UNIT | - BASICS OF DESIGNS Understanding of Projections, Scales, units, GD & T; its 14 symbols, Special characteristics & Title Block readings. Revision / ECN status of drawings Customer Specific requirements Drawing Grid readingCourse Outcomes * At the end of the course the students would be able to * Discuss the basics of the design and concepts. * Develop the two dimensional drafting and projection views. * Discuss the three dimensional modeling, parametric and Non- parametric modeling * Discuss the assembly modeling and top down, bottom up approaches. * Develop the computer aided machining and wirting part programming.An engineering drawing * An engineering drawing is a type of technical drawing that is used to convey information about an object. A common use is to specify the geometry necessary for the construction of a component and is called a detail drawing. Usually, a number of drawings are necessary to completely specify even a simple component.Types * part drawing and * assembly drawingSample drawingProjections Methods in CAD Drafting * Drafting is also spelled as draughting, is popularly known as an engineering drawing. Drafting is the process of representing an object or idea through lines having various thicknesses and make ups.Classification of Drafting: * Based on the usage of drafting + Furniture drafting * Architectural drafting * Mechanical or machine drafting * Electrical and electronics drafting * Structural drafting and sheet-metal drafting, etc., * Based on the function of drafting * Manual drafting * Computer-Aided Drafting or Designing (CAD)Advantages of Manual Drafting: * Low Cost of Drafting Equipment: Manual drafting is created by using drafting equipment like a Pencil, Scale, Mini-Drafter, Compass, etc. The cost of drafting equipment is less compared to CAD Software Packages. * No Cutting End Technology Required: Unlike CAD Systems, you don’t need to maintain the systems with expensive maintenance services. Maintaining the Pencil and Paper is easy to do. * No Need for Subscriptions: In the manual drafting we are not going to use CAD software. If we use CAD software, we need a subscription for the same. It will improve the cost involved in the process. * No training required: Apart from the training which we get while studying, there is no need for the designers to teach the CAD packages being used.Advantages of CAD drafting: * Quality of Design: The CAD software has different tools to create drawings accurately a er the requirement. The quality of the CAD is better compared to Manual rafting. * Easy for Documentation: For manual drafting, we have to maintain a lot of documents. Handling and maintaining the document is a very difficult process in manual drafting. But, in CAD drafting, saving and sharing the documents is very easy. Documents can be saved in the local storage or in the cloud storage. * Modify and Reproduce Faster: Modifying the existing drawing and reproducing the drawing is very easy in CAD drafting. It is very complicated in the Manual drafting process. * Ability to Create a Drawing from 3D Models: In CAD drafting you can directly import any. 3b CAD model you can create different views like Front, Side & Top, etc. in CAD rafting. + Following the Standards: Different standards are available in CAD drafting. Based on the standard which you are selecting the views and annotations are automatically added. But, In Manual drafting, you have to know about all the standards. Only then you can create proper drafting.Use of Projections in Drafting: * Projection is used to represent the Complex 3D object in the 2D drawing sheet. * Projection is used to show the Shape and Size of the object in the Drawing or Drafting sheet.Definition of Projections: * As an object, it has three dimensions length, width and height. The shapes and size of the object to be represented on a sheet, which has only a two-dimensional plane.Fig 3 : Orthographic projection Fig 2: Parallel projection 209.2003 UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS BPrinciple plane of Projection Object and Plane Position Fig 4 : Principle plane of projection Fig 5 : First angle projectionPrinciple plane of Projection Object and Plane Position Fig 7: Third angle projectionscale * Ascale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a drawing to the actual dimensions of the same.Necessity ¢ Drawings drawn with the same size as the objects are called full sized drawing. * It is not convenient, always, to draw drawings of the object to its actual size. eg. Buildings, Heavy machines, Bridges, Watches, Electronic devices etc. + Hence scales are used to prepare drawing at + Full size + Reduced size + Enlarged size«o: osBIS Recommended Scales Reducing scales 1:Y (Y>1) Enlarging scales X:1 (X>1) Full size scales Intermediate scales can be used in exceptional cases where recommended scales can not be applied for functional reasons. 4Representative fraction (R.F.) Length of an object on the drawing ae Actual Length of the object When a 1 cm long line in a drawing represents 1 meter length of the object, RF= lem _ lem _ 1 Im 1x 100cm 100Plain Scale Ifa line divided into number of equal parts; the first part is further sub divided into small parts. It represents either two units or a unit and its fraction such as km and hm ¢ 1 decimeters (dm) = 10 cmPlain scale - A plain scale consists of a line divided into suitable number of equal units. The first unit is subdivided into smaller parts. * The zero should be placed at the end of the 1*t main unit. + From the zero mark, the units should be numbered to the right and the sub-divisions to the left. * The units and the subdivisions should be labeled clearly. + The R.F. should be mentioned below the scale.Construct _a scale of 1:4, to show centimeters and lon enough to measure up to 5 decimeters. 3.7 dm ———_ 10 Ss o 4 2 3 4 CENTIMETERS 4 DECIMETERS RF.= 4 °- RF=“% + Length of the scale = R.F. x max. length = 4 x 5dm * Draw a line 12.5 cm long and divide it in to 5 equal div representing 1 dm. + Mark 0 at the end of the first division and 1, 2, 3 and 4 at the end of each subsequent division to its right. + Divide the first division into 10 equal sub-divisions, each representing 1 cm. * Mark cm to the left of 0 as shown. 12.5 cm. ions, each 27-09-2023 UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS 2Question: Construct a scale of 1:4, to show centimeters and long enough to measure up to 5 decimeters 10 5 o 3 4 CENTIMETERS DECIMETERS. als RF.= Draw the scale as a rectangle of small width (about 3 mm) instead of only a line. Draw the division lines showing decimeters throughout the width of the scale. Draw thick and dark horizontal lines in the middle of all alternate divisions and sub-divisions. Below the scale, print DE ETERS on the right hand side, CENTIMERTERS on the left hand side, and R.F. in the middle.Diagonal Scle * Diagonal scales are used either to measure very minute distance such as 0.1mm or to measure three units such as dm , cm and mmDiagonal scale. ncept At end B of line AB, draw a perpendicular. Step-off ten equal divisions of any length along the perpendicular starting from B and ending atc. Number the division points 9,8,7, Join A with C. Through the points 1, 2, 3, etc., draw lines parallel to AB and cutting AC at 1°, 2°, 3’, ete. Since the triangles are similar; 1°1 = 0.1 AB, 2°2 = 0.2AB. 9°9 = 0.9AB. Gives divisions of a given short line AB in multiples of 1/10 its length, e.g. 0.1AB, 0.2AB, 0.3AB, etc. snot aaor)8]8© wDDiagonal Scale ¢ Through Diagonal scale, measurements can be up to second decimal (e.g. 4.35). * Diagonal scales are used to measure distances in a unit and its immediate two subdivisions; e.g. dm, cm & mm, or yard, foot & inch. ¢ Diagonal scale can measure more accurately than the plain scale.Construct a Diagonal scale of RF 3:200 (i.e. 6 2/3) showing meters, seuleesinee and centimete: The scale should measure up ance of 4.56 meters ic 4 Ajo86420 1 2 3 4 5 DECIMETERS ies METERS + Length of the scale = (3/200)x 6m = Sem + Draw a line AB = 9 em Divide it in to 6 equal parts. + Divide the first part AO into 10 equal divisions. + At A draw a perpendicular and step-off along it 10 equal divisions, ending at D.Diagonal Scale Ma86420 1 2 3 4 3 Decimerens METERS Complete the rectangle ABC! Draw perpendiculars at meter-divisions i.e. 1, 2, 3, and 4. Dp. 200 Draw horizontal lines through the di nm points on AD. Join D with the end of the first division along AO (i.e. 9). Through the remaining points i.e. 8, 7, 6, ... draw lines // to D9. PQ = 4.56 metersVernier scale.... Concept Length AO represents 10 cm and is divided in to 10 equal parts each representing 1 cm. BO = 11 (i.e. 10+1) such equal parts = 11 cm. Divide BO into 10 equal divisions. Each division of BO will be equal to 11/10 = 1.1 cm or 11 mm. Difference between 1 part of A and one part of BO = 1.1 cm -1.0 cm = 0.1cm or 1 mm. s 6 CENTIMETERS a 20Question: Draw a Vernier scale of R.F. 1/25 to read up to 4 meters. On it show lengths 2.39 m and 0.91 m CENTIMETRES DECIMETRES * Length of Scale = (1/25) = (4 = 100) = 16 cm + Draw a 16 cm long line and divide it into 4 equal parts. Each part is 1 meter. Divide each of these parts in to 10 equal parts to show decimeter (10 cm). + Take 11 parts of dm length and divide it in to 10 equal parts. Each of these parts will show a length of 1.1 dm or 11 cm. ler at A on 99 cm mark 2.39). + To measure 2.39 m, place one leg of the and other leg at B on 1.4 mark. (0.99 + 1.4 + To measure 0.91 place the divider at C and D (0.8 +0.11 = 0.91).Drawing units * When drawing using a CAD software we always draw "real" size (i.e. the scale is 1:1 in the computer space). For example if we draw a box with size 20x20x20 cm we will use 20 drawing units for drawing the sides. * Independently of the scale that we will use to print the drawing we will not scale when we draw on the CAD software. This is a major benefit of CAD software! Nobody wants to hold a calculator the whole time and scale while drawing! Drawing in one thing, scaling for printing is a totally different thing.Drawing units + We set the scale only at the printing layout which is prepare at a later stage when the drawing is completed and we are ready for printing. In all CAD software, the printing layouts are always a distinct part of the software that helps us fit the drawing to the paper. In all CAD software, drawing is one thing and printing is another thing. + Before we start drawing we decide in our mind what will be the value of a unit length in the drawing. One drawing unit can be equal to one meter, one mm, one cm, one kilometer (km).Drawing units + lt is up to us to decide what the units will be depending on the size actual size of our structure or object. For example, if we draw a coin with a diameter of 20 mm it is convenient to use im (millimeters). Thus we will draw the coin using a circle with a diameter of 20 units. In this case, one drawing unit represents 1mm. «If we draw the structural drawings for a concrete house it is much more convenient to use meters (m). In that case one drawing unit represents 1m. Then a square house with layout of 20x20 meter will be drawn using a square with side-length of 20 drawing units.27.09.2023 + Total Run out UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS PaiN —To030 Straightness AA + In this feature, all elements are proposed to be in the straight line * Straightness error is the distance between two parallel lines which include all elements of a line + Straightness control is a geometric tolerance that when directed to a surface that limit the amount of straightness error * Straightness control requires no datum reference and mo (MMC,LMC, P, T) + It controls each line independently and separately * If tolerance zone for straightness is applied to a FOS is a cylinder, diameter modifier is used * If modifier is given in the frame, then the condition is used to describe the axis of FOS ersFlatness [| * In this feature, all elements are supposed to be in one plane * Flatness error is the distance between two parallel planes which include all elements of a surface (High and low points) * Flatness control is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount of flatness error * Flatness feature requires no datum and no modifiers. And it must be applied to a planar surface * The distance between the parallel plane is determined by the flatness control tolerance value001 toleance oe) Circularity —— oO + It is a condition where all points of a surface of f revolution at any section perpendicular to an axis are oo: equidistant from the axis \ toler ane * Circularity error is the radial distance between two co- axial diameters which include all elements of a circular feature * Circularity control limits the amount of circularity error * Circularity feature requires no datum reference, modifiers (M,L,P.T) * It controls each circular element independently * Tolerance zone for a circularity control applies to a diameter in two co-axial circles * Circularity control do not over ride Rule #1Cylindricity * It is the condition of a surface of revolution in which all points of the surface are equidistant from a common axis * Cylindri error is the radial distance between two co-axial cylinders which includes all elements of a cylindrical surface. * Cylindricity control limits amount of cylindricity error * Cylindricity feature requires no datum reference and modifiers * Cylindricity feature controls the form of diameter of a perfect cylinder[= [ow TAT. Angularity Ge] + It is used to control the angle of the surface + Angularity requires datum reference and an angle must be specified between the tolerance feature and datum reference + When angularity is applied to a plane, the tolerance zone will be two parallel planes oriented by a basic angle and all the elements will lie within the tolerance zone + When angularity is applied to FOS, it controls the orientation of the axis of FOS + When diameter is specified before the angular tolerance value, it indicates that the tolerance zone is cylindrical. ; Perpendicularity [ & When the perpendicularity is applied to a surface, the tolerance zone is two parallel planes which are 90 degree to the datum When the perpendicularity is applied to a planar FOS, its tolerance zone is applied to both the surface of FOS When the perpendicularity control is applied to a planar surface, it controls the orientation of flatness of the surface When the perpendicularity control is applied to a FOS, it control the orientation of axis of the FOS If MMC is indicated with perpendicularity control, then bonus tolerance is permissible When the diameter is specified before the tolerance value, then the shape of the tolerance zone is cylindrical[// [0.030 [A] Parallelism | | * When parallelism is applied to a planar surface, the tolerance zone is two parallel planes which are parallel to the datum plane. * When parallelism is applied to a FOS, its tolerance zone is applied to the axis or center plane of the FOS. * When the diameter is specified before the tolerance value, then the shape of the tolerance zone is cylindrical * When the parallelism control contains a diameter symbol in front of the tolerance value, the shape of tolerance value will be cylindrical * The axis of the tolerance diameter must be within the tolerance zone * the tolerance zone may float within the allowable location tolerance zonePosition + Tolerance of position (TOP) + It is used to control the location of the FOS or a pattern of FOS + True position is the theoretically exact location of a FOS * TOP control is a geometric tolerance that defines the location tolerance of FOS from its true position. * Modifiers and datum references are used when TOP is used * When Modifier is given for a part with TOP, then the tolerance is applied only to that modifier condition + When TOP is applied on MMC, bonus tolerance and datum shift is permittedConcentricity ra ( Be st nation : ; 4 it et It is the condition where the Tes mid points of all diametrically l ty fot opposed elements of a surface of revolution are congruent with the axis of a datum feature. All the median points of the tolerance diameter must be within the tolerance zone. Aconcentricity control, datum references are always applied at RFS Concentricity requires datum reference and must be applied to a cylindrical FOS and at RFS The tolerance zone for a concentricity control is a cylinder that is co axial with the datum 27092023 UNIT B45 F SNS 2Symmetry |--- It is the condition where the median points of all opposed elements of two or more feature surfaces are congruent with the datum axis or datum center plane of a datum feature The symmetry control requires datum reference and it must be applied to a planar FOS and RFS The symmetry tolerance value determines the size of tolerance zone The tolerance zone for a symmetry control is two parallel planes centered about the datum center plane The distance between the plane value Median points of tolerance feature must be within the tolerance zone equal to the symmetry control toleranceProfile of a line + Profile of a line establishes a two-dimensional tolerance zone that controls individual line elements of a feature or surface. Profile of a line is usually applied to parts with varying cross-sections, or to specific cross sections critical to a part's function. + Profile control is a geometric tolerance which specifies a uniform boundary along the true profile that elements of a surface must lie within + When a profile of a line control is specified the tolerance zone is two uniform lines. The tolerance zone applies for each line element of the surface * It has 2D tolerance zone * It can be used with the datum feature as a related feature control and without a datum reference as a form controlProfile of a surface =~ F It is a powerful geometric tolerance which is used to control the part surface It controls the size, location, orientation and form When the profile of a surface control is specified, tolerance zone is uniform boundary. The boundary applies for the full length and width of the surface It must have a datum reference and should be applied to a true profile It has 3D tolerance zone and it can be used to tolerance a polygon, conical feature001 Circular Run out Se : + Itis a composite control that affects the form, orientation, location of circular elements of a part feature relative to a datum axis + Itis applied to each circular element of the tolerance feature independently + Tolerance zone exist for each circular element of the tolerance diameter two co-axial circles whose centers are + The shape of the tolerance zone located on the datum axis. + It is known as composite control because it limits the circularity, orientation and axis offset of a diameter. + Circular run out tolerance zone is the radial distance between cit to the run out tolerance value 27.09.2023 UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS a les equalTotal Run out * Itis a composite control that affects the form, orientation, location of all surface elements of a diameter relative to a datum axis * Total run out requires a datum reference and it must be applied at RFS + The run out tolerance value is equal to the radial distance between the two cylinders + The tolerance zone of a total run out is the two co-axial cylinders whose centers are located on the datum axis + It is also a composite control as it limits the location, orientation and cylindricitySpecial characteristics In CAD (Computer-Aided Design) design, there are several special characteristics or features that can enhance the functionality, aesthetics, or manufacturing of a product. Here are some commonly used special characteristics in CAD design: Fillets and Chamfers: These features are used to round or bevel the edges or corners of a part, reducing stress concentration and improving aesthetics. Draft: Draft is a taper applied to vertical walls of a part to aid in its easy release from a mold during manufacturing. Threads: CAD allows the inclusion of threads, both internal and external, which are essential for fasteners and threaded connections. Ribs and Bosses: Ribs are thin, structural elements added to strengthen a part, while bosses are protruding features used for mounting or fastening purposes.Special characteristics + Holes and Cutouts: CAD designs can include accurately placed holes, slots, or cutouts for various purposes such as assembly, ventilation, or access points. + Embossing and Engraving: These features involve adding raised or recessed text, logos, or patterns to a part's surface for branding or aesthetic purposes. + Patterns and Symmetry: CAD allows for the creation of patterned features or symmetric elements, which can improve efficiency, aesthetics, or functionality. + Snap Fits and Interlocking Features: These features enable parts to be assembled or connected without the need for additional fasteners or adhesivesSpecial characteristics Tolerance and Clearance: CAD design includes specifying tolerance levels and clearances to ensure proper fit, function, and assembly of parts. Assembly Constraints: CAD software provides tools to define constraints, such as mates, hinges, or sliders, to simulate how parts will move or interact within an assembly. Surfacing: Advanced CAD tools allow for complex surfacing, enabling the creation of organic shapes, curved surfaces, and complex geometries. Parametric Design: CAD software supports parametric modeling, allowing designers to create and modify parts using parameters and relationships, which enables easy iteration and design variations.Engineering Change Notice *In engineering, the revision or ECN (Engineering Change Notice) status of engineering drawings refers to the version or iteration of the drawing and any associated changes that have been made. It helps track and communicate the history of modifications and ensures that the latest version of the drawing is being referenced and used. * The revision status is typically indicated by a revision letter or number, such as Revision A, Revision 1, or Revision 2. Each revision signifies a significant change or update made to the drawing. When a revision occurs, it is important to document the specific changes made, the reason for the change, and the date of the revision.*ECN, on the other hand, refers to the process or document that captures and communicates engineering changes made to a drawing. An ECN typically includes details about the proposed change, its impact on the design, and any necessary approvals or reviews. It may also include a description of the change, the affected drawing number, the reason for the change, and any associated documents or references.+The status of an engineering drawing may be indicated directly on the drawing itself or in a separate document, such as the title block or revision block. The revision status can be denoted by placing the revision letter or number next to the drawing number, typically in a smaller font size or within brackets. Additionally, the revision history or ECN log may be maintained separately, tracking the changes made to the drawing over time. + By indicating the revision or ECN status, engineers, designers, and other stakeholders can easily identify the most up-to-date version of a drawing, ensuring that they are working with accurate and current information. It also aids in maintaining a record of changes for future reference and traceabilityRevision / ECN status of drawings + An engineering change order (ECO) or an engineering change notice (ECN) is a document thaf begins the process for making adaptations or corrections during a product's lifecycle’ It plays a critical role in engineering and product development. ENGINEERING CHANGE NOTICE An me change notice (ECN) is an official notice that a change has been approved. Many companies use a formal ECN to help ensure their contract manufacturers and other manufacturing partners are building products correctly. + They say the only thing constant is change — and the manufacturing process is no exception. Although equipment, standards, and procedures take a good deal of pan to establish, they are not set in stone. Machines and electrical components evolve as they move towards newer models, while standards and procedures are improving all the time 27.092023 UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS ssven 661734 ENGINEERING CHANGE NOTICE = : Page tot 2. Pe EEGH Catagory Grarkone) 3 Originators Name, Organization, MEIN, and Telephone No TSG Raquved? [5 Da supplemental J). |B, R. Johns, ISB, 87-24, 373-3429 Bye tls loovaye Direct Revision = B® Change Eon EE]. | PrRetTWiNa or Geter We 7 Bldg ys Fae. No. Approval Desay ee ( [tnterim stabilization, Fssential [Drawings, 103361 242~6/200-GaN N/A Standoy ‘5, Document Numbers Changed by tis EON (nakides | 10. Related ECN Ne( 1, Related PO No. supersede [| sheet nesand rev) CancelVoid O |nnr-aies, rev. @ N/A N/A "aa, Wadiieaton Werk | 125 Work Package No. | 125 Moaficaion Work Complelad 13d, Regeedto,Oigral Condon Temp 1D Yes (mi out Bik. 120) wk i eam ot x im Wo fn pi 120, |N/A Ges Aaonvag, Erne Surae & | "Desi Auonicag, Enea’ Sarat 18a. Description of Change 1b, Design Baseline Document? BQ yes CO) No This ECN is a direct revision of document HNF-4164, Interim Stabilization Equipment Essential and Support Drawing List. Four Essential drawings and seven Support drawings are added to the lists for new Pumping Instrumentation and Control skid "x".What are the steps of an engineering change process? 1. Identify the problem and the scope 2. Create an Engineering Change Request (ECR) 3. Review and approve the ECR 4. Create an Engineering Change Order (ECO) 5. Review and approve the ECO 6. Communicate the Engineering Change Notice (ECN) to relevant groups 7. Implement the required changeWhat are some types of changes that require ECOs? 1. Typographical changes 2. Alternative manufacturers 3. Obsolete component 4. Design changes and new modelsTitle Block Readings TOLERANCE BLOCK COMPANY NAME AND ADDRES: APPROVAL BLOCK DATES BLOCK PES ae a Zowaremas evoer / eee FINAL PROTECTIVE / Z onawins numer \ SCALE rant wame on rrrLeS APPLICATIONS BLOCK ZC quantity per Next ASSEMBLYECR exists and ‘Matidcpromotes Matin promotes hasbeen ECO tonevew ECO toPenaing Approved sate Release sate Route of Create ECO tom people netted io ‘the ECR ‘et required ‘Approvals iso Bore ; ANT ass ‘Documerts completed connestadto E00 ECO Owner eMatiicpromotes creates Rowes Reviewers ECO to {or implement and complete Tasks Complete state Review takes T opscna: T ieee hia promos Foutestor Penang ANT ams al comedes Review 230 completed BOM items? approvasrequred Document to Released stateDrawing grid reading *Grid drawing is a technique that will help improve your accuracy without compromising the development of your freehand drawing in the long-term. It basically involves placing a grid over your reference photo and canvas, then using that grid to assist with the placement of your drawing. * The grid provides you with common reference points between the photo and your canvas. It also allows you to break the reference down into smaller and more manageable segments.CUSTOMER SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS Customer wants and needs | Product design requirements eee Subassembly design requirements Product element design requirements Product element materials and physical constructionPo 27.092023 Drawing Grid reading UNIT - Basics OF DESIGNSDrawing Grid Reading *To help locate a specific point on a referenced print, most drawings, especially Piping and Instrument Drawings (P&ID) and electrical schematic drawings, have a grid system. The grid can consist of letters, numbers, or both that run horizontally and verticall 27.092023 UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS ryGrid reading *Grid reading in technical drawing refers to the process of interpreting and extracting information from a grid system that is superimposed on a technical drawing. Grids are often used in technical drawings to provide a visual reference for accurately locating and measuring various elements within the drawing. 27.092023 UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS 6Grid reading *The grid system consists of evenly spaced horizontal and vertical lines that intersect to form a series of squares or rectangles. Each square or rectangle in the grid is assigned a specific size or measurement, known as the grid interval. The grid interval is typically chosen based on the level of detail required for the drawing. 27.092023 UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS %Grid Reference *Each intersection point of the grid lines has a unique reference or coordinate. The references are usually labeled using letters for vertical lines and numbers for horizontal lines. For example, the bottom-left intersection may be labeled as Ai, the top-right intersection as D4, and so on. These references help identify specific locations on the drawing. 27.092023 UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS oPositioning and Alignment *The grid lines serve as guides for accurately placing and aligning elements within the drawing. By referencing the grid, you can ensure that various components or dimensions are correctly positioned relative to each other. 27.092023 UNIT - Basics OF OESIGNS «Measuring Dimensions *The grid system allows for precise measurement of distances between elements or features in the drawing. By counting the grid intervals between two points, you can determine the distance or dimension accurately. 27.09.2023 UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS °Scaling ¢The grid system can also be used to establish a scale for the drawing. By defining the grid interval as a specific measurement, such as one centimeter or one inch, the drawing can be scaled accordingly. This helps in converting the drawing into real-world dimensions. 27-092023 UNIT - BASICS OF DESIGNS ”UNIT - 94515 OF DESIGNS