Superfluids Are Not Fluids

Liu, Jerry Z. Ph.D.

Stanford University, California, USA

Abstract

At a temperature below 2.17 K, known as the 𝝀-point, the viscosity in helium fluids disappears. Many extraordinary
phenomena are observed in these fluids, making them mysteries and therefore earning the name superfluids. This
study has revealed the underlying cause of the mysteries. Almost all the substances on Earth are composed of
molecules. Attraction forces or bonds are induced between molecules in close proximities. These attractions hold
molecules together in solids or create viscosity in fluids. Superfluids are an exception. There is no attraction
between superfluid molecules. The simple and symmetric electron structure in helium atoms/molecules makes it
immune to various intermolecular forces, except the London dispersion force. Furthermore, the only weak attraction
between helium molecules vanishes along with the destruction of the London dispersion at low temperatures. In the
absence of any intermolecular attraction between molecules in a helium superfluid, there is no viscosity in the
superfluid. Indeed, it is not a fluid at all but a collection of individual particles. Since a superfluid transition is a
process of bond breaking, it demands energy, reducing the temperature and helping the transition. Therefore, it is
predicted based on this theory that a superfluid transition should not be at a constant temperature as conventional
phase transitions. The 𝝀-point should be just the end of the transition. The starting temperature should be at least
2.55 K or higher. This prediction finds support in the curvature of the specific heat near the 𝝀-point. With this
comprehension, all the observed phenomena of superfluids become easy to explain. No attraction between
superfluid molecules is also the reason why a solid cannot be obtained by simply lowering the temperature of a
superfluid. Nevertheless, helium solids can be obtained under high pressures. This observation prompts us to
predict a novel type of bond may be induced between the helium molecules due to the deformation of electron
clouds under high pressures, namely the compression bond. This bond may also be responsible for holding the
atoms together in metallic hydrogen acquired at extremely high pressures. It might also be the attraction between
metal molecules.

Introduction

The helium-4 superfluid was discovered in 1937.[1] To obtain the superfluid, a helium-4 liquid is typically cooled via
evaporation. To accelerate the cooling process, helium vapors are vacuumed from their container. The evaporation takes
place not only on the surface but also within the liquid, and helium bubbles rise like boiling water. The boiling stops
suddenly when the temperature reaches 2.17 K, known as the 𝝀-point,[2] which is usually considered the transition
temperature of helium-4 from liquid to superfluid. Since this point, many superfluid phenomena are observable. For
instance, a thin film of helium can defy gravity by creeping over the wall of its container.[3] This and other abnormal
phenomena will be explained in this study.
Superfluidity is often coincidental with Bose-Einstein condensation. Hence, the formation of a helium-4 superfluid is
theorized to be related to the formation of a Bose-Einstein condensate. However, they are not related. Not all
Bose-Einstein condensates can be regarded as superfluids, nor are all superfluids Bose-Einstein condensates.[4] A further
challenge to this theory arose when superfluids were obtained in helium-3.[5] Helium-3 atoms are not bosons but fermions
and cannot form Bose-Einstein condensates. An adjustment had to be made to the theory, suggesting the bosons are
formed by pairing helium-3.[6]

There is also a suggestion that both superfluidity and superconductivity are the results of the same mechanism. In
Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BSC) theory, Cooper pairs of electrons bound together at low temperatures are used to
explain superconductivity.[7] However, this theory is also facing challenges as it cannot account for the high-temperature
superconductors obtained at temperatures much higher than the theoretical prediction. In light of some mathematical
models, a new theory was proposed to explain both low and high-temperature superconductivity as well as normal
resistivity in a unified theory,[8] indicating superconductivity has nothing to do with superfluidity.

Clues are revealed in the atomic structure of helium, which determines its intermolecular forces. Additional information
from the measurement of helium-4 specific heat also provides more insight into superfluid transitions. These findings shed
new light on superfluidity, which inspired us to propose an alternative theory for superfluidity. With this theory, all the
observed phenomena of superfluids can be explained. The theory also suggests that helium solids could not be obtained
without pressurizing the helium and predicts the existence of a novel type of bond, named compression bond, which is
responsible for holding molecules together in helium solids at high pressures.

Extraordinary Properties of Superfluidity

Superfluidity is traditionally characterized as a fluid with zero viscosity. When stirred, superfluids will continue to flow
indefinitely. The viscosity of a fluid is defined as its resistance to deformation at a given rate. It is usually conceptualized as
quantifying the internal frictional force that arises between adjacent layers of fluid that are in relative motion. However, this
analogy is misleading. It implies that viscosity is a result of molecules colliding with each other. It is very unlikely that
molecules could collide with each other because the repulsion between molecules increases rapidly as the distance
between them decreases. Viscosity is not caused by friction but by the attraction between molecules. Intermolecular
attractions make fluids cohesive and resist flow.

At a distance, an individual molecule appears electrically neutral. However, an uneven distribution of electrons within a
molecule, especially for a molecule composed of different elements, introduces variations in electrical fields. The electron
clouds may further redistribute due to the fields of adjacent molecules in close proximities, creating local positive and
negative regions. These regions begin to exert force on adjacent molecules, giving rise to intermolecular forces. The forces
are at first attractive but become repulsive within Van der Waals’ distance.[9] Depending on their origin, attractive
intermolecular forces are categorized into various types.[10] Different types of forces are characterized by various properties
and account for the viscosity of different fluids. For instance, hydrogen bond determines the viscosity of water and the
formation of ice. Among all the types, the London dispersion force is particularly important to the understanding of helium
superfluids. It is a relatively weak force but more universal and becomes significant only when other forces are not present.

The attraction between molecules of the same type is called cohesion. Surface tension is the result of cohesion on a
liquid-air interface, while adhesion refers to the attraction between fluid molecules and their boundary, such as a container.
Capillarity arises from adhesion. Viscosity is primarily caused by cohesion as the molecules in a fluid are pulled by their
neighboring molecules during relative motion. All of these forces originate from intermolecular attractions, and each plays a
distinct role in various superfluid phenomena.

Unlike a normal liquid, which is viscous owing to the cohesion between molecules, we believe a superfluid is not viscous
due to the absence of cohesion. Properties of fluids such as viscosity, cohesivity, and surface tension are different
manifestations of intermolecular attractions. In the absence of these attractions, these properties disappear, which in turn
leads to many extraordinary phenomena of superfluids. The lack of attraction between particles is the distinguishing
characteristic of superfluids. Achieving this state is unusual because intermolecular attraction forces are almost inevitable,
which explains why superfluids are so rare. This particular state has only been observed in helium, where intermolecular
attractions disappear along with diminishing London dispersions at low temperatures. Thus, a superfluid is not a fluid in the
traditional sense, but rather a collection of individual molecules without attraction between them.

Vanishing of Viscosity

The London dispersion force is a weak but universal intermolecular force. The electron clouds of helium molecules
undergo fluctuations over time, resulting in instantaneous disturbances in the electrical fields that affect the spatial
distribution of orbital electrons of nearby molecules. This induction effect propagates from one molecule to the next,
causing each molecule to become polarized and form a dipole. The attraction between the positive end of one molecule
and the negative end of another is known as the London dispersion force, named after the physicist Fritz London.[11] Since
the two electrons in a helium molecule fully occupy the outermost orbital, the even distribution of its electron cloud makes
helium less susceptible to all other intermolecular attractions except for the London dispersion force. In the absence of
other intermolecular forces in helium liquids, the weak London dispersion force becomes the dominant intermolecular
interaction between molecules, which gives rise to the viscosity of the liquids.

Fig. 1. Disappearance of intermolecular attraction and viscosity in superfluids. A) Due to the even distribution
of electrons in helium atoms, there are no other interactions between helium molecules except for London
dispersions. These dispersions result in attractions between the molecules, making helium liquids viscous. B) At
low temperatures, the electrons are tightly attracted to their host nuclei, causing them to retreat to lower orbitals
and weakening the London dispersions. When the temperature reaches 2.17 K, the dispersions become negligible,
resulting in the disappearance of intermolecular attractions and viscosity.
Fig. 1A illustrates the attraction between two helium molecules resulting from the London dispersion force. At high
temperatures, the excited electrons in helium molecules occupy high-energy orbitals that are far from and less influenced
by their host nuclei. These electrons are more susceptible to perturbations, resulting in London dispersions. Despite their
weakness, the resulting attraction between dispersed molecules is sufficient to make them cohesive and viscous. However,
at low temperatures, helium electrons retreat to lower orbitals and are tightly attracted to their nuclei, reducing electron
perturbation and weakening the London dispersion forces. When the temperature is low enough, the dispersion forces
become so weak that the interactions between molecules become negligible. As a result, the attractions between
molecules disappear, as illustrated in Fig. 1B. Without these attractions, the molecules in helium fluids can move freely with
respect to each other, resulting in fluids with zero viscosity -- a unique property of superfluidity. In fact, without attraction
between these helium molecules, they are not fluid but a collection of individual molecules.

Other Superfluids

In theory, it is possible to obtain a superfluid from any fluid by eliminating attractions between the molecules. In reality,
however, it is almost impossible to achieve such a state because the Coulomb force exists wherever there is an uneven
distribution of electrical fields. As long as valence electrons of atoms are not evenly distributed or do not fully occupy the
outmost shell, there will be some kind of intermolecular force stronger than the London dispersion force, which shadows
the more universal London dispersion force. Thus, there is almost always some kind of intermolecular force, generating
viscosity in the liquids between these atoms/molecules. So, the only candidates of superfluids are the elements in
noble/inert gases. In the absence of other intermolecular forces, the London dispersion force becomes significant between
molecules in noble gases.

Amongst all the noble gas elements, helium is the best candidate for superfluids since its electrons are tightly attracted to
its host nucleus due to its small atom size. This makes helium less susceptible to the London dispersion than other noble
gas elements. The attractions between helium molecules resulting from London dispersions are the weakest force of all the
intermolecular attraction forces. Even so, the attractions between helium-4 molecules are not eliminated until a very low
temperature, i.e., 2.17 K, while helium-3 superfluid transitions at a much lower temperature, i.e., 0.0025 K.[12] Although they
are the same element, why is there a 1,000-fold difference in the transition temperatures?

Fig. 2. Impact of helium nuclear structure on superfluid transition temperature. Helium-4 has a superfluid
transition temperature, i.e., 2.17 K, while helium-3 transitions at a much lower temperature, i.e., 0.0025 K. This
difference is due to the nuclear structures of the two isotopes. A) In a helium-4 atom, two neutrons hold two protons
closely. B) However, with only one neutron holding two protons against their repulsion in a helium-3 atom, the two
 protons spread apart in opposite directions, elongating the electron cloud of the helium-3 atom. As a result, the
London dispersion forces in helium-3 atoms are stronger and disappear at a much lower temperature.

The difference lies in the nuclear structures of the two isotopes, which affect the intensity of their London dispersions. In a
helium-4 atom, two neutrons hold two protons together closely, as shown in Fig. 2A. However, in a helium-3 atom, only one
neutron holds two protons. The repulsion between the two protons causes them to spread apart in a linear layout on the
opposite sides of the neutron, as illustrated in Fig. 2B. These arrangements cause helium-3 more susceptible to London
dispersions. At the same temperature, the electron cloud in a helium-3 atom elongates more than that in a helium-4 atom,
resulting in stronger London dispersion forces between helium-3 atoms. Consequently, the attraction between helium-3
molecules may not disappear until a much lower temperature.

Based on this understanding, we can make a qualitative prediction for the transition temperature of helium-5, which should
be higher than helium-4. Due to the repulsion between protons and the attraction between protons and neutrons, the
optimal structure for a helium-5 nucleus is three neutrons forming a triangle with the two protons positioned on the opposite
faces of the triangle. So, the ratio of the distances between the two protons for helium-3, helium-4, and helium-5 should be
2:√3:2√⅔ or √12:√9:√8. Assuming the transition temperature is proportional to the distance between the neutrons, we can
make a rough estimate of the transition temperature for helium-5. Given the transition temperatures 0.0025 K and 2.17 K
for helium-3 and helium-4, respectively, the transition temperature for helium-5 should be about 2.93 K. Superfluids might
also be obtained in other noble gas elements. Because of their large atom sizes and more susceptibility to London
dispersion, their transition temperatures should be much lower. The larger the atom size, the lower the transition
temperature.

Variable Temperature Phase Transition

Phase transitions relate to changes in bond structure between molecules, such as bond mutation in melting or bond
breaking in sublimation. Breaking bonds needs energy. A transition to a higher temperature phase also demands energy.
These two processes compete for energy. For instance in a mixing state during vaporization where both liquid and vapor
coexist, without additional energy, bond breaking withdraws energy from a system, cooling the system down and causing
condensation. Given enough time, the condensation reaches equilibrium with the vaporization. Adding energy to the
system increases vaporization and shifts the equilibrium, while the temperature remains unchanged. Essentially, whenever
a phase transition and the associated bond change compete for energy, the processes hinder the change in temperature,
and therefore the temperature typically remains constant during the transition.

However, this is not true for all phase transitions. In the case of superfluid transitions, bonds break along with the transition
to a lower-temperature phase. The two processes do not compete for energy. The bond-breaking withdraws energy from
the system and helps lower the temperature for the transition. Therefore, we predict that the temperature decreases along
with the superfluid transition. In other words, the 𝝀-point around 2.17 K should not represent the constant temperature of
superfluid transitions as perceived in conventional transitions, but rather just the ending temperature of the transitions. This
perception also finds support in the strange shape of the specific curves, as shown in Fig. 3.

The ending temperature of a helium superfluid transition is observed at around 2.17 K, which is visually signaled by the
abrupt cessation of boiling in experiments. The formation of boiling bubbles requires surface tension for air chambers of
helium vapor to be enclosed, indicating the existence of intermolecular attractions. However, after the transition, London
dispersion forces no longer exist and there is no attraction between helium molecules to produce surface tension for
bubbles.

Fig. 3. Identifying the start temperature of helium-4 superfluid transitions. The blue λ-shaped curve shows the
specific heat of helium-4 at saturated vapor pressure as a function of temperature. The significant curvature
difference between the two sides near the 𝝀-point indicates that superfluids have a higher specific heat than helium
liquids. Without any superfluid in the system to the right of the 𝝀-point, the curve should follow a similar downward
trend from point A to point B and then point D. However, the actual specific heat increases from point B to point C.
The high specific heat above the red trendline may be caused by newly converted superfluid molecules. The
superfluid transition might have begun at point B or higher, where London dispersions are weakened enough that
the associated normal helium molecules start to break apart into individual superfluid molecules.

In a normal helium liquid, heat is transported through convection and bubbling like in other liquids. However, after the
disappearance of the bubbles, heat transfer continues through convection in a different mode. Instead of ordinary viscous
circulation, convection becomes a direct flow of individual molecules.[13] This switch in heat transfer modality also indicates
the disappearance of intermolecular attractions and viscosity.

The end of the transition is also indicated by a spike in specific heat. Fig. 3 shows the specific heat of helium-4 liquids at
saturated vapor pressure as a function of the temperature.[14] The blue curve of the specific heat has a discontinuity spike
at 2.17 K, shaping like the Greek letter lambda and therefore earning the name 𝝀-point.

Thus, the end of the helium-4 superfluid transition at the 𝝀-point is well evidenced by the disappearance of vapor bubbles,
the switch of convection mode, and the spike in specific heat. However, as predicted, the starting temperature of the
transition is not necessary at the same point. As energy is removed from a helium liquid, the temperature decreases and
the bonds between liquid molecules will eventually start to break due to the weakening and disruption of London
dispersions. Breaking bonds withdraws energy and lowers the liquid temperature further. So, the system cannot remain at
a fixed temperature during the transition.

The starting temperature of the helium superfluid transition can be roughly identified by analyzing the curve of
helium-specific heat. The specific heat decreases normally near point A as energy is removed from the helium liquid. With
homogeneous liquid molecules to the right of the 𝝀-point, the specific heat curve should expect to follow a similar
downward trend from A to B and D, as illustrated by the extension of the red curve. However, the trend changes from point
B. The significant upward curvature from B to C indicates a much higher specific heat, suggesting a major phase change in
the liquid.

The significantly high specific heat to the left of the 𝝀-point indicates molecules in the superfluid phase have a higher
specific heat than in the liquid phase. In the absence of bonds between molecules, superfluid molecules can move more
freely and demand higher kinetic energy, therefore accommodating more specific heat. Thus, the increase in specific heat
to the right of the 𝝀-point suggests the appearance of superfluid molecules, indicating the transition has already started
before the 𝝀-point when the trend begins to change.

As more heat is removed from the system, the number of superfluid molecules increases toward the 𝝀-point along with the
further reduction of London dispersions. As superfluid molecules accumulate, the specific heat should increase further. The
increasing upward curvature of the specific heat indicates the accelerating speed of superfluid conversion approaching the
𝝀-point. If heat is removed from the system at a constant rate, the time taken to reduce the temperature should lengthen as
the temperature approaches the 𝝀-point, which is evidenced in experiments.

The start temperature of the superfluid transition should be at the point when normal helium molecules begin to break apart
into superfluid molecules, which may be indicated by the curvature change of the specific heat. However, the curvature of
the specific heat is not very sensitive at the beginning. The first conversion of the helium molecule to the superfluid
molecule is hardly noticeable in the specific curvature. The transition progress picks up gradually, which makes it hard to
identify a deterministic start point for the phase transition. The curvature change of the specific chart is noticeable at point
B at a temperature of around 2.55 K. Using it as the start point of the phase transition is arbitrary. The actual start
temperature of the phase transition should be at a much higher temperature.

Therefore, a superfluid transition is a transition with variable temperature, different from a conventional phase transition at
a constant temperature. During the transition, both normal fluid and superfluid coexist. This might be the range where the
reduced viscosity is measured, which may account for the two-fluid model discussed in the literature.

Defying Gravity

One interesting observation in helium superfluids is that helium can creep over the rim of its container against gravity, as
illustrated in Figure 4. To understand the physics behind this phenomenon, let us analyze the forces exerted on an
individual molecule. Let us assume a helium molecule near the wall inside the container at location A. It is pulled by three
forces: W, the upward adhesion to nearby molecules of the container; G, the downward force of the molecule's weight,
minus the buoyancy if it is in the fluid; and M, the cohesion with the surrounding helium molecules inside the container. In
the helium liquid, cohesion M is a result of London dispersion forces. In superfluids, the London dispersion forces are
negligible, and the cohesion will reduce to zero, i.e., M = 0.

Even though there is no cohesion between superfluid molecules, adhesion may still exist between the superfluid and its
container. In the case of a container made of glass, i.e., SiO2, the oxygen and silicon atoms are held together by covalent
bonds, which results in an uneven distribution of electrons in silicon dioxide and introduces local fields. The positive
regions of these fields create adhesion to the superfluid molecules. Therefore, W is the adhesion due to this type of
interaction.
 Fig. 4. Creeping phenomenon of superfluids. This is an effect in which superfluids defy gravity by creeping over
the walls of their container. A helium molecule located at point A inside the container is pulled upward by the
adhesion force to the container, W. It is also affected by the downward force of gravity, G. In superfluids, the
cohesion force M becomes negligible due to the disappearance of London dispersions. Without cohesion, the
superfluid molecules are pulled up by the molecules on the container wall because Coulomb's force W is much
stronger than gravity G.

Coulomb's force is significantly stronger than gravity, making G negligible when compared to W. So, in the absence of
cohesion in the superfluid, the net force pulls the molecule up along the container wall. As a result, a thin film of superfluid
molecules covers the entire surface of the container. However, the intermolecular force is only effective at short distances.
When the helium film becomes too thick, gravity pulls the excess superfluid down along the container wall, as shown in
Fig. 4, causing it to drip off the bottom of the container.

Indeed, the creeping effect is not unique to superfluids, as this phenomenon can also occur when M is very small. As long
as the net force of W, G, and M is upward, liquid molecules will be pulled up. Similar creeping phenomena are observed in
alcohol and petroleum. This is also the reason why the water level curves up along the edge of its container, as adhesion
pulls the water molecules upwards. However, the molecules may not climb up too high because they are also dragged
downwards by the cohesion with surrounding water molecules. When a thin tube is dipped into water, the water inside the
tube may be pulled up significantly above the surrounding water level due to adhesion, a phenomenon known as capillarity.
This is because the number of adjacent water molecules is limited in the horizontal direction by the diameter of the tube,
resulting in less downward cohesion. Thus, the superfluid creeping and capillary effects originate from the same
mechanism.

Superleak Phenomenon

Superleak is a phenomenon in which superfluids can flow through nanoporous membranes, whereas ordinary fluids
cannot. The diameter of nanoporous membrane pores is about 0.7 nm, roughly three times the diameter of liquid helium
molecules. Due to the adhesion between superfluid molecules and membranes, a layer of superfluid molecules sticks to
the entire surface of the membranes, reducing the size of the pores. The effective diameter of the pores is only around the
size of liquid molecules. Since the electrons of superfluid molecules occupy lower orbitals, the size of superfluid molecules
is smaller than that of liquid molecules, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Hence, individual molecules of superfluids can flow through
the membranes freely.

Due to the cohesion between the molecules in helium liquids, additional helium molecules attach to the initial layer on the
surface of the membrane, increasing the thickness of the helium layer and further reducing the size of the pores. The pores
are effectively filled and blocked by these molecules, which prevents helium liquids from flowing through the membranes.

The flow speed of superleaks has been observed to decrease as the temperature rises. The flow rate of normal fluids is
affected by viscosity and adhesivity. In relative motions, molecules are dragged by their neighbors, creating resistance to
the flow. At higher temperatures, the presence of helium-liquid molecules in superfluids is responsible for the lower flow
rate. Increasing the temperature reduces and eventually stops the flow. As discussed earlier, a helium-4 superfluid
transition ranges from 2.55 K to 2.17 K, during which both helium liquid and superfluid molecules coexist. The decreased
flow rate should be observed in this range.

Fountain Effect

Another interesting phenomenon of superfluids is the fountain effect. A tube with a nanoporous membrane plug at the
lower end is suspended in a bath of helium superfluid. The superfluid can flow into the tube through the membrane. When
heated, the helium flows up through the tube and squirts out like a fountain, as shown in Fig. 5. What is the mechanism
driving this fountain?

Fig. 5. Fountain effect of superfluids. To create a fountain effect, a superleak is made using a nanoporous
membrane at the bottom of a tube. A superfluid molecule is represented by a blue dot near the top of a pore in the
membrane. When heat is applied from above, it turns the molecule into a normal liquid molecule, which is subject to
cohesion with the liquid above. Without any downward attraction from the superfluid below, cohesion pulls the blue
molecule out of the pore, acting like a pump. As more molecules accumulate in the tube, they are eventually
pushed out at the top, creating the fountain effect.

The superfluid can freely flow through the membrane, and the fluid levels inside and outside of the tube will be even. When
heat is focused inside the tube, the superfluid turns into normal helium liquids, which creates cohesion between the
molecules through London dispersions. This cohesion prevents the helium liquids from flowing back out of the tube through
the membrane, effectively turning the membrane into a one-directional check valve that only allows the superfluid to flow
into the tube. Nevertheless, this effect alone is not enough to drive the fountain effect.

To comprehend the other half of the fountain effect, let us consider a superfluid molecule represented by a blue dot in a
pore near the top of the membrane, as shown in Fig. 5. When the superfluid inside the tube is heated and turns into a
normal helium liquid, these helium molecules begin to experience cohesion due to London dispersion forces. Particularly,
the blue superfluid molecule absorbs heat from above and quickly transitions into a normal helium molecule, which
becomes cohesive with other converted molecules above. In the absence of cohesion from the superfluid molecules below,
the blue molecule will be pulled out of the pore by the upper molecules. The next superfluid molecule under the blue one
immediately fills the vacancy, and the process repeats, pumping molecules into the tube.

As the superfluid molecules pump into the tube, a hydraulic head builds up inside, creating a downward force on the blue
molecule and resisting the upward cohesion. However, the upward cohesion of the Coulombic force origin is much stronger
than the downward hydraulics. If the tube is not too tall, the hydraulic force cannot prevent helium from accumulating and
eventually jetting out at the top, creating the fountain effect.

Second Sound

Sound is a type of vibration that travels as an acoustic wave through a transmission medium such as gas, liquid, or solid.
To generate an acoustic wave, there must be cohesion between the molecules in an elastic medium. However, since there
is no cohesion between molecules in a superfluid, an acoustic wave cannot be formed in a superfluid. Therefore, a
vibration in a superfluid does not propagate as an acoustic wave, but rather as a pulse or in a resonant cavity through
direct molecule flow.

In most fluids, heat is typically transferred through convection of fluid motion or conduction in a diffusion manner due to the
presence of cohesion between molecules. In the absence of cohesion between molecules in a superfluid, heat is
transferred through the convection of the direct flow of individual molecules. This phenomenon is known as the second
sound because the wave motion of entropy and temperature is similar to the propagation of pressure waves in air. The
effective conduction velocity can be relatively high, up to 20 cm/s.

Predictions

So far, the proposed theory has been useful for understanding and explaining the observed superfluid phenomena.
Several predictions are natural consequences of the theory, which allows us to further verify its validity.

Firstly, it is a well-known fact that the viscosity of most liquids increases with decreasing temperature. However, the
proposed theory predicts different trends for helium. The viscosity-temperature curve for helium-4 should be different in the
three sections around the 𝝀-point. As the temperature decreases, the viscosity should increase normally like other liquids
in the liquid phase to the maximum until the start point of superfluid transition around 2.55 K, then decrease in the
transition phase to zero at the 𝝀-point about 2.17 K, and remain zero in the superfluid section.
Secondly, in the absence of gravity, water molecules can still assemble to form droplets due to cohesion. However, this
behavior should not be expected in superfluids. So, when superfluids are spilled in a gravity-free or microgravity
environment, such as in a spaceship, droplets are not expected. Instead, individual molecules will disperse into space. It
might seem as if the superfluid had evaporated. However, there is no phase change. It only appears as such due to the
lack of cohesion between superfluid molecules to hold them together.

Another prediction in superfluids is that they will not solidify at low temperatures in the absence of pressure, even at 0 K.
This is because there is no attraction between molecules in superfluids, so they cannot bond together to form solids,
regardless of temperature. The liquid appearance of superfluids is due to the effect of gravity, which causes the molecules
to collect at the bottom of their container. This is in contrast to the molecules of helium liquids, which are held together
elastically by cohesion.

Nevertheless, it has been reported that a helium-4 solid has been obtained at temperatures around 1-1.5 K but with a high
pressure (>2.5 MPa).[15-16] At normal pressures, a helium liquid would have turned into a superfluid at those temperatures.
In general, intermolecular attractions are required for any viscous fluid. Without such attractions, the fluid becomes
superfluid. Intermolecular attractions are also necessary for any solid; without them, there is no solid, but rather a "fine
powder" of molecules. To resist shear stresses, the molecules in solids must be held together by some form of bond. Since
there is no cohesion between superfluid molecules, simply packing the molecules together would not create solids that can
resist shear stresses. So, how can high pressure turn the helium molecules into solids?

Our prediction is a novel type of bond that holds the molecules together in helium solids. At high pressures, helium
molecules are compressed together, resulting in the shrinking of the electron cloud of each molecule along the axis of the
two protons in response to the repulsions of electrical fields from surrounding molecules. The uneven distribution of
electron density in different directions creates local fields that are positive toward the axis ends of the protons and negative
to the periphery of the plane perpendicular to that axis. An attraction is induced between these fields. Driven by this force,
the molecules reorient themselves to minimize their potential energy. Eventually, the system stabilizes at a low potential
layout between molecules, as shown in Fig. 6B. This bond is referred to as a compression bond.

Fig. 6. Formation of compression bond. A) Under normal pressures, superfluids can be obtained from helium
liquids by reducing the temperature. Helium solids cannot be produced by further decreasing the temperature
because there are no attractions to hold the molecules together. B) However, under high pressures, the electron
cloud of each molecule shrinks along the axis of the two protons. The uneven distribution of electron density in
 different directions creates local electrical fields, and an attraction arises from the fields between molecules. This is
called the compression bond. Helium solids should be formed by molecules held together by this new type of bond.

Fig. 6B shows the smallest chain of two molecules held together by this bond. Various larger chains may be extended from
this basic block in different directions, creating amorphous structures with low densities. As pressure increases, the chains
may be squashed into a more compact layout where the unit structure is formed by four molecules held together by
compression bond in a rotationally symmetric structure. Helium crystals with higher densities may be obtained in such a
compact structure.

A helium solid has also been obtained at room temperature, but under a much higher pressure, i.e., >113 GPa.[17] Under
such high pressures, helium molecules are compressed so tightly that London dispersions are disrupted and replaced by
compression bonds.

Compression bonds may also exist in solids of other elements. For example, under pressures of around 400 GPa,
hydrogen becomes metallic.[18-19] At such high pressures, the normal covalent bonds between hydrogen atoms may be
disrupted and replaced by compression bonds, converting hydrogen from a diatomic to a metallic form.

Lastly, this theory also predicts the existence of superfluids inside neutron stars. The force between neutrons is repulsive.
Without any attraction between the particles, superfluids should be the common form of matter in neutron stars.

Conclusions

The distinctive characteristics of superfluidity are connected to the exceptional properties of superfluids. This study enables
us to gain insight and understanding into the novel physics that underlie these properties. The following are three key
findings derived from this study:
● Superfluids are not normal fluids. A normal fluid is composed of cohesive molecules, whereas a superfluid is a collection
of individual particles without cohesion. The unique property of superfluids arises from the absence of interparticle
attractions. The attraction between helium molecules can be eliminated primarily because of its unique atomic structure,
which includes small atomic size, fully occupied orbitals, and evenly distributed electrons. Intermolecular attractions are
always present between molecules without fully occupied outer orbitals. This explains why superfluids are scarce.
● A superfluid phase transition is not at a constant temperature. Normal phase transitions are held at a constant
temperature, such as ice-water transition. It takes energy to break the bonds in ice, preventing the system from rising
temperature during the transition. Adding more energy to the system is consumed to break the ice bonds and shift the
ice-water ratio, but not the temperature. However, during a superfluid-fluid transition, bonds form between molecules,
which releases energy and increases the temperature. Therefore, the superfluid-fluid transition cannot hold at a
constant temperature, but in a range, roughly between 2.17 and 2.55 K or higher for helium-4 superfluids.
● This study also predicts the existence of a novel type of intermolecular bonding – the compression bond. In the absence
of intermolecular attractions, superfluids cannot solidify at low pressures, even at 0 K. Compression bonds are
responsible for holding molecules together in helium solids, which only form at high pressures. Under pressures,
electron clouds of superfluid molecules are compressed and deformed, inducing the compression bonds. These bonds
may not be unique to helium solids but are common in other solids composed of single-atom molecules.
 Acknowledgment

I express my sincere gratitude to Ling Zhang for the valuable support provided throughout this study. I am also
thankful to Thomas Zhou and Albert Liu for their insightful feedback and diligent proofreading of the initial drafts.

See Also

● Unified Theory of Low and High-Temperature Superconductivity (PDF)

● Superfluids Are Not Fluids (PDF)
● Electron Tunnel (PDF)
● LK-99 Limitations and Significances (PDF) (中文)
● The Cause of Brownian Motion (PDF)
● The Process Driving Crookes Radiometers (PDF)
● Can Temperature Represent Average Kinetic Energy? (PDF)
● Why Phase Transition Temperature Remains Constant (PDF)
● Is Thermal Expansion Due to Particle Vibrating? (PDF)
● The Nature of Absolute Zero Temperature (PDF)
● Misconceptions in Thermodynamics (PDF)
● Superconductor Origin of Earth's Magnetic Field (PDF)
● Tidal Energy Is Not Renewable (PDF)
● How to Understand Relativity (PDF)
● The Simplest Derivation of E = mc2 (PDF)

Revision History

● 05/08/2021: Initial Version Submitted to Journal of Science.

● 06/01/2021: Initial Post of This Article with Minor Revisions and Formatting Changes.
● 07/10/2022: Adding a Section for the Second Sound with Minor Revisions.
● 10/01/2022: Adding Transition Temperature Prediction for Helium-5.
● 01/08/2023: Changed Title to Superfluids Are Not Fluids.
● 10/28/2023: Renamed Section Variable Temperature Phase Transition.

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