of sample selection which gives each possible

sample combination an equal probability of being picked up and each
item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in
the sample.
2. This applies to SAMPLING WITHOUT REPLACEMENT i.e. once an
item is selected for the sample, it cannot appear in the sample again

SAMPLING WITH REPLACEMENT

1. Is used less frequently in which procedure the element selected for

the sample is returned to the population before the next element is
selected.
2. In such a situation the same element could appear twice in the
same sample before the second element is chosen.

COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGN

1. Probability sampling under restricted sampling techniques, may result in

complex random sampling designs.
2. Such designs may as well be called ‘mixed sampling desings’ for many
of such design may represent a combination of probability and non
probability sampling procedure in selecting a sample.

TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING

 1. Systematic Random Sampling .

2. Stratified Random Sampling.

3. Cluster Sampling .

4. Area Sampling.

5. Multi Stages Sampling .

 In cluster sampling, the population is divided into clusters or groups, and a

random sample of clusters is selected. Then, all members within the chosen
clusters are included in the sample. This method is particularly useful when
the population is geographically dispersed.

 Multi-stage sampling is a combination of various probability sampling

methods. It involves multiple stages of sampling, such as selecting clusters,
sub-sampling within clusters, and further sub-sampling if necessary. This
approach is used for complex population structures.

Non-Probability Sampling: 1. Convenience Sampling: Convenience

sampling involves selecting the most readily available individuals or items
for the sample. This method is convenient but highly prone to selection bias.
It is often used in exploratory or preliminary research.

2. Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgmental sampling, the

researcher deliberately chooses specific individuals or items based on their
judgment and expertise. This method is subject to the researcher's bias and
may not be representative.

3. Quota Sampling: Quota sampling divides the population into subgroups,

and the researcher sets quotas for each subgroup. Members are then selected
non-randomly to meet these quotas. It offers more control than convenience
sampling but can still be biased.

4. Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling is used when it's challenging to

identify or reach specific individuals within the population. An initial
participant is selected, and then they refer additional participants, who, in
turn, refer more, creating a "snowball" effect. This method is often used in
studies of hidden or hard-to-reach populations.

 Advantages of Non-Probability Sampling:

1. Often quicker and cheaper.

2. Useful for exploratory research or when a complete sampling frame

is unavailable.

3. Appropriate when generalizability is not a primary concern.  In

summary, probability sampling methods provide a higher degree of
representativeness and are ideal for research requiring generalization
to a larger population. Non-probability sampling methods are more
expedient and may be used when generalization is not essential or
when logistical constraints make probability sampling impractical.
The choice between these two approaches depends on the research
objectives, available resources, and the degree of representativeness
needed for the study.

 Deliberate sampling, also known as purposive sampling, is a non-

probabilistic or non-random sampling technique used in research and
data collection. In deliberate sampling, researchers intentionally
choose specific individuals, groups, or elements from a population to
be part of their sample based on certain predetermined criteria. This
approach is in contrast to random sampling methods, where every
member of the population has an equal chance of being included in
the sample.

 Deliberate sampling is typically used when researchers have a clear

understanding of the characteristics they are looking for in their
sample and want to ensure that those characteristics are well-
represented. It is often used in qualitative research, case studies, or
when studying specific subgroups within a larger population.

 There are various methods of deliberate sampling, including: 

Maximum Variation Sampling: In this approach, researchers
intentionally select participants or cases that vary widely in terms of
 the characteristics they are interested in, to get a comprehensive view
of the phenomenon under study.

 Homogeneous Sampling: Researchers select participants who share

specific characteristics or traits, making the sample more consistent
and suitable for in-depth analysis within a specific subgroup.

 Expert Sampling: Researchers select individuals who are experts or

highly knowledgeable in the subject matter of the study.

 Critical Case Sampling: Researchers deliberately choose cases that

are considered critical or extreme examples to explore and understand
the boundaries or limits of a phenomenon.

 Snowball Sampling: This method is often used in situations where

it's difficult to identify and access specific individuals or groups.
Researchers start with an initial participant and then ask them to refer
other relevant participants, creating a "snowball" effect.

 Deliberate sampling allows researchers to focus their research on

specific areas of interest and tailor their sample to meet the research
objectives. However, it is important to acknowledge that deliberate
sampling may introduce bias into the research, as it does not provide a
random representation of the entire population. Researchers need to be
transparent about their sampling methods and the criteria used to
select participants when reporting their findings.

WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN?

Blueprint

Plan

Guide

Framework
• There are many definitions of research design. Research designis the blueprint
for fulfilling research objectives and answering questions.

• Its essentials include

• 1) an activity and time-based plan,

• 2) a plan based on the research questions,

• 3) a guide for selecting sources and types of information,

4) a framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s

variables, and

5) a procedural outline for every research activity.

RESEARCH DESIGN WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN ?

1. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means

concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.
Your Institute Name •
2. A research design is a broad plan that states objectives of research project
and provides the guidelines what is to be done to realize those objectives.
• It is, in other words, a master plan for executing a research project.
Research Design Your Institute Name
3. Defining the Research Problem Preparation of the Research Project ,
Popularly Known as “research Design”
4. Decisions regarding What, Where, when, How much, by what means
Concerning an in inquiry or research study constitute a research design.
5. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure. • Research Design Your
Institute Name
6. The word ‘design’ has various meanings. But, in relation to the subject
concern, it is a pattern or an outline of research project’s workings.
7. It is the statement of essential elements of a study that provides basic
guidelines of conducting the project.
8. It is same as the blue print of architect’s work.
9. That states how the entire research project would be conducted.
10. The research design is similar to broad plan or model
11. It is desirable that it must be in written form and must be simple and
clearly stated.
12. The real project is carried out as per the research design laid down in
advance.

The Contents of Research Design:

1. What is the Study About .?

2. Why is the study being Made.?

3. Where will be study be Carried out.?

4. What type of data is required .?

5. Where can be required date be found.?

6. What periods of time will the study include.?

7. What will be the sample design.?

8. What techniques of data Collection will be Used.?

9. How will the data be analysed.?

10. In what style will the report be Prepared.?

RESEARCH DESIGN

1. We can define the term as:

• Research design is a broad framework that states the total pattern of

conducting research project. It specifies objectives, data collection and
analysis methods, time, costs, responsibility, probable outcomes, and
actions.

• 2. More clearly, research design can be defined as:

• A research design is a broad plan that states objectives of research

project and provides the guidelines what is to be done to realize those
objectives. It is, in other words, a master plan for executing a research
project.

Types of Research Designs

➢ The research design is a broad framework that describes how the

entire research project is carried out. Basically, there can be three types of
research designs –

1. exploratory research design,

2. descriptive research design, and

3. experimental (or causal) research design.

Use of particular research design depends upon type of problem under

study.

• Different Research Designs

• 1 . Exploratory type research design

• 2. Descriptive type research design

• 3. Diagnostic type research design

• 4. Experimental ( Casual )

type research design 11

1) Exploratory type Research Design

➢ Explorative research studies are also termed as
formulative research studies.
➢ Exploratory study is a systematic scientific
approach which enables a social scientist to determine
whether an idea is in reality or not. 12 Your Institute
Name
➢ Explorative studies can provide ideas , hypothesis ,
suggestions that might never occur to the social
scientist sitting in an office and mediating over the
problem.
➢ More flexible.
➢ Done in the field whether there is little knowledge
is available. 13 Your Institute Name
➢ . Exploratory studies which do not sets limits for
themselves have limits imposed by various practical
matters.
➢ Mostly the results obtained through the explorative
study are to be treated as a sign post for future and
further study in the same or similar direction.
➢ For this reason , they are also known as
formulative studies. 14 Your Institute Name
➢ The exploratory method , according to Katz , “
represents the earlier stage of science
➢ This significant observation implies that all
sciences must have at the beginning had an approach
which has purely exploratory. 15 Your Institute Name
➢ In order to attain research objectives the
exploratory method , as suggested by Selltiz et.al . ,
should adopt the following steps :
1. Review of related social science and another
pertinent literature ,
2. one of the simplest ways of economizing effort
in an enquiry ,
3. is to review the work already alone by others .
16 Your Institute Name
4. Survey of people who had partial experience
with the problem to be studied :
5. persons by virtue of the nature of their jobs are
in a position to throw light on the subject matter of
interest of the investigator.

17 • The analysis of insight stimulating examples :

➢ social scientists working in an area which is yet to
be explored , which incidentally is the usual
experience of an innovative social scientist , have
 found the intensive study of the selected samples to be
particularly fruitful method of stimulating insight.

2) Descriptive type Research Design

1. Rigid Design.

2. Probability sampling design.

3. Pre-planned design for analysis.

4. Structured instruments for collection of data.

5. Advanced decisions about operational procedure.

➢ Research design in which the major emphasis is on determining the frequency

with which something occurs or the extent to which two variables co vary. 20 Your
Institute Name

➢ Enable researcher to describe picture of a phenomenon under investigation.

➢ Methodology involved – qualitative in nature producing descriptive data.

➢ Three approaches to enable to record/analyse the bahavioural patterns:

➢ i. Participant observation.

➢ ii. Personal documents.

➢ iii. Unstructured interviewing.

3) Diagnostic type Research Design

1. Rigid Design.

2. Probability sampling design.

3. Pre-planned design for analysis.

4. Structured instruments for collection of data.

5. Advanced decisions about operational procedure.

➢ Diagnosis corresponds to the fact finding aspect of clinical practice.

 ➢ Represents the most typical and simple problem solving strategy of the
helper faced with problems and crises on the job.

➢ Consists of the emergence of a problem, a diagnosis of its causes,

formulation of all the avenues of remediation, and recommendations for a possible
solution.

• Data for diagnosis can be obtained in four major ways:

• a. Case history or Interview

• b. Clinical observation •

c. Informal testing

• d. Formal standardized testing 24 Your Institute Name •

4) Experimental type Research Design • • It’s origin in agricultural research

was made by him when he was working in Rothamsted Experimental Station
(Centre for Agricultural Research in England).

➢Experiment is a study in which the investigator manipulates or varies

(called the independent variables) & measures other variables (called the
dependent variables).

➢ When an experiment is possible it is the most effective method of testing

a hypothesis. i.e; one variable ‘X’ casually influences another variable ‘Y’

• There are three basic principles of experimental designs :

• 1. The principle of replication

• 2. The principle of randomisation

• 3. The principle of local

1. The principle of replication According to this , the

experiment should be repeated more than once. Thus,
each treatment is applied in many experimental units
instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of
the experiments is incresed.
2. • 2. The principle of randomisation This provides
protection against the effects of extraneous factors by
randomisation. We may apply randomisation
principle and protect ourselves against the effects of
the extraneous factors.
3. • Exploratory studies which do not sets limits for
themselves have limits imposed by various practical
matters.
4. • Mostly the results obtained through the explorative
study are to be treated as a sign post for future and
further study in the same or similar direction. • For
this reason , they are also known as formulative
studies.
a. 1. Exploratory Research Design:
b. ➢ This design is followed to discover ideas and
insights to generate possible explanations.
c. ➢ It helps in exploring the problem or situation.
d. ➢ It is, particularly, emphasized to break a broad
vague problem statement into smaller pieces or sub-
problem statements that help forming specific
hypothesis.
e. ➢ The hypothesis is a conjectural (imaginary,
speculative, or abstract) statement about the
relationship between two or more variables. Naturally,
in initial state of the study, we lack sufficient
understanding about problem to formulate a specific
hypothesis.
f. ➢ Similarly, we have several competitive
explanations of marketing phenomenon. Exploratory
research design is used to establish priorities among
those competitive explanations
g. ➢The exploratory research design is used to increase
familiarity of the analyst with problem under
investigation.
 h. ➢ ➢This is particularly true when researcher is new
in area, or when problem is of different type. Your
Institute Name This design is followed to realize
following purposes: •
i. 1. Clarifying concepts and defining problem •
2. Formulating problem for more precise
investigation •

3. Increasing researcher’s familiarity with

problem •

4. Developing hypotheses

5. Establishing priorities for further

investigation

• Exploratory research design is characterized by flexibility to gain insights and

develop hypotheses. • It does not follow a planned questionnaire or sampling. It is
based on literature survey, experimental survey, and analysis of selected cases.
Unstructured interviews are used to offer respondents a great deal of freedom.

1. • No research project is purely and solely based on this design. It is used as

complementary to descriptive design and causal design. Your Institute Name 2-
Descriptive Research Design:

➢Descriptive research design is typically concerned with describing

problem and its solution. It is more specific and purposive study. Before rigorous
attempts are made for descriptive study, the well-defined problem must be on
hand. Descriptive study rests on one or more hypotheses.

➢For example, “our brand is not much familiar,” “sales volume is stable,”
etc. It is more precise and specific. Unlike exploratory research, it is not flexible.
Descriptive research requires clear specification of who, why, what, when, where,
and how of the research. Descriptive design is directed to answer these problems.
Your Institute Name 3. Causal or Experimental Research Design:

➢ Causal research design deals with determining cause and effect

relationship.
 ➢ It is typically in form of experiment.

➢ In causal research design, attempt is made to measure impact of

manipulation on independent variables (like price, products, advertising and selling
efforts or marketing strategies in general) on dependent variables (like sales
volume, profits, and brand image and brand loyalty).

➢ It has more practical value in resolving marketing problems. We can set

and test hypotheses by conducting experiments.

➢ Test marketing is the most suitable example of experimental marketing in

which the independent variable like price, product, promotional efforts, etc., are
manipulated (changed) to measure its impact on the dependent variables, such as
sales, profits, brand loyalty, competitive strengths product differentiation and so
on.

DEFINITION OF HYPOTHESIS

➢The word hypothesis consists of two words – Hypo+Thesis. ‘Hypo’

means tentative or subject to be verification.

➢‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of the problem. ➢Thus the

literal meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about
the solution of the problem.

➢Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables which

are to be verified and ‘thesis’ means position of these variables in
the specific frame of reference. (Report or statement)

➢Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified

experimentally and based on some Evidence .

2 • Here are some examples of hypothesis statements:

1. Bacterial growth may be affected by moisture levels in the air.

2. If sugar causes cavities, then people who eat a lot of candy may be
more prone to cavities. 3. If UV light can damage the eyes, then
maybe UV light is a cause of blindness.

3 Characteristics of Hypothesis

1. Hypothesis should be clear and precise.

2. Hypothesis should be Capable of being tested.

3. Hypothesis should state relationship between Variables.

4. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific.

5. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts.

6. Like it must be consistent with a substantial body of established

facts.

7. Hypothesis should be amendable to testing within a reasonable

time.

8. Hypothesis must Explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
Explanation.

9. Hypothesis should be Stated as far as possible in most simple

terms so that the same is easily Understandable by all concerned of
hypothesis

(I) Conceptual: Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework

are involved in a hypothesis.

(ii) Verbal statement in a declarative form: It is a verbal expression

of ideas and concepts. It is not merely mental idea but in the verbal
form, the idea is ready enough for empirical verification.

(iii) It represents the tentative relationship between two or more

variables.

(iv) Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future-oriented. It

relates to the future verification not the past facts and information.
 (v) Pivot of a scientific research: All research activities are
designed for verification of hypothesis.

5 Functions of Hypothesis:

(i)It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which

enables an investigator to start his research works.

(ii) It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may
provide possible solutions to the problem.

(iii) It may lead to formulate another hypothesis.

(iv) A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis. 6 Your
Institute Name

• (v) Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which
may be objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting
results and drawing conclusions that is related to original purpose.

• (vi) It delimits field of the investigation.

• (vii) It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, and

have very realistic approach to the problem.

• (viii) It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for verification.

Forms of Hypothesis:

(i) Question form: A hypothesis stated as a question

represents the simplest level of empirical observation.
It fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It
frequently appears in the list. There are cases of
simple investigation which can be adequately
implemented by raising a question, rather than
dividing the hypothesis into forms into acceptable /
rejectable categories.
(ii) (ii) Declarative Statement : A hypothesis developed as
a declarative statement provides an anticipated
relationship or difference between variables. Such a
 hypothesis developer has examined existing evidence
which led him to believe that a difference may be
anticipated as additional evidence. It is merely a
declaration of the independent variables effect on the
criterion variable.
(iii) Directional Hypothesis : A directional hypothesis
denotes an expected direction in the relationship or
difference between variables. This type of hypothesis
developer appears more certain of anticipated
evidence.
a. • If seeking a capable hypothesis is the general
interest of the researcher, this hypothesis is less safe
than the others because it reveals two possible
conditions.
b. • First that the problem of seeking relationship
between variables is so obvious that additional
evidence is scarcely needed.
c. • Secondly, researcher has examined the variables
very thoroughly and the available evidence supports
the statement of a particular anticipated outcome. 9 •
Your Institute Name
(iv) Non –Directional Hypothesis or Null Hypothesis: This
hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an
assertion that no relationship or no difference exists
between or among the variables.
(v) • Null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis testable
within the framework of probability theory.
• It is a non-directional form of hypothesis. There is a
trend to employ or develop null hypothesis in research
in most of the disciplines.
• A null hypothesis tentatively states that on the basis
of evidence tested there is no difference. Statistical
tests of significance are used to accept and reject the
null hypothesis. If it is rejected, the general hypothesis
is accepted.
 • Formulation of Testable Hypothesis: A poorly
chosen or poorly worded hypothesis can prevent the
following: • (i) The obtaining of enough pertinent
data, • (ii) The drawing of conclusions and
generalizations • (iii) The application of certain
statistical measures in the analysis of the result.

• Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis:

• 1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.

• 2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically.

• 3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting

in failure to be able to phrase the hypothesis properly.

• Steps for hypothesis testing Step

1: State the hypotheses Be sure to state both the null and

alternative hypotheses .

• Step 2: Select a level of significance (1%, 5% or 10%)

• Step 3: Calculate the test value Step

• 4: Calculate the probability value Step

• 5: Make a decision Step •

6: Summarize results
SELECTION OF PROBLEM OR FORMULATION OF LEGAL RESEARCH

Steps of Research
1. Selection of Problem or Formulation of Legal Research ( Chose a Problem)

2. Hypotheses, Setting research questions, objectives,

3. Research Design or study design

4. Sample design

5. Data Collection or Collecting data

6. Data Analysis.

7. Report Writing

RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. A research problem is a specific and clearly stated issue, question, or
challenge that serves as the foundation for a research study.
2. It is a concise description of the area of investigation, outlining the problem
or gap in knowledge that the research aims to address.
3. The research problem provides direction for the entire research process,
guiding the formulation of research questions, the collection and analysis of
data, and the interpretation of findings.
4. It represents the central focus of the study and helps to define the purpose
and scope of the research endeavor.

1. We should follow above 7 steps in a research study..

2. A close examination of the above stages reveals that each of these stages,
is dependent upon the Each -others.
3. One cannot analyze data (step 6) unless he has collected data (step 5).
4. It is also true that one cannot write a report (step 7) unless he has collected
and analyzed data (step 6).
5. Research steps is a system of interdependent related stages. 6. Violation
of this sequence can cause irreparable harm to the study.
7. A research process can be compared with a route map.
1. -Selection of Problem or Formulation of Legal Research
( Chose a Problem)
1. The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to
identify a research problem.
2. A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all.
3. important phases of the research process starting from Selection of
Problem of the research methodology.
4. But the core question is: whether all problems require research.
5. We have countless problems around us, but all that we encounter do not
qualify as research problems, and thus, these do not need to be researched. 6.
Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a research problem
and a non-research problem.
6. researchable problems are those who have a possibility of thorough
verification investigation, which can be effected through the analysis and
collection of data,
7. while the non-research problems do not need to go through these
processes.
 • Researcher need to identify both;Non-research Problem, and
Research Problem.

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?

1. It’s a clear and definite statement or expression about your chosen

area of concern, a difficulty to eliminate, a condition to improve, or a
troubling problem that exists in theory, literature, and practice.
1. A research problem indicates a need meaningful investigation.
2. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a
vague or broad proposition, or present a value question. Characteristics of a
research problem
• A research problem is a clearly defined and specific question
or issue that requires investigation, analysis, and research to gain a
deeper understanding or propose potential solutions.
• It's a fundamental component of any research endeavor,
guiding the research process by providing focus and direction.
• A well-formulated research problem helps researchers frame
their study, develop hypotheses or research questions, and design a
methodology to address the issue.
• Here are some key characteristics of a research problem:
1. Clear and Specific: A research problem should be
articulated in a clear and concise manner. It should identify a
specific aspect of a broader topic that you intend to explore.
2. Researchable: The problem should be capable of being
addressed through research methods. This means that there
should be available data, information, or resources that can be
used to investigate the problem.
3. Unresolved or Uncertain: A research problem should
address an issue that hasn't been definitively answered or where
there's uncertainty, contradiction, or gaps in existing
knowledge.
4. Significance: The problem should have significance
within the field of study. It should address a relevant question,
contribute to existing knowledge, or have practical
implications.
5. Feasible: The problem should be feasible to investigate
within the constraints of available resources, time, and
methodologies.
6. Scope and Depth: The research problem should be
neither too broad nor too narrow. It should be focused enough
to allow for in-depth analysis but not so narrow that it limits the
potential for meaningful findings.
7. Interest and Curiosity: The problem should resonate
with the researcher's interests and curiosity. Engaging with a
problem you're genuinely interested in can lead to more
motivated and fruitful research.
8. Researchable Sources: Ensure that there are relevant
sources, such as literature, data, or cases, that can be used to
support your investigation and analysis.
9. Potential Impact: Consider how addressing the
research problem could contribute to the field's understanding,
provide insights, or propose solutions to practical issues.
10. Open-Ended: The research problem should be
openended, meaning that it doesn't have a predetermined or
obvious answer. This allows for the exploration of various
perspectives and interpretations.
11. Contextualization: Contextualize the research
problem within the larger field of study, explaining why it's
relevant and what gaps or debates it addresses.
12. Research Questions or Hypotheses: A research
problem often leads to specific research questions or
hypotheses that guide the research process. In essence, a
research problem is the driving force behind any research
project. It defines the purpose of the study, sets the boundaries
of investigation, and outlines the goals and objectives.
Researchers engage with the problem through systematic
research methods to generate insights, knowledge, and potential
solutions. How to identify a research problem? Selecting a legal
research problem is a crucial step in conducting legal research.
It involves identifying an issue or question within the legal field
that requires analysis, research, and potential resolution. Here's
a process to help you select, choose, or formulate a legal
research problem:

1. Identify Areas of Interest: Start by considering the

areas of law that interest you the most. Whether it's
contract law, constitutional law, criminal law, or any
other field, choose an area that you are passionate about
or curious to explore.
2. Stay Current: Keep up with recent legal developments,
cases, legislation, and debates. These can often spark
ideas for potential research problems, especially if there's
an emerging issue or an unresolved question in the legal
field.
3. Analyze Practical Issues: Look for practical problems
that individuals, businesses, or society at large might face
in the legal context. Consider issues that have real-world
implications and could benefit from legal analysis and
clarification.
4. Consult Legal Literature: Review legal textbooks,
journals, articles, and case law to identify gaps in existing
research or areas where further exploration is needed.
You might find contradictions, ambiguities, or evolving
interpretations of the law that warrant deeper
investigation.
5. Discuss with Professors and Practitioners: Seek
guidance from legal professors, mentors, or practicing
attorneys. They can provide insights into current legal
issues, ongoing debates, and areas that require more
research.
6. Narrow Down the Scope: Once you've identified a
broad area of interest, narrow down your focus to a
specific issue or question. A research problem should be
 specific enough to address comprehensively within your
research scope.
6. Identify Controversies or Uncertainties: Research
problems often arise from areas of law that are unclear,
controversial, or have conflicting interpretations.
Identifying these controversies can lead to meaningful
research projects.
7. Consider Practical Relevance: Think about the
practical relevance and implications of the research
problem. Will your findings provide guidance to legal
practitioners, policymakers, or individuals facing similar
issues?
9. Frame the Research Problem: Formulate your research
problem in the form of a clear and concise question. It
should be open-ended enough to require analysis but
specific enough to guide your research efforts. 10.
Research Feasibility: Consider the feasibility of
researching the chosen problem. Ensure that there is
sufficient legal material available for analysis, such as
cases, statutes, regulations, and scholarly literature.
11. Consult Your Academic or Professional Goals:
Consider how the research problem aligns with your
academic or professional goals. If you're a student, it
might tie into your coursework, or if you're a practitioner,
it could address practical challenges you encounter.
12. Originality and Contribution: Strive for originality.
While building upon existing research is common, try to
add a unique perspective or insight to the issue. Consider
how your research can contribute to the understanding of
the legal problem.

12. Preliminary Research: Before finalizing your research problem, conduct

some preliminary research to ensure that there's enough substance to explore and
analyze. This will also help you refine your problem if needed. Remember that
selecting a legal research problem requires thoughtful consideration, and it's okay
to refine your problem as you progress in your research journey. A well-chosen
research problem sets the foundation for a meaningful and impactful research
project. Basic characteristics of research problem • For your research problem to be
effective, make sure that it has these basic characteristics:

1. Reflecting ( Focus) on important issues or needs;

2. Based on factual evidence (it’s non-hypothetical);

3. Being manageable and relevant;

Suggesting a testable and meaningful hypothesis (avoiding useless answers).

DO YOU HAVE A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM?

• Do a simple self-test to determine whether it’s good enough for your scientific
project and make sure that:

1. Your question allows for a number of potential answers;

2. It’s testable, flexible, and open-ended;

3. You have the evidence necessary to address it;

4. It’s possible to break it into resolvable parts;

5. It’s precise and clear;

6. You don’t use any vague terms that require definitions;

7. It’s suitable for the length of your paper;

8. You can explain why your solutions matter;

9. You made premises explicit.

 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH AND ITS TYPES
• Introduction to research

• Research Methodology Definition

• Types of Research

1. Basic Research,

2. Applied Research,

3. Qualitative Research,

4. Quantitative Research

• How to select a topic for study project?

WHAT IS RESEARCH ?
 • Research is the process of solving problems and finding facts in an
organised way.

• Sometimes, Research is used for challenging or making contribution

to knowledge.

• We may have to find some new , methods or replicate existing

method to against others by proving the facts.

• Research is done by applying what is known (if anything), and

building on it.

• Additional knowledge can be discovered by proving existing

theories, and by trying to better explain observations.

• Research should be systematic, organized and objective.

• "If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called

research, would it?" — Albert Einstein Features of Research

• Empirical - based on observations and experimentation on theories.

• Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.

• Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented

upon are kept constant.

• Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process

• Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is

no error in their interpretation

• Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on

empirical

• Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed

into numerical measures and are treated statistically.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
 • Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting
information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must
have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible,

• be systematic,

• controlled,

• rigorous,

• valid and verifiable,

• empirical and critical.

• Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an

investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be
taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.

• Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome.
The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two
variables (factors) we set up our study in a way that minimizes the effects of
other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent
in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in
a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is
extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human
beings living in society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore in
Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt
to quantify their impact.

• Rigorous-you must be careful in ensuring that the procedures

followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
Again, the degree of Materials & Methods 174 rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences

• Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever we conclude

on the basis of our findings is correct and can be verified by us and others.
 • Empirical-this means that any conclusion Should be based upon hard
evidence gathered from information collected from real life experiences or
observations.

• Critical- critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods

employed is crucial to a research enquiry.

• The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from

drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to
withstand critical scrutiny.

WHAT IS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY?

• Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of any

given piece of research.

• More specifically, it’s about how a researcher systematically designs

a study to ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims and
objectives.

• For example, how did the researcher go about deciding: • What data
to collect (and what data to ignore)

• Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)

• How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)

• How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis methods”)

• In a dissertation, thesis, academic journal article , we ’ll find a

research methodology which covers the aspects mentioned above.
Importantly, a good methodology chapter in a dissertation or thesis explains.

MAIN TYPES
1. Basic Research,

2. Applied Research,

3. Qualitative Research,
 4. Quantitative Research Basic research

• BASIC RESEARCH:

A basic research definition is data collected to enhance knowledge.

The main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial
research that doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For
example: an experiment to determine a simple fact. Basic Research
Examples

• Examples of basic research in psychology might include:

1. An investigation looking at whether stress levels influence how

often students engage in academic cheating

2. A study looking at how caffeine consumption impacts the brain

3. A study assessing whether men or women are more likely to be

diagnosed with depression

4. A study looking at how attachment styles among children of

divorced parents compare to those raised by married parents Notice in
all of these examples, the goal of the research is merely to increase the
amount of knowledge on a topic, not to come up with a practical
solution to a problem Basic Research

• For example, researchers might conduct basic research on

how stress levels impact students academically, emotionally, and
socially. The results of these theoretical explorations might lead to
further studies designed to solve specific problems. Researchers might
initially observe that students with high stress levels are more prone to
dropping out of college before graduating. These first studies are
examples of basic research designed to learn more about the topic

APPLIED RESEARCH:

• Applied research: Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving

real-life problems. This type refers to the study that helps solve
practical problems using scientific methods. Studies play an important
role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of humans.
For example: finding a specific cure for a disease.

• Problem oriented research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented

research is conducted to understand the exact nature of a problem to
find out relevant solutions. The term “problem” refers to multiple
choices or issues when analyzing a situation.

• For example, revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the

last year. The following could be the probable causes: there is no
optimum production, poor quality of a product, no advertising, or
economic conditions.

• Problem solving research

• Problem solving research: This type of research is conducted by

companies to understand and resolve their own problems. The
problem-solving method uses applied research to find solutions to the
existing problems

• Qualitative research:

Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry.

• It helps create in-depth understanding of problems or issues in

their natural settings. This is a non-statistical method.

• Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of

the researchers and the questions used to probe the sample. The
sample size is usually restricted to 6-10 people.

• Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that encourages

answers that lead to another question or group of questions. The
purpose of asking open-ended questions is to gather as much
information as possible from the sample.

• The following are the methods used for qualitative

research:

• One-to-one interview
 • Focus groups

• Ethnographic research

• Content/Text Analysis

• Case study research

• What is quantitative research?

• What is quantitative research?

• Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation

of ph gathering data and performing statistical, mathematical, or
computational techniques.

• Quantitative research collects information from existing and

potential customers using sampling methods and sending out online
surveys, online polls, questionnaires, etc., the results of which can be
in the form of numerical.

• After careful understanding of these numbers to predict the

future of a product or service and make changes accordingly.

• An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted

to understand the amount of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient
when the patient walks into the hospital.

• A patient satisfaction survey template can be administered to

ask questions like how much time did a doctor takes to see a patient,
how often does a patient walks into a hospital, and other such
questions.

• Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the

social sciences using the statistical methods used above to collect
quantitative data from the research study. In this research method,
researchers and statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks and
theories that pertain to the quantity under question
 -STEPS OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH DESIGN WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN ?

• Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning
an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.

RESEARCH DESIGN  After Defining the Research Problem Preparation of the

Research Project , Popularly Known as “research Design”.  Decisions regarding
What, Where, when, How much, by what means Concerning an in inquiry or
research study constitute a research design.  A research design is the arrangement
of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

 THE DESIGN DECISIONS HAPPEN TO BE IN RESPECT OF:

1. What is the Study About .?

2. Why is the study being Made.?

 3. Where will be study be Carried out.?

4. What type of data is required .?

5. Where can be required date be found.?

6. What periods of time will the study include.?

7. What will be the sample design.?

8. What techniques of data Collection will be Used.?

9. How will the data be analysed.?

10. In what style will the report be Prepared.?

Meaning of research design  • A research design is the arrangement of

conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. RESEARCH
DESIGN 

Research design have following parts

1. • Sampling design

2. • Observational design

3. • Statistical design

4. • Operational design

1-Sampling Designs

• Which deals with the methods of selecting items to be observed for the study. 2-
Observational design

• Which relates to the condition under which the observation are to be made.
3.Statistical Design

• Which concern the question of the of How the information and data gathered are
to be analyzed ? 4. Operational design
• Which deals with techniques by which the procedures satisfied be carried out.

IMPOTENT FEATURES OF A RESEARCH DESIGN AS UNDER :

1. it is plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.

2. It is a Strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and

analysing the data.

3. It also include the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these
two constraints. In brief , Research design must, at list , contain

a) a clear statement of the research problem.

b) Procedure and techniques to be used for gathering information ;

c) The population to be studied and

d) Methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually

involves the consideration of the following factors.

1. • The means of obtaining information.

2. • The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any.

3. • The objective of the problem to be studied.

4. • The nature of the problem to be studied .

5. • The availability of time and money for the research work.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Important Concepts relating to Research Design

1. • A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a

variable.
 2. • A phenomena which can take on different qualitatively values even in
decimal value are called continues.

DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES:

Dependent and Independent Variables:

1. • If one variable is depend on another variable it is termed as a

dependent variable.

2. • The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is an

independent variable.

3. • Ex. Height is dependent on age. Extraneous Variables

• That are not related to the purpose of the study but may effect on the
dependent variables are termed as the extraneous variables.

EXAMPLE OF THIS

• Suppose a researcher want to test the hypothesis that there is a

relationship between children gains in social studies achievement and their
self concept.

• In this case self-concept = independent variable

• Social studies achievement = dependent variable

• Intelligence may as well affect on the social achievement.

• But it is not related to the study undertaken by the researcher so it is

a Extraneous variable Control 

• One important characteristic of a good research is to minimize the

influence or effect of extraneous variables . 

• The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study

minimizing the effect of extraneous independent variable Confounded
Relationship
 • When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variables the relationship between the depended and independent
variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable Research
Hypothesis

• When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by

scientific methods, it is termed as a research hypothesis.

• The Research Hypothesis is a predicative statement that relates an

independent variable to dependent variable. Experimental and Non-
experimental Hypothesis Testing

• Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed

as Experimental hypothesis testing research.

• Research in which the independent variable is not manipulated is

termed as non- Experimental hypothesis testing research. Experimental and
Control Groups

• When a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed as a

control group.

• But when the group is exposed to be some special condition, it is

termed as Experimental group Treatments

• The different conditions under which experimental and control

groups are put up usually referred to as treatment. Experiment

• The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis,

relating to some research problem, is known as an Experiment. E.g.:- We
can conduct an Experiment to examine the usefulness of a certain newly
developed drug. Different Research Design

• In case of Exploratory Research study • In case of Descriptive and

Diagnostic Research

• In case of Hypothesis- Testing Research studies

 STEPS OF RESEARCH ( HYPOTHESIS)
ABOUT HYPOTHESIS  Hypothesis is Principal Instrument in
Research.  Its Main function is to Suggest New experiment and
Observations.  In Fact Many Experiments are carried out with the deliberate
object of testing hypothesis .  Decision Makers often face situations wherein
they are interested in testing Hypothesis on the basis of available
information and then take decisions on the basis of such testing.  In Social
Science , Where direct Knowledge of Population Parameterfor deciding is
rare , Hypothesis testing is the often used strategy for deciding whether a
sample data offer such support for a hypothesis that generalisation can be
made.  Thus hypothesis testing enable us to make probality statement about
population parameter.  The Hypothesis May not be proved absolutely. But
in practice it is accepted if it has withstood a critical testing.  Before We
explain how Hypothesis is tested throw different test meant for the
purpose.it will be appropriate to explain clearly the meaning of a hypothesis
and the related concepts for the better understanding of the hypothesis
testing techniques.

WHAT IS HYPOTHESIS.

 Ordinarily , When one talk about Hypothesis , one Simply mean a

mere assumption or some Proposition to be proved or disproved .  But For a
Researcher Hypothesis is Formal Question that he intends to resolve .  Thus
a hypothesis may be defined as Proposition or a set of proposition set forth
as an explanation for the occurrence.  A hypothesis is a suggested solution
for an unexplained occurrence that does not fit into current accepted
scientific theory. The basic idea of a hypothesis is that there is no pre-
determined outcome.  Here are some examples of hypothesis statements: 1.
Bacterial growth may be affected by moisture levels in the air. 2. If sugar
causes cavities, then people who eat a lot of candy may be more prone to
cavities. 3. If UV light can damage the eyes, then maybe UV light is a cause
of blindness.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

1. Hypothesis should be clear and precise.

2. Hypothesis should be Capable of being tested.

3. Hypothesis should state relationship between Variables.

4. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific.

5. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts. Like it

must be consistent with a substantial body of established facts.

6. Hypothesis should be amendable to testing within a reasonable

time.

7. Hypothesis must Explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
Explanation. 8. Hypothesis should be Stated as far as possible in most
simple terms so that the same is easily Undesrstandable by all concerned.
 BASIC CONCEPTS CONCERNING TESTING OF
HYPOTHESIS

1. The null hypothesis, denoted as 𝐻0 is the statement that the value

of the parameter is, in fact, equal to the claimed value. We assume that the
null hypothesis is true until we prove that it is not.

2. The alternative hypothesis, denoted as 𝐻1 is the statement that the

value of the parameter differs in some way from the null hypothesis. The
alternative hypothesis can use the symbols , 𝑜𝑟 ≠.

3. The test statistic is the tool we use to decide whether or not to reject
the null hypothesis. It is obtained by taking the observed value (the sample
statistic) and converting it into a standard score under the assumption that
the null hypothesis is true.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Basic Research,
2. Applied Research,
3. Qualitative Research,
4. Quantitative Research

1. BASIC RESEARCH
• A basic research definition is data collected to enhance
knowledge.
• The main motivation is knowledge expansion.
• It is a non-commercial research that doesn’t facilitate in
creating or inventing anything.
• For example: an experiment to determine a simple fact. Basic
Research Examples
• Examples of basic research in psychology might include:
 1. An investigation looking at whether stress levels influence
how often students engage in academic cheating.
2. A study looking at how caffeine consumption impacts the
brain.
3. A study assessing whether men or women are more likely to
be diagnosed with depression
4. A study looking at how attachment styles among children of
divorced parents compare to those raised by married parents
Notice in all of these examples, the goal of the research is
merely to increase the amount of knowledge on a topic, not to
come up with a practical solution to a problem
5. researchers might conduct basic research on how stress levels
impact students academically, emotionally, and socially.
• The results of these theoretical explorations might lead
to further studies designed to solve specific problems.
• Researchers might initially observe that students with
high stress levels are more prone to dropping out of college
before graduating.
• These first studies are examples of basic research
designed to learn more about the topic Applied research:
2. Applied research:
1. Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving
real-life problems.
2. This type refers to the study that helps solve practical
problems using scientific methods.
3. Studies play an important role in solving issues that
impact the overall well-being of humans.

• For example: finding a specific cure for a disease.

3. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

1. Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry.

 2. It helps create in-depth understanding of problems or issues in their
natural settings.

3. This is a non-statistical method.

4. Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the

researchers and the questions used to probe the sample.

5. The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10 people.

6. Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that encourages

answers that lead to another question or group of questions.

7. The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to gather as much

information as possible from the sample. • The following are the methods
used for qualitative research: • One-to-one interview • Focus groups •
Ethnographic research(Ethnographic research is a qualitative research
method used to study and understand cultures, societies, and communities
through direct observation and participation. Ethnography aims to provide
an in-depth and holistic understanding of a particular group's beliefs,
behaviors, rituals, customs, and social interactions within their natural
environment.) • Case study research

4. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?

• What is quantitative research?

1. Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of

gathering data .

2. performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques.

3. Quantitative research collects information from existing and

potential customers using sampling methods and sending out online surveys,
online polls, questionnaires, etc., the results of which can be in the form of
numerical

4. After careful understanding of these numbers to predict the future

of a product or service and make changes accordingly.
 5. An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to
understand the amount of time a doctor takes to attend to a patient when the
patient walks into the hospital.

6. A patient satisfaction survey template can be administered to ask

questions like how much time did a doctor takes to see a patient, how often
does a patient walks into a hospital, and other such questions.

• Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the social

sciences using the statistical methods used above to collect quantitative data
from the research study.

• In this research method, researchers and statisticians deploy

mathematical frameworks and theories that pertain to the quantity under
question.

STEPS OF RESEARCH STEPS OF RESEARCH

1. Selection of Problem or Formulation of Legal Research ( Chose a
Problem)
2. Reviewing literature.
3. Hypotheses, Setting research questions, objectives,
4. Research Design or study design
5. Sample design
6. Data Collection or Collecting data
7. Data Analysis.
8. Writing the report
a. conclusion
b. suggestion
c. References
d. Abbreviation
• e. Aricles
• f. Act • g. Table of Cases • We should follow above 8 steps
in a research study..
• A close examination of the above stages reveals that each
of these stages, is dependent upon the Each -others.
• One cannot analyze data (step 7) unless he has collected
data (step 6).
• It is also true that one cannot write a report (step 8) unless
he has collected and analyzed data (step 7).
• Research then is a system of interdependent related stages.
• Violation of this sequence can cause irreparable harm to
the study.
• A research process can be compared with a route map. 1-
Selection of Problem or Formulation of Legal Research
( Chose a Problem)
• The first and foremost task in the entire process of
scientific research is to identify a research problem.
• A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to
accomplish all-important phases of the research process,
starting from setting objectives to the selection of the
research methodology.
• But the core question is: whether all problems require
research.
• We have countless problems around us, but all that we
encounter do not qualify as research problems, and thus,
these do not need to be researched.
• Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a
research problem and a non-research problem.
• researchable problems are those who have a possibility of
thorough verification investigation, which can be effected
through the analysis and collection of data, while the non-
research problems do not need to go through these
processes.
• Researcher need to identify both;
• Non-research Problem, and
• Research Problem. What is a research problem?
• It’s a clear and definite statement or • expression about
your chosen area of concern,
 • a difficulty to eliminate,
• a condition to improve, or
• a troubling problem that exists in theory, literature, and
practice.
• A research problem indicates a need meaningful
investigation.
• It doesn’t state how to do something and a researcher
shouldn’t present a value question or offer a broad research
proposal. • A research problem is a statement about an area
of concern, • a condition to be improved, • a difficulty to be
eliminated, • or a troubling question that exists in literature,
in theory, • or in practice that points to the need for
meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. • In
some social science disciplines the research problem is
typically posed in the form of a question. • A research
problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague
or broad proposition, or present a value question. The
purpose of a problem statement is to 1. Introduce the reader
to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is
oriented to the significance of the study and the research
questions or hypotheses to follow. 2. Places the problem into
a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to
be investigated. 3. Provides the framework for reporting the
results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct
the study and explain how the findings will present this
information. How to identify a research problem? • After
choosing a specific topic for your academic paper, you need
to state it as a clear research problem that identifies all the
issues that you’ll address. It’s not always simple for students
to formulate it. In some fields, they may end up spending a
lot of time thinking, exploring, and studying before getting a
clear idea of what research questions to answer. • Some
topics are too broad to give a researchable issue. For
example, if you decide to study certain social issues, like
child poverty, remember that they don’t provide any
researchable question. These are very broad to address and
take a lot of time and resources to become unfeasible so that
your study will lack enough focus and depth. What is a
statement of a research problem? • An adequate statement of
your research problem plays an important role in the success
of your academic paper and study. • It’s possible to generate
a number of researchable issues from the same subject
because there are many issues that may arise out of it. Your
study should pursue only one in detail. • Basic
characteristics of research problem • For your research
problem to be effective, make sure that it has these basic
characteristics: 1. Reflecting on important issues or needs; 2.
Basing on factual evidence (it’s nonhypothetical); 3. Being
manageable and relevant; 4. Suggesting a testable and
meaningful hypothesis (avoiding useless answers).
Formulating your research problem with ease • Formulating
your research problem enables you to make a purpose of
your study clear to yourself and target readers. Focus your
paper on providing relevant data to address it. • A problem
statement is an effective and essential tool to keep you on
track with research and evaluate it. • How can you formulate
a powerful research problem? Consider 5 ways to formulate
the research problem: 1. Specify your research objectives; 2.
Review its context or environment; 3. Explore its nature; 4.
Determine variable relationships; 5. Anticipate the possible
consequences of alternative approaches. Do you have a good
research problem? • Do a simple self-test to determine
whether it’s good enough for your scientific project and
make sure that: • Your question allows for a number of
potential answers; • It’s testable, flexible, and open-ended; •
You have the evidence necessary to address it; • It’s possible
to break it into resolvable parts; • It’s precise and clear; •
You don’t use any vague terms that require definitions; • It’s
suitable for the length of your paper; • You can explain why
your solutions matter; • You made premises explicit. • What
 should a formal version be like? • What should a formal
version be like? • Any research starts with a problem that
you derive from the topic that attracts your attention after
general reading, classroom discussions, etc. Most instructors
prefer to set general topics. To formulate a powerful
research problem and impress them, it should be: •
Interesting; • Relevant; • Specific and focused; •
Researchable. Expert assistance: benefits of hiring
professional writers • The above-stated methods and tips can
help you formulate a great research problem for any project.
• If you face different challenges, such as a lack of time or
skills, don’t hesitate to get thesis writing help. • Expert
writers can help you with all academic tasks. They have the
skills, experience, and knowledge necessary to guarantee
your success and high grades after submitting the top-quality
assignments that you order.

STEPS OF TYPES
1. Selection of Problem or Formulation of Legal Research ( Chose a
Problem)
2. Reviewing literature.
3. Hypotheses, Setting research questions, objectives,
4. Research Design or study design
5. Sample design
6. Data Collection or Collecting data
7. Data Analysis.
8. Writing the report
• A . conclusion • b. suggestion • c. References •
d .Abbreviation • e. Aricles • f. Act • g. Table of Cases • We should
follow above 8 steps in a research study.. • A close examination of the
above stages reveals that each of these stages, is dependent upon the
Each -others. • One cannot analyze data (step 7) unless he has
collected data (step 6). • It is also true that one cannot write a report
(step 8) unless he has collected and analyzed data (step 7). • Research
then is a system of interdependent related stages. • Violation of this
sequence can cause irreparable harm to the study. • A research process
can be compared with a route map. 1-Selection of Problem or
Formulation of Legal Research ( Chose a Problem) • The first and
foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a
research problem. • A well-identified problem will lead the researcher
to accomplish all-important phases of the research process, starting
from setting objectives to the selection of the research methodology. •
But the core question is: whether all problems require research. • We
have countless problems around us, but all that we encounter do not
qualify as research problems, and thus, these do not need to be
researched. • Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between
a research problem and a non-research problem. • researchable
problems are those who have a possibility of thorough verification
investigation, which can be effected through the analysis and
collection of data, while the non-research problems do not need to go
through these processes. • Researcher need to identify both; • Non-
research Problem, and • Research Problem. What is a research
problem? • It’s a clear and definite statement or expression about your
chosen area of concern, a difficulty to eliminate, a condition to
improve, or a troubling problem that exists in theory, literature, and
practice. • A research problem indicates a need meaningful
investigation. • It doesn’t state how to do something and a researcher
shouldn’t present a value question or offer a broad research proposal.
• A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a
condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling
question that exists in literature, in theory, or in practice that points to
the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. •
In some social science disciplines the research problem is typically
posed in the form of a question. • A research problem does not state
how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a
value question. The purpose of a problem statement is to 1. Introduce
the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is
oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or
hypotheses to follow. 2. Places the problem into a particular context
that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated. 3. Provides
the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably
necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will
present this information. How to identify a research problem? • After
choosing a specific topic for your academic paper, you need to state it
as a clear research problem that identifies all the issues that you’ll
address. It’s not always simple for students to formulate it. In some
fields, they may end up spending a lot of time thinking, exploring, and
studying before getting a clear idea of what research questions to
answer. • Some topics are too broad to give a researchable issue. For
example, if you decide to study certain social issues, like child
poverty, remember that they don’t provide any researchable question.
These are very broad to address and take a lot of time and resources to
become unfeasible so that your study will lack enough focus and
depth. What is a statement of a research problem? • An adequate
statement of your research problem plays an important role in the
success of your academic paper and study. • It’s possible to generate a
number of researchable issues from the same subject because there are
many issues that may arise out of it. Your study should pursue only
one in detail. • Basic characteristics of research problem • For your
research problem to be effective, make sure that it has these basic
characteristics: 1. Reflecting on important issues or needs; 2. Basing
on factual evidence (it’s nonhypothetical); 3. Being manageable and
relevant; 4. Suggesting a testable and meaningful hypothesis
(avoiding useless answers). Formulating your research problem with
ease • Formulating your research problem enables you to make a
purpose of your study clear to yourself and target readers. Focus your
paper on providing relevant data to address it. • A problem statement
is an effective and essential tool to keep you on track with research
and evaluate it. • How can you formulate a powerful research
problem? Consider 5 ways to formulate the research problem: 1.
Specify your research objectives; 2. Review its context or
environment; 3. Explore its nature; 4. Determine variable
relationships; 5. Anticipate the possible consequences of alternative
approaches. Do you have a good research problem? • Do a simple
self-test to determine whether it’s good enough for your scientific
project and make sure that: • Your question allows for a number of
potential answers; • It’s testable, flexible, and open-ended; • You have
the evidence necessary to address it; • It’s possible to break it into
resolvable parts; • It’s precise and clear; • You don’t use any vague
terms that require definitions; • It’s suitable for the length of your
paper; • You can explain why your solutions matter; • You made
premises explicit. • What should a formal version be like? • What
should a formal version be like? • Any research starts with a problem
that you derive from the topic that attracts your attention after general
reading, classroom discussions, etc. Most instructors prefer to set
general topics. To formulate a powerful research problem and impress
them, it should be: • Interesting; • Relevant; • Specific and focused; •
Researchable. Expert assistance: benefits of hiring professional
writers • The above-stated methods and tips can help you formulate a
great research problem for any project. • If you face different
challenges, such as a lack of time or skills, don’t hesitate to get thesis
writing help. • Expert writers can help you with all academic tasks.
They have the skills, experience, and knowledge necessary to
guarantee your success and high grades after submitting the top-
quality assignments that you order.
 PLAGIARISM
• Plagiarism
1. Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as
your own, with or without their consent, by incorporating it into your
work without full acknowledgement.
2. All published and unpublished material, whether in
manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this
definition.
3. Plagiarism may be intentional or reckless, or unintentional.
4. Under the regulations for examinations, intentional or
reckless plagiarism is a disciplinary offence.
5. The necessity to acknowledge others’ work or ideas applies
not only to text, but also to other media, such as computer code,
illustrations, graphs etc.
6. It applies equally to published text and data drawn from
books and journals, and to unpublished text and data, whether from
lectures, thesis or other students’ essays.
 7. You must also attribute text, data, or other resources
downloaded from websites.
8. The best way of avoiding plagiarism is to learn and employ
the principles of good academic practice from the beginning of your
university career.
9. Avoiding plagiarism is not simply a matter of making sure
your references are all correct, or changing enough words so the
examiner will not notice your paraphrase; it is about deploying your
academic skills to make your work as good as it can be.
FORMS OF PLAGIARISM
1. Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear
acknowledgement Quotations must always be identified as such by
the use of either quotation marks or indentation, and with full
referencing of the sources cited. It must always be apparent to the
reader which parts are your own independent work and where you
have drawn on someone else’s ideas and language.
2. Cutting and pasting from the Internet without clear
acknowledgement Information derived from the Internet must be
adequately referenced and included in the bibliography. It is important
to evaluate carefully all material found on the Internet,
3. Paraphrasing
1. Paraphrasing the work of others by altering a few
words and changing their order, or by closely following the
structure of their argument, is plagiarism if you do not give due
acknowledgement to the author whose work you are using.
2. A passing reference to the original author in your own
text may not be enough; you must ensure that you do not
create the misleading impression that the paraphrased
wording or the sequence of ideas are entirely your own.
3. It is better to write a brief summary of the author’s
overall argument in your own words, indicating that you
are doing so, than to paraphrase particular sections of his
or her writing.
 4. This will ensure you have a genuine grasp of the
argument and will avoid the difficulty of paraphrasing
without plagiarising.
5. You must also properly attribute all material you
derive from lectures.

4. Collusion 1. This can involve unauthorised collaboration between

students, failure to attribute assistance received, or failure to follow precisely
regulations on group work projects. 2. It is your responsibility to ensure that you
are entirely clear about the extent of collaboration permitted, and which parts of
the work must be your own.

5. Inaccurate citation 1. It is important to cite correctly, according to the

conventions of your discipline. 2. As well as listing your sources (i.e. in a
bibliography), you must indicate, using a footnote or an in-text reference, where a
quoted passage comes from. 3. Additionally, you should not include anything in
your references or bibliography that you have not actually consulted. 4. If you
cannot gain access to a primary source you must make it clear in your citation that
your knowledge of the work has been derived from a secondary text (for example,
Bradshaw, D. Title of Book, discussed in Wilson, E., Title of Book (London,
2004), p. 189).

6. Failure to acknowledge assistance

1. You must clearly acknowledge all assistance which has contributed

to the production of your work, such as advice from fellow students,
laboratory technicians, and other external sources.

2. This need not apply to the assistance provided by your tutor or

supervisor, or to ordinary proofreading, but it is necessary to
acknowledge other guidance which leads to substantive changes of
content or approach. 7. Use of material written by professional
agencies or other persons

• You should neither make use of professional agencies in the

production of your work nor submit material which has been written
for you even with the consent of the person who has written it.
 • It is vital to your intellectual training and development that
you should undertake the research process unaided.

• Under Statute XI on University Discipline, all members of the

University are prohibited from providing material that could be
submitted in an examination by students at this University or
elsewhere. 8.Auto-plagiarism You must not submit work for
assessment that you have already submitted (partially or in full), either
for your current course or for another qualification of this, or any
other, university, unless this is specifically provided for in the special
regulations for your course. Where earlier work by you is citable, ie.it
has already been published, you must reference it clearly.

• Identical pieces of work submitted concurrently will also be

considered to be auto-plagiarism.

• How to avoid plagiarism

• Plagiarism means using someone else’s words or ideas

without properly crediting the original author.

• Sometimes plagiarism involves deliberately stealing

someone’s work, but often it happens accidentally, through
carelessness or forgetfulness.

• When you write an academic paper, you build upon the work
of others and use various sources for information and evidence.

• To avoid plagiarism, you need to correctly incorporate these

sources into your text.

• Follow these four steps to ensure your paper is free from

plagiarism:

1. Keep track of the sources you consult in your research.

2. Paraphrase or quote from your sources (and add your own

ideas).

3. Credit the original author in an in-text citation and reference list.

 4. Use a plagiarism checker before you submit.

• Step 1: Keep track of your sources

• While you’re doing research and taking notes for your paper,
make sure to record the source of each piece of information.

• One way that students commit plagiarism is by simply

forgetting where an idea came from and unintentionally presenting it
as their own. • You can easily avoid this pitfall by keeping your notes
organized and compiling a list of citations as you go.

• Keep track of every source you consult—that includes not

only books and journal articles, but also things like websites,
magazine articles, and videos.

• Then you can easily go back and check where you found a
phrase, fact, or idea that you want to use in your paper.

• Step 2: Quote and paraphrase

• While writing your paper, if you want to share an idea or a piece of

information from a source, you must either paraphrase or quote the

original text.

• QUOTING

• Quoting means copying a piece of text word-forword.

• The copied text must be introduced in your own words, enclosed in

quotation marks, and correctly attributed to the original author:

• According to Cronon, the concept of wilderness is a cultural

invention: “Far from being the one place on earth that stands apart from
humanity, it is quite profoundly a human creation—indeed, the creation of
very particular human cultures at very particular moments in human history”
(1995, p. 69)

. • Step 3: Cite the original source

 • Every time you quote or paraphrase, you must include an in-text
citation (or footnote citation) that identifies the original author. It often also
includes the publication year and a page number.

• Each in-text citation must correspond to a full reference in the

reference list or bibliography at the end of your paper. This details exactly
where the information came from, allowing your readers to locate the source
for themselves.

• There are many different citation styles, and each one has its own
rules for citing. Some of the most common include APA, MLA and Chicago
Style. The most important thing is to apply one style consistently throughout
the text.

• Step 4: Use a plagiarism checker

• Most universities use plagiarism checkers to detect plagiarism in student

papers.

• This technology scans your document, compares it to a huge database of

publications and websites, and highlights passages that are overly similar to
other texts.

• You can use a plagiarism checker yourself before submitting your paper.

• This allows you to identify any parts where you’ve forgotten a citation, left
out quotation marks, or included a paraphrase that’s too close to the original
text. Then you can follow the steps above to easily fix any instances of
potential plagiarism.

• There are differences in accuracy and safety between plagiarism checkers.

We have tested and compared all the options: