EG ORAL Os ae A e ATOMIC SIRUCTURE My —=—= oo 7 oe Discovered Named Cl _ ecoan “ontn Geng “fen uh :° Rothesfood goHstein 126898 eo) — (-692x18 bins Nevbson — chaduick He “UB x10esy — F2HIO*TKG ° — pbquxid yms 1 OTUN tT? EP given 6993 thomsen ‘die expeviment ~ mitikon -(£ Ctr = io? j et apesimen’ Milikon atom = 6K IO a -p-a nly ] ax! hs j Ne ie InYe OF e | relearn int vA F fpr psoton = anstank > J-Tthomgon — plenpadding model -watermelon moldel y — He x Retyentow — 4744) experiment \y- +4ve — * a) “ Necfeaus — 103 ie mi)) B = -ve celect20on) ME 2 om “in Sele. ote? " por me) Nea + he %s Hag ditre Chern sam 1 (€) wh St no: Of protens 4 wh, WiKi VM } Be digFeD~TOP - Asatopes Ee Bottomndi Fe possible | Js0 BA% fackions 10 x w v g Zz. Sf “ aan No - of p10 ae -4G Pkowic = Hoof euctvo> no. of Neocyons A-= = . “az, Tsoeleceronic ~ Same NO- of elect FNS hued Frevent ator myo oe — qgearmost HK! oe 3 — Svber most : ee B 7H = — Penvilimate ] 6 Ne a eae 2 3r = ultimate Ti er = 2. -34 Che plarks constant- BBPTAIO” ergsec ge 3 5ec a i . o- culaD 4 . ea Cet orbit S Beane 2 osm A En? HERE -y behy’s mod. '6 7 ° cfoon 69) 70 > mua Bhs EAS 7 Reait > Explains — about Spectes raving one. ele (fails| #0. yadinan-arfect Sepang oF TIGHEIY PRGA (Rell a 2) Stask effect ~ Splitting oF fght In ciectsic Feil @ ature =p Fine Spéckoum %) Dual behavicgsyox °° °;°;~ | fncpal ~ Bobs = cies} ~ A Ze : Rzimotral ~ SemmeaficH sige per g enn ee Magnetic - bande ~ Ongpation m= tees _ (2en) spin = nalenbeck CEPHALS op ~D Blarktreeon Joud smith _esien tation” cee i pel : —> Max vo - etectroM TOD 6 fost ah to sonnei! 20D: L -32-— grb nm ~B— 4 Ea e te nw - 32-— 1 -\ a ci id 7 Wnaa 7 OPbIEGT (95%) f wo probability of é- been S- O Sphevicol — qo Pe GO. Pa, Py Pz (doumbte) — d- BB ty de ee He ee d 00 Wa > pvtbav's Honds — faving of e~ _> osered OF ZS Of » gal ogpitats 13 on one 2ast cre rgy cobital (oth nm ny day owbilay Ailled with te) Faalis Exclusion — Spginring of eH ( Y @nw ave Not sane) > Ca- (84) 274s! cum [pr us'a!® => 1225 c2p 23563 Pe USE SIL PD Det SPE ETAL DA 46FLE + — 1055 - cation eli gain - Anion b> ptomi¢ NO was Srtvoduced by moosley 2 Hydeagers - NO Nevé.on : i> h & 95. a fp pasticie C-¥e) —7 Isotope wthovt nevtoon Fs protium = Shape ped'double dumbell except d?Z¥ + Feric Fon ferjad® SS Femous $on(F2?)- fav] Rb eet? stable ee ) «The theody which proves gutherfoat mockl wrng = *S—Ftectno magnetic rad tation these z . 2 3 + tn nth quantum level ,n0- oF atectonic sutshedl A% A = on Ts % Eines heavier an ce © Righo particle Rode) of — Stationaty Kuthe 107d a mel! © Papticie having 16 etectvons 17 valency ons OKF rErevt Deo™t rie tons » 4 has 5protors 6 ot “states 03 proposed In ~ ~ eA atom has Enevtrans 5p? Sobas * they ave ODN are also 1808 spea tose * Abe (Pakt » Qvantum Nov pol inom sclhnodfexyes! 5 eqypation fs ened are the eULCONRS oh Scmolinger's en . Hef genberg wnsexainity Prindple = Me mED Lam 2 pastion of electra can Nol Pe KNOY WMI fon — ont I omertaimity ts ay o the COM NIL y 4a 0 ) ay * Fast emission Tine of huogen atomie spectrum? Pp haiamen — Series apppans at [ge tm! } 2. FS quantum 9. APP .eypineds-goraartanate sth) oprita]SPATION Fey woumatofiae 0 =o CMcepl FUCKS - 40> $119,98 fer cide He 44 DFPACINES - VO> - Soper onde tot um Of oxidation NO = charge an fon In wras acid CH,S05,) 3 otoms & Oo hOS “2-4, 0-7. gatoms oO FeI-F aU) 4 16) + 3¢A)49l-) = 0 1s & Hight eridation Wo 46 +4 EI Roly C4Cu 35 dectease —— fn ond oral? L yek - 2ore fii f ;CHEM 4 A L 6ON ON Go El 1 BOND - o oO ALENT pon auapnords bond ~ propcsed “one by teuts ae kossel | ; ) by langemot? ase J ENEVT ompiede tra electrons nsfev of » shaving oF elec evens ‘ay a 3 states 6) weak vande? @) Pyectional Tsomesis lm WY They exist 1 Solids 5) Strong electsovalent Kiva & Non dise tional, bond do not exhibit Escinevism , D SOluble in polad solvents” 3) Sefoble iN 700 diesel cep Kevosent bere 8) Bad condoctor® "a enh ae also, SOWDE Melee ents due Hoe goed conductots ~ lad Solu pod condeciot extepE 5 Hite dé to 1 eee) He ne a) Mee A MiP, BOW B Keactlons Ae Stow 10) Reactions a2 ° 11) Homo - Ho C05, 899,55 ON Oz - wach, KCl, Na,0 ¢ ") Ex Mats, Mafia, Abeta RO) cero Hy0, ACE NHs Hy . Factovs effecting : onic Bond Eon aha a E Catfon A fon ; ) 1a0ge atomic Size | small ajomic Size HLELPENLKE RDLG| >OPN 2) 18S EP 2) Move electuonaffinity (> RD7 Ke i ck7F gy byion With less chavge| ee nace — Nala cg™ (2 =) (2=)B MgO — Mts oe A> Atyoe ca Bt, — al? 4 Bi 4 Bs 26420 —> 26° K35 “ So 4+k"4 fio! W472 —> AB, AOS — 3 pe-Be. nay a6 poe ' ak coe : SS a4 vatemey of a atom? Fs% and or ey ' ALB > RyBy ee => Hy u-4 - (fea (180°) orn et, ct-aa, ee = end bond ovesl tg — tfinead °, . . oO O=0 T - Side tosidequey = Linead — Shor» \ 7 * NN NEW t \& muitifie bong oe — Bent (104-5) ~ H seneso ‘s \contains | bend none KE Hp 3 ppacnida.! P6072 ote Nees es ae clene cu bedava} — rere CHy et —a eae 2 a te y- Hoe HECE Be - ‘ yiene) - 6 pats Gerarer Hg — Terectvonns Hy Celgene TS ae aikanes- CoHg - G lahed sa) - \OF 23 by recklene.grhyne CoH - Spains- !BO - * covalent - ‘element with highest mel fing point és Famond pct vp Ge Me 0h oe =H, Uy N20. — Nochaege Seperation — : ew joo Penaee ee 7? LPRAWGL & Shaan OF: (eFi- polar C H@ Hs)" - Sotuble Th wate? "gy borulic ati’ ROE conducts ekcbricity + pichols awd cavboxylic acids soluble Th catted 3 dve to = formation of Ht bonHydsegen Bond S- [meer and whan] Pastially charged pesitive fH ae at ak cRC bestatic ones) Most E-N element [FN,O) f => for formation of # bond iw) rag ae i s atomic Sze Should be ess on na CT and eo Ent ee lenge atric Get) Fntermolecu[as griaamolecdia% wr” — 4 bond between ine > H bord ifn FF Ld leuk : Z ps ©» Apt onthe wags ye OTe # 7 5 > 2,0, a ROT RUCHRIAE aatho 607 tek BE Z soga? onthe hyd3e7 3 wer (oo Beta hyd VOL benzal dehyste t Fae. Ptsophend RBS bobnoores » Zy srength of 4 bon HE GDENH 4 2H pnd ts 2 dotted (ihe CF Bond * ** a € « vorame oF ze fs move v pg pcetic acid forms dymer © Anamolovs expansion of Wated + HE, NHy ,Plchdls Bb Pas « i or : Co-crdinate covalent Bond # cate pons) Oono® nccertod + bone pata of € + @ deficient with WER SAY o,NH th ears SAV (4,0, 3 ROH PH) CBF 5, Bis Alciy ct_ Bay, : ; + Negative chatge + positive change aoe as bord betwen | = nurtipe bend” LCEE ors KH Efererne am eFC, 05,Ne Fey vA £0) ¢SOy cbr yy NOs* Mose Fotfic tompounds ave Tas wA 2 H bond fs absent Gn statn | . + WHyCe & Cys, kelFocem) g] - gem cee Oe . Nylon has H bond cova © P2LS- sariable valency "CCly has mo tone pains tres central atom “MP NENA — NaF * ethane has iatge ¢-¢ distance = * Molecule of rysamidal shape Bs” O50. 4 cos Ono. neat, can Nact, Notts soyp@ecadey, by & ex Tans - tubic, sttuctugePIGOTT Oa. 1, SOLUTIONS . mn 6) = 6:023K18 imoiocules = 2K 6:023KIO atoms = wegen | tes + NO of Moles = “weight 4 of solute the Orne! molecules _ as Trvagardo numbet 1 Gam. Molec uk vol ( of sotute qs equal €° q6g00 * charge of Imole of erecksons §S yu : covlombs- Ik Fs equal — £2 FARADAY vee 5 mek + Kecipvocal of Ava gevacto's no: is AVOYr? Volume of qat : = Novoh moies = SOME % GU Gy _V_ ; 2 EU ate Cae io ‘ | nor oF moles of Solute _ uk. Of Solute _y gle Voture 6 solution CMY efsolute vik) t_ x 1000 Gu Urng molarity (M) ev, - Formattty a 4 : 2K W% Bowe | ms i unvts — res gS A ALC) =A One 4 —— MV; =MZV> decimole ~ 0-f mole: a ahevolume of s - Trttation — Me MiMi VoM2 tv M NnMp qotal volume NO Oaarn Eqpivalene Sf Soub|e Volume oF Solute in tet = wh Seb. Solute x 4 normality equ cf < solute Volume? mire . 2 ei GEWw “um = VyN2 > fvotome of wates . Vis Ve “Udo be ‘added ~ —y, 7M we dx %wri® = MiNi 4VIN2 = +++ Vp Np E total volume Von - VBN6 (35 UpWtn>YpMp) = vate: sn we Yaa (ats Total V “Total volume eo)Nxeq: we MX mol we ye Mamotwr ue NA eqy wl Mamorwk 5 Na see OG more Wet Mavalency 7M > Tater hay wt fs deffned as the ho oF pants PY weight of a subsiance rat can pearl with oa displace {008 pasts by Hs, B by Or, 5 bya Hee - 365 | NaOH * 40 mNOe 7 oo kon 7 4 (Al3 . 8,S0y — 38 -4q Ba Cott), 236 os -CHQH — &-60 NuyOH Be = 735 athe &cid ) H3POy aa, neeract) > H, C0 eat - 26 - 63 tondticaad) = ate glucose - of Nack = 53-5 - ¢ kM Noy = ABEL 5K 6 Mace, ae kk ,(3203 , 244 4a Ca@s - 250 AgNOs ~ 140 1909 (v50y - ae 2 7095 2 Wr TOATOU Mole faction = eh Oe Be, (Teme donot a 978 awa atin S— ebbeckS M-F _Phowenc 9 far Morattt Asoute + sare t Nsolvent Moiaifey = No: ef moles CF Soluce] cm) VKq ch Solvent wry St imwl cat of Solvent (xq) wl. fooo Amwt ~ “we apsawentCony) w rit . 4ALF Biept +, Be, ef Be —- odd N-ever Anite +0Tck CLs 36.5 Avy =z Yo cu «Fos Hiesaktons (Reatkions Fiast write ft inEne form o& equations balance Pt tO gets its Motadity /Noomtt Vie Vv = aut Ca DROS boa So jo r when nor volatile substance Fs added to q Soivtion Fs yapoud paessuve decreases « Molaarty of pur water Gs oe 2 95°56 s valency of He, PO3%s 2 n eeSuen of Sh 50, “gatovion containing (orf ~ equivalent Solute Gs N= 0:2X2 70°'Y4 1 =OUXY Dv. 25 Mk @ he Vv of walin thal erie ye added te 0 rutin 250ML OF FM L ABOMF of 24 fo ObtAIN 26M MY, 4 MoVp = M3V5 OA WOCATOK 2 = 2GXV, => z= 120004 : ° : : 1200-1000 = 200 See. a“ mefal 254 then Sb Mol ut Hib Bis oKide SN DZ WO = PAV : 203) 7 3lig)= (6> => WEG Solute . ae id : - vo SH Mm. =" wvVS BOER CTROCHT MoT A /| Flectroly Lic coup eek a \c co i (a, Pooktive wegaliue * Frectsteay chemical | Enesgy Enesgy Cation anion - \ : Ha i eran marie Genk re pledoR Vortaic/arlvaric A lose oh c atdachonae ot oxidation Reduction theoay of Lectaodyli Pessocatron- [Noheriivs oh - stoongplectoolytes A [Deqvee oF Jorisation] < We, stood Ag- Bae fighatelectxa J Low - dueak Electooiytes conductivity Exe Werks 9 bases SB6 urn SES eos Clect gly eee Ae dilution because No wach —> Ho + H, NAOH Cee. : To } 1 FARADAYS (aw Cc units Mot ony « O* taw - oe ee electvochemical ecyrivalent > = | equivalent fe & : S] we ce E- chemical equiv 280 yo? F » Mm Atomic weight — [e oe j sy » ee » E> Valency se ao ical X 6-5 Ko?) : | 2° law Wi, W2 [when same covsentts passed 1 Ee, wae J waeVOUIDIC/ CAL VANIC CELE a ¥ CAR - Cathode - atfoactiono! em ~ Keduckion OLR ~ oxidation- toss oe” - trode SAIL Bafdcye t- tompletes acuil fon Flow) of e7 rHade “efith gelly ike substance, aga egr? o2) + ket, NUyNos + KNOz ' Fp [znsayll usoqlou = parielcet) Dod e Cathede’ RRC p ‘ : = rire beet 4 withoutthage - Diycell - 17%" vessibr | Seondary cel) +- reusable — fead Stovago battery = charged 0 eyes He, BOGEDE bm > ogg tle = AEC Mn —> c > Myy Oe o+ HE 5 - etpode- ted uct 1 EMES: 125 to}501 1 tortentydtiay cel - i : DI z2#o)l2n concent1 ins Be 8 pea St Etectsode potential depends. on “ Cortenteation — eectse, ° natbve £ purity - cectos Temp » : Le ©) standasd eteckoOde potential s- (M, 26 | SHE £ Standavd hydrogen electoode potential £- tat ' . (2) 2 O-ov, east ecyuation 3- ani bB—>cC +dD | e C= CP} 22303RT og Cat Ton (CO ees og C Me) int > EF S062 tog Cron’ J | L et_. = & ' SEE cher Cal Series CEE K€ Ca coin MQ L anche en 2H {€ast SRP cv “ci4g Z2PE Cho - S*O5HV a : : es Hignes SRP } : + 2-b4V = veer i Keducingagent <3 ee Oeh'sy pgage EArcde } + frovasirg Ceathae] FIKAHL alicatine meu Feew. > Ecathede ~ How of ejecktons E f ~Ve to4ve- Flow oF dlectoicit SNR +ve to -vVe Elebeolugic condutancedve to 4EF TH eae = fens conductivity 4\ rorducte y elections LomuctivityI 4 ; MP PoRnts_ oe qujaxco%oiumb — \ © ' gon S$ » ue » charge wn eee ‘ specreisit conducts vil Csee') (SO), conductance = as (imho) 4 ca) a 4 co’ at put 6 deposition | { ] «74 ca?t Nal gt a (2 ght ret tH | > unereastng ovdet © s es OF Cathode \ Soy NOP ont ch” BY F gdev Of sta ‘dle pos) GO” Tr cpeOSINY 6 dep 6 + Mojsconductiviéy - Equi valent condiviel ER “RERIME NJ Edliowaler- Poet form of water y mostty dtssoived sats J | Less’ Oagarfic matter Lakewotes - Less dissolve d Salls, Mage onganiic matted Sea water - 357 ASSoiyed Get tS, 267 Nacd + Soeewated - Forms latheo with soap & Cord water - Forms paeciptte with Soap caticos, MAE [ covaped! Hardness: Bicaabonate sails of CaMg she acidilg ingyvemdves | Crresence oF C0, causes Eermporiny hardness.4 AS » Femmanent Hardness Chiovide g sulphate Balls of cat Ae ao by Cabo), , Mab), Hoodness = WRWO . wx5d catos fay Ee XD E PP MBM (19-1 git VPPro = Imaf ive back IF paats 19 000K AS Gh i tet = ease < 14 3° peas ING Lit C - CaH0g -lor Mgt(os -W&a, Ca a MgSOy -120 co, -[20 3 ~ * @S0q - 146 Mgctly - 95 . Hoo, -&l Mgloz — 84 a cacla UJ mag(wos), - (48 —> siudge causes Chocking ©F pipes and tan be semoved by blow down opetation > 607 Fs qemoved by dearation/ WHyOt! Cadsing) 7 To ptevenE — caustic embrittlement Frstead a¢ fNarl03., Nagy fs addedBubble Me thog 2- aS Soaps) Up aah 2 . acy Vg OL Temporary hapdress - 4 x 100 3 sted II Va-Yy vy 7 Be! Feomanent nardneses= Y3-%) yigo i Vee" 2 TEPTAC Ethylene praminine Tetva_acitic_ 144) Ethylehe fet 4 +Complexometvic 2 esation —indiaboF a PONE lve (0 lout Nvylt + NHyOH Gas) Boog 4 Teas Me te a (090 pH ye ntood 'ml OF o-0fm EDTA = ling cacos, ve o& XN EDTA Uime soda process + dd Kime seda_ process > Cs0cke) pe aoe og Bo Blakey), EH 2° ) p Wz, Naato, 5 2 Hot lime “Sedg 2 1 upoaeer - atcelevatos veqViaa! - Cold time Soda upto Boppm ~ NOE TEgpr ved ca ese ae only reacts with perm - howhess M Aine, mig (oD, — ' a Notuva) - patvorte — WWa,0AI,02 ses geotite . : Ua FRY Synthetic - pesmutié Hydrated 8odfum —> Exhausted zeolite cah be aluntho Siihotr Teplaced, by Nnack Cioz bring) i —» teotite process tan Cause Covosi0ng Caustic embvittou, fi Na 2005) wedit —SAtidic wath cant pe tre (eee) C Nazc05))Acids are substances which (1) are sour to t laste and corrosive, (2) turn blue litmus red.(3) contain hydrogen which can be replaced by active metals —— 1, Mg), (4) react with bases to form salts. (5 ) react with carbonates and bicarbonates liberating CO, (6) conduct electricity in aqucous state. ‘Some common acids are HCI, HNO,, H 50, Basesare substances which (1) are bitter in taste, (2)soapy to touch (3) turp red litmus blue, (4) react with acids to form salts. (5) electrolytic conductors in aqueous statesome common bases are NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH), According to Lavoiserall acids contain ox: en and it is responsible fora According to H. Davyall acids must contain hydrog as its constituent. Modem theories ofacids and bases are 1) Arhenius theory ofacids and bases 2)Bronsted - Lowry theory of acids an 3) Lewis theory of acids and bases Arthenius theory of acids and beses is based a Ait ry of electrolytic dissociation. aoe aG substance,¥ roduces H’ ions in aqueous solution.(or) Acid is a tration of H* ions in aqueous solution, Ex: HCl, HNO,, H,SO,, H,PO,, CH,COOH According to Arthenius, Acid substance that increases the cnc: HC] = H* +Cr According to Arrhenius, base is a substance which produces Q}4(~) ions (hydroxyl ions) in aqueous solution. (0r) Base is a substance that increases the concentration of QH™ ions in aqueous solution : MOH = M‘*+OH"| ex: NaOH,KOH,Ba(OH),.NH,OH Strength ofacids and bases can be explained on the basis of ionisation constant (Extent of ionisation) HAT Ex: HA Ht +A), Ka= uae where K = acid dissociation constantand Sa THA] : PUA KalO:Kbe [OJ ey =ase dissociation constant MoH gM’ +0! [MoH] 10, Siongacidionises completely (high Ka value) to give more j{* ions. Ex: HCl, HNO4, 1,804, HyCr04, HI Strong base ionises completely (high K,, value) o give more Con ions. Ex:NaOH, KOH 12, Weakacid does notionise completely (low K, value) to give less 1 ions Ex:CH,COOH, oxalic acid (H3C,0,), HCN, HCOOH, H;CO,,H;BO,,H,PO, ete: 13, Weakbase does not ionise completely (low X;, value) to give less @y( ions 14. Acid reacts with base to form salt and \ Ex:HCI+NaOH —> NaCl + H,0 acid _ base salt water 15. Limitations of Arrhenius theory of acidsand'’ rs a Sy 1) Itisapplicable only to aqueous solutio as eo Rae 2) It failed to explain acidic nature of carbondiOwide ) oxi 3) It failed to explain basic nature of NH, ,Na,CO, , Ca0,Na,O, BaO eteand M,O 4) Itfailed to explain nonprotic acids like SO,,NO, ,P,O, and SO, ete. (Hu +H,0 > H,0*) 5) The hydration of hydrogen ion in aqueous state was not explained. H hydronium ion 6) The reactions between metal oxide and non-metal oxide are also neutalisations were not explained ty] Arthenius. 16. According to Bronsted - Lowry, a substance which can donate a proton ii i t ; h t proton donor is an acid. Ex : HCl, HNO,, H,SO,,CH,COOH : oe 17. According to Bronsted - Lowry, a substance which can accept a proton from other substance in called abase | (or) proton acceptor is a base. Ex. HO, HSO;, HCO;, CI- id % a> ———$—$—————————————— ool lll ll TT —Adwontinys to Rownstert: Lowry theoty avid and base are interrelated by the equation Avwt eet Ray He (eton) 18, athe wretion, UCL NO WOW CL NCH is an avid since it donates a proton and 11,0 isa base sings itaoeptsa proton, Inthe reaction, NAA NO = NU VOU: NEL is a base since it accepts a proton and H,0 isanacid | Sinoeit donates proton, DL. Acoonting to Bronsted: Lowry theory’ ach acid - base involves two acids and two bases or acid - base: Pairs. HCl+ 4,0 = H,0° +Cr Foresamples geid base "acid base Ex:HCl. cy and H,O,H,0° 23, Anacid bydonatinga proton is conve intoits conjugate acid Acid - Proton (7+ )= conjugate base Base + Proton (}4*)= conjugate acid 24. sratoas_sceil ain29. 33. 35. 32. Sol jts conjugate base js weak. Similarly ifthe bain its conjug: ped epi ations, RENE << its conjugate acid is weak. See ~ js weak base. Ex: HCI is strong acid and hence its conjugate base Cl \ sfer ofa roton from an acid toa base is cal Jed neutral; coonding to Bronsted - Lowry theory. the transfer of? cording to Brons I led strong acid. An acid which has greater tendency to donate a proton Is ca Ex: HCL H,SO,, HNO, H,CrO, / An acid which has lesser tendency to donate a proton is called weak acid. Ex: HCN. CH,COOH, H,CO,. HCOOH, H;CO;, H;PO,, HBO; ete. A base which has greater tendency to accept a proton is called strong base. Ex: OH.cN™,CH,COO"?. HCOO- A base which has lesser tendency to age@p) alled weak base. Ex: C1”, HSO!?. Noy? Broasted - Lowry classified solve; 1)Protophillicsolvens — 6 ade 2)Prowgenic solvents ~ cid S 3)Amphiprotic solvents and 4)Aprotic solvents vents that have greater tendency to accept protons (i.c., bases) are called protophillic solvents. Ex: Liquids ammonia, water, alcohol. Solvents that have tendency to produce protons (i.e., acids) are called protogenic solvents. — =—_ Ex: HCI (liquid), acetic acid, water. H,SO,, HNO,, etc. Amphiprotic solvents act either as protophilic or protogenic solvents. They’ donate or accept proton depend upon the nature of other substance. Ex : H 20,ROH Solvents which neither donate nor accept protons are called aprotic solvents. Ex: Benzene, carbon tetrachloride, carbondisulphide (CS,), Toluene etc. HO "isthe strongest acid that can exist in water,ont” isthe strongest base that can exist in water, 3&_ Thekvellingofthe strength ofall strong acids in water to the same level as that of H,O* (or) the levelling, ofthe sengths ofall strong bases in water to the same level as that of Q4,'~) is known as levelling effect caer. ——— Breasted - Lowry theory can explain the acid - base character of substances in non aqueous solutions. It canexplain the basic nature ofammonia (NH, ) g 40, Brasted-Lowry theory is useful only when proton donor and proton acceptor are available together. 41, Boosted - Lowry theory ean not to explain the acidic character of electron deficient compounds like BE, BC, AICI. FeCls-CO;.SO2.SO;,P:0;,NO, ete. @XI das, deficient compod Resnnot explain basic character of substances like CaO, Na,O, K,0, BaO etc. 42. BL theorycannotenplain neutral ation reaction between CaO and CO, with does not involve a proton casi. C20=CO; + €2€0,.. Na,0 = CO, AS. Accondingto Lewis theoryza substz boadisknown asan acid. (or) Elect Ex: H. FeCl. BF. AICI, PF., SiC 44. Temes of Lewis acids: 1) Cations with vacant orbitals. Ex : >, Na”, Mg™, Fe*, Fe", Zn’ 2) Electron deficient compounds (compounds in which the central atom does not possess eight electrons in vance shell) Ex: BF, BCL, AICI, FeCl;, SO, : leer 3) orgmic molecules containing double bonds between dissimilaratoms: Ex: CO..SO,.NO, Acconting to Lewis theory, a substance si Goin electron pair and forms a co-ordinate covalent bond is called a base (or) Electron pair donor Sa Base. Ex: NH. H.O.0H, ci”) 46. Ts of Lewis bases D)Allenions are negatively charged ions. Ex2)Molecules containing lone pair ofelectrons, : NH), H,0, R~OH (alcohol), PH,, ASH, 3) Molecules having multiple bonds between garbon atoms ( organic coripenmdsy Ex: C,H, (ethylene), C,H, (acetylene); H,C = My HO ON 47. Neutralisation according to Lewis theory is the formation of co-ordinate corvalent tnd betyeny, tay and a base with transfer of electron pair, Ex: 1) Formation of Ammonia Boran trifloride HN + BF, oa N=» BE, (Donor) (Acceptor) (Adduct) Ammonia Borantriflouride Arnmonita borantriflonride. Ex:2)Formation ofAmmonium ion H \ i-N+H HIN te? ye | H Ex:3) Formation of Hydronium ion { Hy ee H-O>H* HO + Ht = —, [H,O]' or 1 48. Limitations of Lewis theory of acids and bases. 1) Lewis theory can not explain the strengths of acids and bases 2) Acids like HCI, H,SO, can not form co-ordinate covalent bonds and can not accept electron paic 3) Acid-base reactions are fast but Lewis acid - base reactions are slow, 4) Neutralisation ofnormal acids like HCl, HSO, and bases like ‘NaOH, KOH where dative bonds 2= not formed cannot be explained by Lewis theory. 5) The catalytic activity of y* fon cannot be explained by Lewis theory a ba49. Theproduct of molar concentrations of }y* and Qy4(-) ions in pure water or in aqueous solution ata given temperature is known as ionic product of water (K,,) [eon] At 25°C the value of K,, 50. Inpure water, [H* ]=[OHO ]=1.0%107 motes lit 51. [']= 0x10 motes? / lit? ie. [H”]>1.0x107 and [on |<1.0x107 Inbasie solutions. | OH” |>[H"] ie. [on] >1.0x107 and [H" ]<10x107 S4, In pure water and neutral solutions the concentrations of [H” ] and | OH | ions areequal [H"]=[on ]=V10x10-% =1.0%107 molertt 6) tcan not explain the basic nature of substances like Ca(OH), ,NaOH, KOH ete which can not donate electrons. hoimal Bases 55. SorensenintroducedconceptofpH fotenz o Ho PH: The negative logarithm (base - 10) ofthe hydrogen ion concentration is known 2s SSS SSS _—m™_ TA KOM Fad, 53. Asthe temperature increases | H” |and [OH" | increases and K,, increases. pHofthe solutionanit y Se ae thus, pH=—Hoeie[ > ‘ew pec acieanto'g 56, Similarly l 57. Inpure water at 25°C {w J-[ou |= 10x10 7 mole /lit ‘Thus in pure water: PM = Hogi (1X10) = and DO" = =log(Ix107 } PRapMa747=14 | 88 Forpure waterand neutral solutions: pt = po! 27 and ptt 14 po! 59, Foracidicsolution /p¥ is less than 7 Forbasicsolution p¥ is greater than ° 7 14 neutral) > Pe Sao Mol) >, | 60. The lower the p# , more acidic is the solution, cO ely the higher the pH , the more basic is the solution | 61. if H” | concentration increases by 10 times, the p! decreases by one unit and ifthe [HT | cam decreass i y 1 by 10 times, the p! increases by one unit. a. [HW ]=10" 63. Human blood has specific p¥ 7.4 (Slightly alkaline) —— 64. Buffer :Asolution which resists change in its p!t value by theaddition ofasmall amount ofan acid orabss is called Buffer solution, 65. ‘The property of resisting the change in p value isknownas Buller ation or Bufer capacity ee ee ee eS A |Eaamples of buffers are : Mixtures CH,COOH +CH,COONa a nore (Acetic acid) + (Sodiumacetate) eras ee caee 67, Buffer solution are of two types : 1)Acidic butters and 2) Basic buffers 68. Acidic Buffer: Aminture of wea acid and sal of its conjugate base is called Acidic buffer. The pit of this puffer will be less than 7. Ex ; CH,COOH +CH,COONa, H,CO,+NaHCO,, HCN+NaCN, HCOOH +HCOONa H,PO, + NaH,PO, |. Basic buffer: A mixture of weak base and salt with its conjugate acid is called Basic buffer. Its p'* will be more than 7. Ex: NH,OH+NH,Cl 70. Applications of buffer solutions are : 1)Buffer solutions are used in chemic: reactions to control p# 2) Buffers play an important role in bioch ti For example : Carbonate buffer keeps p! of blo ee afconstant value of 7.4. 3) Ammonia buffer (mixture of [NH ,OH + NH,Cij is used in the estimation of hardness of water by ED-T.Amethod PAnpIeRO SEG. s Complerae mety jc Titvalton 4) Buffers should be added to tonics and syrups Araise ! Awake ! ! And stop not till the goalprcesof deterionition of metallica Any! ee In * tanec on the metal surface is called corrosion, abst . covosion isa unwanted ret10n in Which os ng 0S 88 oF met al takes place corrosion metal reacts with environmental substan > i ommpsion product, corrosion product depends on the substan with which metal > The Ex; Metal + Env, Substance ~» Corrosion product, et StON Product, pet HO +02 > FeyOs.xH,0 ea eee Cut CO; + HO > CuCO,.Cus (O11) A140. > Al,O3 In+H SO, — ZnSO, + Hy Sn+2HC] > SnCly + Hy => Metallic compound will be having le compared to metal, so metallic compound is mor: stable than metal. Hence metals undergo corrosion to form metallic compounds in the environmenti.e, Meta getsmore stability when it underg es corrosion. I> Extraction of metal from its ore is a reduction process (i.e., gain of electrons takes place). ee a reduction process E> Corrosion is reverse to extraction of metal so corrosion is an oxidation process (i.e..loss of electrons, takes place by metal) abies tei ay > Extraction Ex: Fe,0, Euston py "Corrosion > Extractio isa non spontaneous process and corrosion is a spontaneous proc Extract : ' seawhich e is consumed corrosion isa = Xttaction of ‘metal is a process from its ore wewhi ich energy is consumed ,¢ respectively. Process in which energy is released. i.c. endothermic and exothermic proce not undergo corrosion in. nonmalenvironmen A ann OblemetalsAg Au PL can occurin their native state and they will | nitions, Se eS= dinto two categories: >, wet corrosion (electro chemical comrosioy, n) => Corrosion can be broadly’ 1. Dry corrosion (direct chemica corrosion takes plac cofconductingm medi scting medium. cal corrosion) i «set chemical action of envi with the dircet chemical actio! ironmental sup, ‘Mi, jumat low orhigh temperature. Condisngn ip, nycondu > Inthedry corrosion there should not be Su4Cl 2Sncl, AO» ALOs (g + Ny > MgyN> direct chemical action of oxygen in the absence of moisture in, =} _Ifametal undergoes corrosion w ith the called oxidation comosion. rrosion which takes place with oxygen. | > Oxidation comosion isa dry'co a corrosion product. => In oxidation corrosion metal oxide is formed as trons to form positively charged metal ionsand oy, > In Oxidation corrosion metal atoms c atoms gain electrons to form oxide => ‘Metallic ions and oxide ions joi c oxide Ex: 441 +30) 24/03 ide layer is formed on the surface of the mes! | > Whenametal undergoes oxidation => Depending on the formed metal oxide layer further corrosion of metal can be continued oritcay prevented. ! => The metaloxide layers can be classified into four types # = Unstabk ide layers : le metaloxide layers : Ifa metal forms an unstable metaloxide layer further corrosion oft Unstable metaloxide will dissociate into metal and oxygen. So corrosion cannot be continued. wi Noble metals like silver, gold, platinum (Ag, Au, Pt) will form unstable metaloxide layer ¢ — Stable metaloxide: Ifa metal forms stable metal o: Oo} netal cat metal oxide layer further corrosion of the stopped. A stable metal oxide will preve HI prevent metal exposure to oxygen so corrosion can b a in be prevente: Metals like copper, tin, zinc, alumi Pes in, zine, aluminium, lead can form stable metal oxide layers (Cu, Sn, Al.Pb. 7 a u, SN, Jae etc). a —— === ———“ous metaloxide layer porous metaloxide layers: ; ~k fiesh metal surface i.e. a Ss poror = autack fresh ms A i. Oxygen will enter through the pores and i le Metal to, C1 cr oF ual andathatine earth metals witl form porous oxide tal to undergo continuous corrosion. if IS ONIde lay \piuile oxide layers: Volatile oxide will corrosion continously: ntinuously eva sly evaporate into the atmosphere, So metal will cinderao ungston (W).tnolybidnum (Mo) can form volatile pILLING- BEDWORTH RULE: PILLING - BEDWORTH RULE: Oxide layers, g_ pilling-Bedworth rule predict the nature of metal oxide. According to this rule, ifthe metal oxide volume is equal to or greater than the vol fe 1 fre 5 : \¢ volume ofa metal from which itis formed, then itis non-porous and protective —— tus and protective. Ifthe volume of metal oxide layer less than the volume of metal from which itis formed. Then that metal oxide is porous and non-protectiv ——O Protect ‘Alkali and alkaline earth metals will form the met | corrosion. So those are porous He Metalslike Cu. Sn, Al, Pb. Ti, Crwill ae = protectiy WET CORROSION ) | When a metal is in contact with conducting medium, then on the metal surface there will be anodic areaand © , 5 ieee ates vl cathodic area formed and the corrosion takes place with the electro chemical reaction. © Anodic area undergoes oxidation process and it continuously undergoes corrosion. © — Fromanodic area metal atoms will loose electrons to form positively charged metal ions © — Thereleased electrons will transfer from anodic to cathodic area through the metal and at cathodic area these are consumed i.e., at cathodic area reduction takes place. - een anodic and cathodic urrent flows. . the electrochemical corrosion always anodic area undergoes: corrosion and cathodic area will be protected) © — Themetallicions from anodic area and the non metallic ions from cathodic area will diffuse together and join With each other to form a corrosion product between anodic and cathodic area, i.e., atthe cathodic area, =) The characteristic features of electro chemical corrosion are: => The presence of conduction medium on the metal surface —- —$§$—$—S>==> Formation ofanodi athodlie area tion of oxyge Formation of cormosion product between anod placecithgr with evolution ofhydrgen (or) wil ) absorp of acid. it takes place with evolution of hydrogen. When metals undergo corrosion in presence 1c formed, Depending on the metal and acid corrosion product will b ‘acid, on the metal surface a large anor di ns will loose electron to form metallic ions. In presence o Fromanodic area metal atom “These clectrons will be consumed by }]° ions of acid to form hydrogen gas facid join together to form corrosion product. ere eo Metallic ions and non metallic ions of Ex 4 If iron undergoes corrosion in presence of HCI ferrous chloride is corrosion product Fe+2HCl > FeCl, + Hz © Zn+HySO, -> ZnSO, +H © H3SO, + Fe— FeSO, +H» © Sn+4HCI > SnCl, + 2/1, ‘ries undergo corrosign in the acidic medium. For the obsorption of oxygen type electr rrosi S fi e neutral conduetin: ygen type electro chemical corrosion, rusting of iron i u s iron in th g medium can be taken as an example. ee In this type of corrosion a II ic i i i : a small anodic area and a large cathodic area will be produced on the metal From anodic area metal atoms will loose electrons to form metallic ions [Fe*"] en ae thodic area electrons will be gained by oxygen in presence of water to form OH ion. Fe* and Qj” ions join together to form ferrous hydroxide. 2 pin the sufficient amount of oxygen ferrous ide wi 258 -ygen ferrous hydroxide will be converted into ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH),}which an be called hydrated ferric oxide : iti aa ide [Fe,O, .x H,O] and it is formed as a final corrosion product. (Itis Ser eA inthe limited supply of oxygen ferraso Fe s also called gen ferraso ferricoxide is i : ms aso ferricoxide is the corrosion product (Fe,O,,) (itis also call 30,4, 2 - fs Electro chemic .| corrosion can be compared with electro chemical cell. ec cell. eae aeve cloctro chemical cell chemic: os nthe elec cal energyis conve A 8 al energy is converted into elec eelectrolytic cell electrical ene: lcctrical ener jntheclectroly slectrical enenzy will be converted intoch rey yectn» chemical cell can also be ehemical energy, ee considered as gat cell (or) volt a Intheelectto amode electtons are released which i - sed which is, C1 takes place at anode, at higher potential i.c.. oxidation Aveathode electrons re consumed ic. reduction t lakes place and i Jace and cathode is at lowe thetendency of loosing electrons (or) gai fs at Jower potential. ining electrons will be gi Ts begiven by the electrode potential value of the fg Flocirade potential value of the metal ean be perential eipreie Pressed in two ways oxidation potential or reduction @ _ Thetendency ofloosingelectrons bya metal will be given by oxidation elect ode potential Nias fad “ode potenti # Redustionelectrode potential will indicate the tendency } : -ctron by a metal Ifthe oxidation potential is +ve then its reduction potential is -ve and vice versa. Ifametal has less oxidation potenti tial can gain electrons easily, i.¢_reduction takes place easily, it is less active o1 ‘tas cathode. anditis protected. series of metals in which the metals are arranged according to their decreasing order of oxidation potential or increasing order of reduction potential is called as electro chemical series. The electrode potential values of various metals can be calculated by comparing with standard hydrogen Inthe electro chemical cell anode should be written left hand side and cathode should be written right hand side, Inthe electro chemical cell connecting two halfcells (i.e. anode and cathodes) there will be a salt bridge or porous diaphram which allows only ions to move from one electrode to another electrode. ‘Anode and cathode are connected with an extemal wire through which the electrons will move from anode to cathode.anode and Cu in CuSO, will be takes as cathode yp ote! nin ZnSO, will be taken ~ Zn/ZnSO, // CuSO,/Cu anode and cathode because of which the electro Will move, In danial cell representation or notation is nce of potential between The difte romotiveforce (em) node to 0,77 volts ofpotential and cathode ishaving +93 sop Inan electro chemical cell ifanode is having, potential what is the emt. .33- (0.77) = 1.1 volts Sol: emf= with -ve sign and cathode with +ve sign. Inclectrolytic cell anode is indicated with +ve sign and cathode with -ve sign. The potential development, when a metal is placed in its own solution of IM con-anidat 25°C is cays standard electrode potential Ifstandard electrode potential is kn Inclectro chemical cell anode is indicated , then what is anode and cathode among ten? (Hanae What is emfif they are connected toget hi ctrochemical cell ? Sol : X is anode and y is cathode emf= + 0.8-(-0.6) = 1.4 volts Offering more corrosion resistance than expected is called as passivity. Passivity is offered by certain metals in specific environments only. In the oxidation atmosphere titanium, Al, Cr, stainless steels containing chromium will offer passivi. They form a very thin (ie, upto 0,0004mm) protective layer which is self-hearing, Even though oxidation potential of Al is more than iron, it undergoes less corrosion in oxidation amosph duc to passivity. The corrosion resistance property of stainless steel is due to the Cr present init It formsa protet” oxide layer over it. the Cr present in it. If Due oxidation nature of concentrated nitric acid Fe offer passivity i we anid deforms? i ‘e offer passivi tric acid. Itfo protective Fe,O, Pi ‘ity in concentrated nitric In dilute nitric acid iron undergoes corrosion with evolution of hydrogen. e © —_ Bystudying corrosion activity of various metals i i inaset® tals in a specific envit arranged inast™ whid alec as Galvanic series. Ps nvironment, they can be arrange ease ee _Z"wed and it changes with corrosive medi ! and itchanges w di Galvanic series gives correct order of corrosion 9 vi mn ion of metals and alloys ina ‘i n loys ina specific corrosive medium. arranged emicé inelectro el metals and non. “metals are he position ofele jnelectrochemi Ex;Foreleetrochemical series Li-K-Ca-Na-Mg-Al-Zn-Cr- Fe - Nj — ~ in sca waver Zn-Al-Cd-A\ forgalvanic s Mg-Mgalloy alloys - Fe s - Cu-Ni-Cr-Ag-Au-Pi steel pb-Sn- Br Convsion fatigue : Itis the reaction of fatigue: ‘strength ofa metal in the corrosive medi 8 ium. The electrochemical corrosion takes place will electrochemical cell formation which are i)Composition cell ii) Concentration cell and iii) Stress cells metal (i.e, metal having more oxi (m&%al having less oxidation poter neta having less oxidation pote Anodic metal undergoes oxidatic protected. Inpresence of basic medium or neutral medium galvanic corrosion takes place with absorption ofoxygen. | Depending on the corrosive medium the corrosion product will be formed. Ex forthis corrosion; Steel screws fitted in different machine parts. if metals or alloys are joined in a machine Cu screws fixed with steel screws. CONCENTRATION CELL. CORROSION: (Concentration: cell formation) Metal surface party exposed to more concentrated corrosive medium and partly less concentrated, then concentration cell will be formed. me anodic and less: concentration becomes cathodic. The area under more concentration will beco! n this type of corrosion takes place. When ametal is exposed to different air concentration the is exposed to more air (i.e, more oxygen) can actas cathodic area The part of the metal surface which is s exposed to lessair/ less oxygen ¢ ich i an act as anodic and remaining part of the metal surface which i oxygen concentration cell corrosion) area, (Differential aeration orai ‘ome dust is present OH WHE Metal supp as ee oriquid present on the surface ofthe me iy si Welly the mel! I ‘ r) asbestos etc. Then this t ak cor) mirror (0 aS if ign wooden block ( “i iscov' part of metal is C° takes phtce > STRESSC DRE ive environment. ston estress £° me strains which act as anodic areas and Testor 2 stot, . so} " i di stress corrosion ifammonia 1S present as corrosive environmen, _axill undergo sues s ee e s corrosion presence ofalkali ornitrate solutions. Stainless steel can y, Stoel will undergo stress COP” p . ee id chloride so} ution. Inde mess corrosion in acl > WATERLINE CORROSION Ifametal isexposed t0 different oxygen, concentration below and above the water level then this. © Ifametalises : of corrosion takes place. aie c exposed to, air and it can act as anodic arx tne metal surface which is und i aimed surface which is 260} exposed to alrandit can actas cates © fametalis partially immersed => PITTING CORROSION fast corrosion resulting in the formation of pinholes or pits. © Pitting corrosion is a localised and tswilae isu tothe yakdown of proesve film on ametalat specific pons. That specie Po . asanodic areas. © Thed its will act i i i .¢ developed craks, pits will act as anodic areas ‘and corrosion takes place very fastly. © inthis i i this type of corrosion the anodic areas are very small and cathodic area is larger © Specific metals i i i ipecific metals in the specific environments, undergo pitting corrosion. © Pitting corrosion cai nal ° . Iso be due to surface roughness, non-uniform finish, cut edges, local stress Bettie ae ical attack, impurities on the surface of the metal ete. Ex: Stainless steel and al ‘ iminium undergo pittin, i 8 Corros! i i : &> INTERGRANULAR CORROSION a INTERGRANULAR CORROSION:‘Thi stances along the grain boundaries which as cathodic area. jon can be observed in welded stainless steels. This corro Inthe welding process duc to high temperature chromium carbide is formed in the stainless steel and it will be deposited along the grain boundaries which will act as anodic area With this intergranul orrosion the coordination to the grains will be lost and metal breaks With the electricity leakage or with sudden heating and cooling i i jeakag atinga ing ifa metal undergoes ¢ called thermo galvanic corrosion, ene > SOIL CORROSION OR UNDER GROUND CORROSION : , Ifthe metals undergo corrosion in the soil or under ground then it is called as soil corrosion. The extent of soil corrosion depends on moisture in the soil, salt contents in soil, soil nature (acidic or basic) degree of aeration, soil texture, conductivity of soil etc. The pipes present in the soil, can undergo soil corrosion. MICRO BIOLOGICAL CORROS! KL) » — Thecorrosion that takes place with mi © With the metabolic activities, the mi¢ which gives corrosion ofthe metal => CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEME! @ — Itisatype of boiler corrosion. It takes place with the basic substance like sodium carbonate Na,CO. present in the water aoe e Na,CO, will react with water to form NaOH (sodium hydroxide) which will enter into the cracks or criveges or joints of the boiler where its concentration will be increased. © Thepart of boiler material with more concentrated NaOH will act as anodic area and remaining part with less concentrated NaOH will act as cathodic area. And anodic area undergoes corrosion, e Iron reacts with concentrated NaOH to form sodium ferroate (Na,FeO,) which again reacts with water form ferrasoferricoxide (Fe;O,)- > SELECTIVE LEACHING: Ifa particular metal undergoes corrosion from an alloy or ifa particular metal dissolves in an electroly from an alloy it is called selective leaching. © Ifzinedissolve inan electrolyte from an alloy itis called dezincification. IfAl dissolves itis called deallumina ee —— ns |EROSION CORROSION © tis caused by the combined effect of the abi jon of low of gases, oad and meg ; ; ibrading action off rubbing of solid overa metal s ‘| e metal surface. © Wakes place due to the breakdown of protective film on the metal surfact e rl “asa eas and remaining part can act as The areas on which protective film is broken ean act as anodic are: Ca, area, > FACTORSEF SORROSION i cl c types. © The factors which. will effvet corosion can be cl sified into two typ ii) The fact ich related to nature of metal i) The factors which related to environment ii) The factors which reli | => Nature of the meta i] @ Position ofthe metal in galvanic series oremf series. © Purityofmetal : pure metals will not undeggo corrosion easily when compare to impure metal @ Physical state of metal @ Passivity ofmetal Nature ofssurface film e from anodic area very sty Ifanodic area is large & cathodic area is small then corrosion takes place from anodic areaslowly >> Environmental Factors : ¢ Presence of moisture in the atmosphere ¢ Presence of impurities and suspended particles in the air 4 pH of the corrosive medium ¢ Ifoxidising agents are present in the environment those will increase-the rate of corrosi Temperature of environment Temp may increase the corrosion or decrease the corrosion. The dissolved salts in the corrosive medium will increase the ‘corrosion, @ The ability of corrosive medium to di ‘olve the corrosion product. Rate of corrosion can be expr ed as loss of'metal per area per time (mils per year - Milligrams! metal loss per year) m p (mils per yes ¢ In laboratory rate of corrosion can be expressed as mdd (milli gram. of metal loss per decimetersqu™ area per day). ee ee ee >Based on designing ofthe equipment corrosion be controlled. Inthe designed instrament. rp comers ree ss must be avoided. ing of wood, cloth, asbestos mirrors etc must be avoided. ¢ + @ Along with the metal, 4 Themetal surface must not be covered with liquid drops, dust etc. ¢ Puremetals and alloys must be usefll for designing the machines or instruments because pure metals or alloys offer more corrosion resistance, 4 Metal surface should be smooth and uniformly exposed to air. => Cathodic protection: @ Inthis method the metal which is to be protected will be forced to act as cathode. @ There are two method with which a metal can be forced to act as cathode. > Sacrificial anodic protection : @ = Inthis process the metal which is active metal will act as anode and will act as cathode. ndergoes oxidation easily. Moreactive metal will have more: eottye metal Wir javemory —_—— ‘The metals which are connected ai des or auxiliary anodes. The sacrified anodes by undergoing ¢s they protect the metals, Tgo galvanic cree This process can also be called as galvanic coupling, The sacrificial anodes will under corrosion. # Ms, Zn,Aland their alloys-will generally acta sacrificial anodes. — With this method underground pipelines, under ground cables, marine structures, ship hulls, water _—tanks, industrial boi can be protectes > Impressed current cathodic protection: © Inthis method the metal structure to be protected is made as cathode by passing direct current froma battery with an insoluble anode. ‘Aslongas current passes through the metal it will not undergo corrosion. Inertelectrodes like Pt, Pb graphite, stainless steel can be taken as anodes. This type of protection is used to water box coolers, water tanks, burried water or oil pipes, ship hulls and bridges, marine pipes, transmission tower, laid up ships, this method-is useful mainly for large structures in long operations.> MODIFYING THE ENVIRONM. The corrosive nature of the environment can be decreased by modifying the environment, i ified ci ful co: adding certain st Environment can be modified citherby removing harmful substances oF byadding INSubstanc, gen can be decreased by removing oxyze sv with mechanical deairation roves ,CO, H,N-NH, (hydrozine), sodium sulphite. , Corrosion due to ox adding chemicals like Corrosion due to CO, can be controlled by removing, co, mechanically. Cormsion due to moisture can be controlled by adding dehumidification agents like. silica gel, the environment.; Acidic environment can be neutralised by releasing basic substance into BY ADDING INHIBITORS: Use of Inhibito 4 Asubstance which when added in small quantities to the corrosion environment effectively decreas. the corrosion of metal is called as inhibitor © Inhibitorsare of two types-anc Anodic inhibitors form prot @ Examples foranodic inhibil elements having oxygen co: ee ieee eae Ifany break occurs in the p' dangerous. @ Inhibitors which reduces cathodic react fs called cathodic inhibitor. Examples for cathodic inhibitors are oxides of arsinic (As) and Antimony (Sb) and organic compounds like amines, mercaptans, heterocyclic nitrogen compounds and substituted urea. In the design of the instrument two different metals contact must be avoided as /it as possible, Iftwo different metals are in contact with each other it is better to have an insulation between them The choosen different metals be very close in the electro chemical series. When two different metals are in contact with each other then the anodic metals surface area must be las? to decrease corrosion, Metals ike AlZn Pb are called a amphoteric metals because they undergo comosion in acidic and bs* ium. Caustic embrittlement which isa type of boiler corrosion can be taken as.a stress corrosion. APPLICATION OF PROTECTIVE COATING: Protective coatings are of 3 types # Metallic: singsee . ic conti tings 4 Organic coatings e ic coatings: Applying g , Metallic coat plyinga metal asa layer ove, Mee eoalccane “Yer over another metal in order protect tf it from corrosion is , The metal which is used as coating is called coating metal a metal and the metal over which itis applied is base , Metallic coatings are of two types : i) Anodie coati / tings, => Anodic coatings: SacyTFicat Method # Applyinga metal asa coating which is more active than base metal coating metal is anodic to base metal, (coating metal ishavinew eee metal). - ii) Cathodic coatings nodic coating. That is xidation potential than base Anodic coating will protect the base metal sacrifici lly. Ifanybreak occurs in the anodic coating galvanic cell wil y gag will be formed in whi as anode and base metal acts as cathode and coatine 1 or metal only undergoes corrosion. | YS TEES COrTOSIO Ex: Coating of Zn, Mg, Al, Cadmium (Cd) 9 con and ste @ Cathodic coating: Coating amore no metal is less active than base metal © Coating metal will have less oxidati @ — Cathodic coating will protect the bas @ = Ifany break occurs in the cathodic co: cathode and a small anodic area and a larsee corrosion. — Ex: Applying tin (Sn), silver ; (Ag), Cromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Nickel (Ni) over iron and steel ‘a Will be developed and bae metal udergoes faster Des metal ucerenrs is > Applications of metallic coating: Hot dipping Metal cladding Cementation or diffusion coating Electro planting. — @ Metal spraying => Hotdipping: # In the process coating metal will be melted and in the molten coating metal the base metal will be dippec # Thisis applicable for the coating metals having less melting point and base metal having high meltin Point. Ex: Coating of Zn, Sn, Pb, Al on iron, steel or copper Coating ofZn over iron is called galvanising. $ Coating of Snis called tinning, See ere PsaDIAS tine ones > Metal cladding ing placed and passed through hy Nh Jed metal cling fal thin sheets of C0: metal’ on the surface of the base met otal will be fixed to base @ inthis proces pressing, then coating Me th ¢ | g process is: Pb, Cu, Nialloys, Cully, ating steel, ALLCU. Nic with, silver, (Ap): and Poalloys, odes of aeroplanes, which are obtained by coating of duralung © Alcladding istsed to make the Al Clad). on both the sides of sheets covert pure Al sheets. > Cementation (or) diffusion coating: abase metal with coating met ating drums and small base meta hen coating metal powder will be diffused into base metal isthe process of coating al powder. Je ok alarticles are taken in itand con in large rot © Coating metal power is they will be rotated at high temperature, th surface. © Thisprocess will be used forcoatins | © Asthecoating metal is diffused into bist SsyMMjon of coating metal and base metal there wil be formation ofalloy oftwo metals ABP: metal layer and below this alloy base metal will be present. © Thistype of coating will be usefull Jon iron and steel. {ing this process will be used for small ste! articles. © Coating ofAl powder on iron orstcel is called clorising, This process ean be used for coating of furnace Coating ofa mixture of Crpowder and Al oxi i ide powder over iro! i i ae r iron and steel is called chromisi | FA | ing. This © Coating of silicate powder is called enamelling. > Electroplating: EB : : Coating of metal over another metal using electrolysis process is called electroplating. e In this process. ing al will be process coating metal will be taken as anode and base metal will be taken as cathode coating metal, a salt solution will be taken as electrolyte. e in i iss i the electroplating anode dissolves in electrolyte, and it will be deposited over cathode © Inthe electrop! sting process auniform coating of required thickness will be formed. med.base metal strongly Ing will be qathis proces costing Will be fixed tothe jeprocess aright and hard coati formed which will decorative value to the article. ‘ depends on faluc to the article. Pkeooplating py Temperature ofelectrolytic path §) Composition ofelectrotytie path qa pHofeleetrolyte Py HaypHofelectolyte iv) Agitation ofelectrolyte oa v) Area of cathode — Inghe electroplating process anode undergoes oxidation and produced metallic ions come into the solution. and the neutral metal will be deposited. Jnclecuvplating electricity is used to carry out chemical rea oplating can be considered as reverse to corrosion, _atcathode reduction takes place ction so it belongs to electrolytic cell. Hence — ets Amore active metal will replace or displace a less active metal from its salt solution. ‘The replaced metal can formas a loose co: ‘These coatings can be usefil as primary Exemple:Za will replace Cu from Cur Za~Cu® > Cu+Zn™ Metal spraving : inthis process molien metal will be taken in the spraying guns and it will be sprayed over the base metal. ‘With this process large structures can be coated uniformly. Ex:Zn, Sn. Pbete can be coated over iron, steel. Chemical conversion coatings (or) Inorganic coatings: These coatings are inorganic compounds produced by chemical or electro chemical reactions brought at the surface of the base metal. This type of coatings are used as primary coatings. On the metal, if phosphoric acid (H,PO,) solution is applied the metal phosphate formed as acoating. Phosphate coatings can be applied on iron, manganese (Mn), Zn, steel and in a lesser content it can be plied forAl. Cd, Sn. By applying chromic add chromate coatings can be formed. In places of chromic acid potassium (acidic orneutral) can also be used.