By Software Engineering (SPPU_IT) 26 Quick Read ¢ ; Chapter - 10 Project Plann ing Q.4 Explain Project ination in details (6 Marks) ‘Ans. : Project Initiation * The Project Initiation Phase is the first phase in the Project Management Life Cycle, as it involves starting up a new project. We starta new project by defining its objectives, scope, purpose and deliverables to be produced. * Wealso hire our project team, setup the Project Office and review the project, to gain approval to begin the next phase ‘+ Overall, there are six key steps that we need to take to properly initiate a new project. These Project Initiation steps are listed below © Developa Business Case (© Undertake a Feasibility Study (© Establish the Project Charter © Appoint the Project Team © Setup the Project Office © Performa Phase Review 1 Business Case © A Business Case justifies the start-up of 2 project. It inchides a description of the business problem or ‘opportunity, the costs and benefits of each alternative solution, and the recommended solution for approval. ‘© The Business Case is referred to frequently during the project, to determine whether itis currently on track. ‘And at the end of the project, success is measured against the ability to meet the objectives defined in the Business Case. 2 Feasibiity Stuay * A Project Feasibility Study is an exercise that involves documenting each of the potential solutions to a particular business problem or opportunity. Feasibility Studies can be undertaken by any type of business, project or team and they are a critical part ofthe Project Life Cycle. The purpose of a Feasibility Study is to identify the likelihood of one or more solutions meeting the stated business requirements. + Inother words, if you are unsure whether your solution will deliver the outcome you want, then a Project Feasibility Study will help gain that clarity. During the Feasibility Study, a variety of ‘assessment’ methods are undertaken. The outcome ofthe Feasibility Study s a confirmed solution for implementation 3 Project Charter ¢ AProject Charter outlines the purpose of the project, the way the project will be structured and how it will be successfully implemented, The Project Charter describes the project vision, objectives, scope and ‘deliverables, as wel as the Stakeholders, roles and responsibilities. a )00C”O”~*~“‘“t;s:*™*™*™~*™*~*~:~*~C*C TT27 QuickRead ‘+ The Project Charter defines the vision and boundaries for the project: as the high level roadmap. In addition, the Project Charter also defines the scope of the project, within which the deliverables are produced. 4 Project Team : + AProject job Description defines the objectives and responsibilities ofa particular role on a project. + A Project Job Description should be completed every time a new role Is Identified. The Project Job Description should clearly state the objectives and responsibilities of the role and wheve it fits within the organizational structure. 5 Project otfice ‘© The Project Office Checklist lists everything you need to do, to set up a Project Management Office A Project Management Office is the physical premises within which project staff (eg. the Project Manager and support staff) reside. ‘= The Project Office also contains the communications infrastructure and technologies required to support the project 5 Phase Review 1s ~ AProject Review is an assessment ofthe status ofa project, ata particular point in time, The first timein the project life cycle that a project review is undertaken is at the end of the first project phase, called aa «During this project review, a decison is made as to whether oF not the tem has met the objectives and is approved to proceed to the next project phase, being the "Planning” phase 2 Explain the COCOMO:1I estimation model ES ‘Ans. : The COCOMO II Mode! = Barry Bochm has devised software estimation models hierarchy having the mame as COCOMO ls. Constructive COst MOdel. The COCOMO model has been evolved into more comprehensive model called ‘COCOMO Il tis actually having a hierarchy of estimation models that focus the following areas tion’ | «© Application composition model: It is used in the early stages of development, when user interfaces system, Interaction, performance assessment and technology evaluation are prime important ‘0 Early design stage model; Once the requirements are stabilized and basic architecture is constructed, then. early design stage model is used. © Post-architecture stage model : It is used during development of the software. = COCOMO II models also require sizing information like other estimation models forthe software. Following three sizing options are available © Object points © * ‘© Function points and © Lines of source code : The COCOMO I! model uses object points that are an indirect software measure. They are is computed wsing the counts of ‘ (0 Screenshots taken at user interface Pjeasy-solutions|‘Software Engineering (SPPUIT) QuickRead © Reports and © Components required in developing the application. ‘+ The screenshots or the reports are classified into any of the following three complexity levels : © Simple © Medium ' © Difficult * The client and server data tables are required to create the screenshots and reports. The complexity is defined asthe function of these reports, ‘Table 10.1 : Complexity weighting for object types oe Complexity weight ‘Simple | Medium | Difeutt Screen 1 2 3 Report 2 5 8 3GL component 10 * After the determination of complexity, the number of screenshots, reports, and components object point are ‘weighted as per the table shown in Table 10.1, In component-based development when software reuse is Implemented, then the percent of reuse (96 reuse) is estimated and the object point count is adjusted according ‘to the following equation NOP = (object points) x [(100 - % reuse)/100] where NOP—+ New Object Points. Table 10.2: Productivity rate for object points Developer's experience/capability | Very low | Low Nominal | High Very high Environment maturity / capability | Very low | Low | Nominal | High | Veryhigh | ° PROD 4 7 il eases ages) © In order to derive the estimate of effort, a “productivity rate” should be derived first. They are based on the ‘computed NOP value. The Table 6.8.2 shown above presents the productivity rate. These productivity rates are Slustrated for various levels of developer's experience as well as various levels of environment maturity. PROD = NOP/person-month, * After determining the productivity rate, an estimate of project effort can be derived as follows Estimated effort = NOP/PROD @:3 How Schedules are developed using Gantt Charis 7 (4 Marko) ‘Ans. : Developing the Schedule using Gantt Charts * Atime-line chart, also called Gantt char, is generated on the basis ofthe start date inputs for each task. © Fig. 10.1 shows an example Gantt chart: It elaborates the project schedule. ‘* Inthe left hand column of the Fig, 10.1, al the project tasks are listed. The horizontal lines indicate the duration ofthe task.Software Engineering (SPPU.IT) 29. Quick Read ‘* Forconcurrent activities, multiple horizontal lines are used. [Wook 2] Wook 3] Wook 4] Week 6] Idantiy requirements customer meating dofine product staloment 5 Fig. 10.1: An example timectine chart ‘Tracking the Schedule ‘ © The project schedule is nothing but a road map that defines the tasks and the milestones to be tracked. © Tracking is achieved in different ways as follows : ‘© Conduct periodic meeting to find out the progress status and problems. © Bvaluate the process. © Check whether all the activities are completed within the deadline or by the schedule date. (© Compare the planned date and actual stat date for each activity ‘© Meetpractitioners informally to assess the progress. ‘© Allthese tracking techniques are used by the project managers Schedule and Cost Slippage © A schedule slippage in project planning is described as missing a deadline and project is not completed In the ‘estimated time, In order to avoid schedule slippage, the project manager must plan the project very carefully so that there should not delays in the schedule. # Thettimestine charts or Gantt charts are very useful tools to plan the project in an effective manner. «If there is slippage in schedule, then ultimately there is slippage in the cost of the project or the budget of the project. . 1+ If the schedule slippage is detected in some projects, then project starts floating towards the upper limits of projectdeadline. The float in a §chedule means delays and leads time mentioned in the project schedule. Its the responsibility of a project manager to diagnose the problems’and find the root causes of the slippage and take necessary actions to correct the problems. ‘i «Practically itis very. difficult to achieve the deadline estimated, Following are some important tasks to be accomplished in order to avold schedule slippage and cost slippage : ‘© Identify the basic reasons behind slippage. ‘© Forecast a probable delivery date. r t i © Acknowledge the problems of slippage and find suitable remedy for each ofthe problems. : © Try touse some method to neutralize the slippage, © Always discuss customers with the current progress ofthe project. —s.!””tC:”:C(‘30 Quick Read Causes of schedule and cost slippage: , Following are three major causes of schedule and cost slippage ‘© Poor estimation of schedule and cost. , © Poor requirement analysis and requirement gathering, and © Management issues ‘4 What is criical path? Explain with example how erical path method is used fo estimate the total project duration. ‘Ano. CPM (Critical Path Method) # The critical path method (CPM) is a project modeling technique developed in the late 1950s, CPM Is commonly ‘used with all forms of projects, including construction, aerospace and defence, software development, research projects, product development, engineering, and plant maintenance, among others. © Any project with interdependent activities ean apply this method of mathematical analysis. The first time CPM ‘was used for major skyscraper development was in 1966 while constructing the former World Trade Centre ‘Twin Towers in NYC. é ‘© Although the original CPM program and approach is no longer used, the term is generally applied to any approach used to analyze a project network logic diagram. ‘© The essential echnique for using CPM is to construct a model ofthe project that includes the following : 1. Alist ofall activities required to complete the project 2. The time (duration) that each activity will take to complete, -3, The dependencies between the activities and, 4, Logical end points such as milestones or deliverable items. ‘4 Using these values, CPM calculates the longest path of planned activities to logical end points or to the end of the project, and the earliest and latest that each activity can start and finish without making the project longer. ¢ This process determines which activities are “critical” (ie, on the longest path) and which have “total float” (i.e, can be delayed without making the project longer). © Inproject management, a critical path is the sequence of project network activities which add up to the longest ‘overall duration, regardless ifthat longest duration has loat or not. This determines the shortest time possible to complete the project. © Aproject can have several, parallel, near crtcal paths; and some orll ofthe tasks could have'free oat and/or “total float. An additional parallel path through the network with the total durations shorter than the critical path Is called a sub-crtical or non-rltical path. Activities on subcritical paths have no drag, as they are not ‘extending the project's duration. CPM analysis tols allow a user to select a logical end polnt in a project ard quickly identity is longest series of dependent activities (its longest path). These tools can dlsplay the critical path (and near eritial path activites if a ding waterfall that flows from the project’ nt - desired) as a cascading wa project's start or current status date) tothe selected logical ‘end point G5 Explain Project Scheduling Toots and Technique : PERT . (8 Marke)Software Engineering (SPPU. 31 Quick Read ‘Ane. : PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) 5 ‘« The program (or project) evaluation and review technique, commonly abbreviated PERT, is a statistical tool, used in project management, which was designed to analyze and represent the tasks Involved in completing 4 sven project. © Itiscommonly used in conjunction with the critical path method (CPM). © PERT is a method of analyzing the tasks involved in completing a given project; especially the time needed to complete each task, and to identify the minimum time needed to complete the total project © PERT was developed primarily to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and complex projects. It was developed for the US. Navy Special Projects Office in 1957 to support the US Navy's Polaris nuclear submarine Project + twas able to incorporate uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing precisely the details and durations of all the activities. “It is more of an eventoriented technique rather than start- and completion-oriented, and is used more in projects where time is the major factor rather than cost. 's [tis applied to very large-scale, one-time, complex, non-routine infrastructure and Research and Development projects +The first step to scheduling the project is to determine the tasks that the project requires and the order in which they must be completed. The order may be easy to record for some tasks (eg. When building a house, the land must be graded before the foundation can be Jaid) while dificult for others (there are two areas that need to be graded, but there are only enough bulldozers to do one) ‘+ Additionally, the time estimates usually reflect the normal, non-rushed time. Many times, the time required to execute the task can be reduced for an additional cost or a reduction in the quality ‘+ PERT planning involves the following steps 1. Identify the specific activities and milestones. 2. Determine the proper sequence of the activities, 3. Construct a network diagram. 4, Estimate the time required for each activity. 5, Determine the critical path. 6. Update the PERT chart asthe project progresses 1L. Identify the specific activities and milestones + The activities are the tasks required to complete a project. The milestones are the events marking the beginning and the end of one or more activities. ‘© [tis hetpful to list the tasks in a table that in later steps can be expanded to include information on sequence and duration, 2, Determine the proper sequence of the activities ‘© This step may be combined with the activity identification step since the activity sequence is evident for some tasks. ‘= Other tasks may require more analysis to determine the exact order in which they must be performed. eS EEW Software Engineering (SPPU.IT) 32 Quick Read 3 Construct a network diagram + Using the activity sequence information, a network diagram can be drawn showing the sequence of the ‘serial and parallel activities, ‘+ Each activity represents a node in the network, and the arrows represent the relation between activities. ‘+ Software packages simplify this step by automatically converting tabular activity information Into a network diagram. 4. Estimate the time required for each activity * Weeks area commonly used unit of time for activity completion, but any consistent unit of time can be used. ‘© > A distinguishing feature of PERT is its ability to deal with uncertainty in activity completion time. For each activity, the model usually includes three time estimates: @) Optimistic time - generally the shortest time in which the activity can be completed. It is common practice to specify optimistic time to be three standards deviations from the mean so that there is a approximately a 1% chance thatthe activity willbe completed within the optimistic time, (i) Most likely time - the completion time having the highest probability. Note that this time is different from the expected time. (liPessimistic time ~ the longest time that an activity might require. Three standard deviations from the ‘mean is commonly used forthe pessimistic time ‘+ PERT assumes a beta probability distribution for the time estimates, + For a'beta distribution, the expected ume for each activity can be approximated using the following ‘weighted average Expected time = (Optimistic + 4 xMostlikely + Pessimistic) / 6 + Thisexpected time may be displayed on the network diagram. + Tocalculate the variance for each activity completion time, ifthree standard deviation times were selected for the optimistic and pessimistic times, then there are six standard deviations between them, so the variance is given by: {[ (Pessimistic- Optimistic) / 6] 5. Determine the critical path The critical path is determined by adding the times forthe activities in each soquence and determining the longest path in the project. The critical path determines the total calendar time required for the project. ‘If activities outside the critical path speed up to slow down (within limits), the total project time does not change. The amount of time that a non ~ critical path activity can be delayed without the projects referred toasaslack time. + Ifthe critical path isnot immediately obvious, t may be helpful to determine the following four quantities foe each activity : ES Earliest Starttime EF - Earliest Finish time Ls- Latest Start time LF - Latest Finish time es :Software Engineering (SPPU.IT) 23 juin © These times are calculated using the expected time for the relevant activities, The earliest start and finish times of each activity are determined by working forward through the network and determining the earliest + “time at which an activity can start and finish considering its predecessors activities. ‘¢ The latest start and finish times are the latest times that an activity can start and finish without delaying the project. LS and LF are found by working backward through the network. The difference in the latest and earliest finish of each activity is that activity’s slack. The critical path then is the path through the network in which none of the activities have slack. © Since the critical path determines the completion date of the project. the project can be accelerated by adding the resources required to decrease the time for the activities in the critical path. Such a shortening of the project sometimes is referred to as project crashing. 6. Update the PERT chart as the project progresses ‘© Make adjustments in the PERT chart as the project progresses. As the project unfolds, the estimated times -can be replaced with actual times. + In-cases where there are delays, additional resources may be needed to stay on schedule and the PERT chart may be modified to reflect the new situation. ‘Advantages using PERT PERT is useful because it provides the following information ‘= Expected project completion time; © Probability of completion before a specified date; «The critical path activities that directly impact the completion time; © The activities that have slack time and that can be lend resources to ‘critical path activities; ‘© Activity startand end date. oooSoftware Engineering (SPPU_IT) 34 Quick Read Chapter 11: Project Management 12.1 Explain the role of peopl, product and process in project management. 5 EE Ana. : 1. People 2 Product 3. Process 4 Project How these four P's can be used in the management spectrum? It is interesting to note that the order can never be arbitrary. 1. The People 2 Explain the term the people of management spectrum. EGR Ans. ‘© Software engineering institute has developed model named the People Management Capability Maturity Model {PM-CMM). The PM-CMM has been developed ‘to deploy the talent needed to improve their software development capability. + Not only to deploy talent but also to enhance the readiness of software organizaticns to undertake increasingly complex applications by helping to grow, attract, motivate the talent needed to improve their software {development capability and to continue to hold the talent to improve the development capabilites. + Also helping to retain the talents that are needed to improve the development capabilities © The PM-CMM defines the following key practice areas for software people: © Recruiting © Selection © Performance management © Training © Compensation © Career development © Organization and work design © Team or culture development + The PM-CMM 1s very close to the software capailty maturty model inegraticn, It gues organiation in creation of a mature software process. + There are varlous groups that are involved for the most needed! communication and co-ordination issues required for the effective software. All these groups can be categorized as under: 1, Stakeholders 2, ‘Teamleaders 3. Softwareteam 4. Agile teams 5, Co-ordination and communication issues (A) Stake Holders G3 Explain the torm in bro: Stakehoksers, SEINE (OR What ar the categorie of sakoholies? Wha ar the carci of etectve jet manager 2 Som — | |,Software Engineering (SPPU.IT) 35 Quick Read ‘Ane. ‘take holders are the people who are directly or indirectly involved inthe software process and software project. ‘To make the effective development process, the project team must be organized in such a way that maximizes each person's sklls and capabilites. This isthe job ofthe team leader that looks into each and every comer of the process: ‘The stake holders can be categorized into one of five categories required: 1. Senlormanagers 2._‘Project managers 3. Developers 4, Customers 5. End users 4. Senior managers have lot of influence on the project and they are the people who define business issues. 2, Project managers can organize, plan motivate and control the developers who develop the software project ‘Actually, all these are the technical people. Developers have the technical skills that are Important to engineer a product or application. ‘A. Customers are one of the Important stakeholders who specify the requirements, These requirements are later developed. Also some other stakeholders are also there who have interest in the outcome ofthe sofware ‘5, Finally the end-users who are going to use the software. (6) Team Leaders «Competent practitioners often make poor team leaders because project management is people intensive activity, But unfortunately in many cases individuals Just fall into a project manager role and become the project managers accidentally. «¢The MOI (Model of Leadership) is used by the project managers that has the following characteristics 10 makea project manager very effective: © Motivation : The ability to encourage the team to produce their best ability. co Organization : The ability to organize the ongoing processes in such a way that will help the intial concept to mould into a final product. Meas or innovation : The ability to encourage the team to create the innovative ideas let them fel to be more creative in their tasks. 4s _Allthe successful project leaders apply a problem solving management style Le. a software project manager ‘Should be able to concentrate on understanding the problem and finding the solution, managing the ow of fdeas and thoughts. At the same time, manger should let everyone in the team to know that qualify {important parameter and can not be compromised. + Oneother view of the characteristics that defines an effective project manager should emphasizes following, four key factors ‘0 Problem solving: ‘© Managertal identity : A project manager should take the charge of the project. He should have overall ‘control and should allow only good technical team members to do thelr own styles. © Achievement : To enhance the productivity of a project team, he should take initiative and demonstrate the function through his own actions. © Influence and team bullding : A project manager should have the ability to réad the faces and capability of his team members Le. face reading. project manager should find out technical and organizational issues.Software un) 36 Quick Read (©) Software Team . ‘The people those are directly involved in a software project are within the project manager's scope. The the organization, the structure of a good team depends on the management methodology adopted in number of people who will inhabit the team and their skill levels, and the overall complexity of the question. = _ Following are seven project factors that must be considered when plarning the structure of software engineering teams: ‘The ability to solve the difficulty ofthe problem. ‘The overall sizeof the final programs in lines of code. ‘The amouit oftime that the team will stay together. ‘The degree of modularity. ‘The quality and reliability of the system. ‘The delivery date rigidity. ‘The degree of communication required for the project. ‘+ Toachievea high-performance team : ‘© Team members must have trustin one another. (©The distribution of skills must be appropriate to the problem. ‘An unorthodox or independent-minded person may have to be excluded from the team, if team unity is to be maintained. ‘ ‘The aim and idea for every project manager Is to create a team that exhibits unity among the team members. 000000 (0) Agile Teams ‘The term agile means very active. As a cure to many of the problems that have afflicted software project ‘work, in recent years, agile software development has been put forward. The agile philosophy provides the following: “o _Itencourages customer satisfaction by early incremental delivery of software. © Itprovides small highly motivated project teams. © Itconsists of informal methods. ‘© Italso provides minimal software engineering work products. © Itresults in overall development simplicity. The small sized and highly motivated project team, also called an agile team, adopts many of the characteristics of successful software project teams, {E) Co-ordination and Communication issues ‘There are some factors because of which, software projects get into problems, These f following features of modern software : factors are based on the Scale Since the scale of most of the development efforts Is lage, therefore it leads to conus significant Uifficulties In coordinating team members. confusion, complexity and Uncertainty Uncertainty is very common and ft results In a continuing stream of changes that wil Increase or decrease the size of project tea ‘SOE‘Software Engineering (SPPU.IT) 37. Quick Read 3 Interoperability + Interoperability is one of the Important characteristics of many software applications. The new software should be able to communicate with the existing system and satisfy the predefined constraints and conditions implemented by the software. +, The following important characteristics of software are the facts of life : 1. Scale c 2s Uncertainty 3, Interoperability , ‘= To handle these characteristics very effectively, the development team must devise some method for ‘communicating and coordinating the team members. ‘The formal communication is achieved through formal meetings like writing and’ non-interactive communication channels. The informal communicatian is more personal focusing individuals. All the embers of a software team must share their ideas on ad hoc basis and must ask for any help required for the problems encountered on a daily basis. ‘G4 _ Explain te ierm the product of management spectrum. EDR as Measure Waies]—+ Metrics aires ‘evsivaton ablishing abaseline | + ricators Fig. 11.42 ao PinsSoftware. {SPPUIT) —— Chapter 12 : Project Estimation OER vtec versed Ga pr TOG apa GOR ‘G1 Whatare veraus Decompoaiion Techniques? Explain each in detall (@ Marks) ana: Decomposition Techniques ym to be solved (Le, Software project estimation is a form of problem solving, and in most cases, the an pecs developing a cost and effort estimate for a software project) is too complex to be consi hopefully, more For this reason, we decompose the problem, recharacterizing it as a set of smaller (and hopefully, manageable) problems, ‘We use following two types of Decomposition Techniques: © Problem decomposition, and © Process decomposition Problem Decomposition” Problem decomposition is an activity that is present durit ‘decomposition, sometimes called as partitioning or problem During defining the scope of software, the problem is not fully decomposed, The decomposition activity is applied in following two important areas ing software requirements analysis. The problem. elaboration, ‘The functionality thats expected to be delivered and © The process that helps to deliver it. stated in this way that a co Ee nzallyallthe human beings peter a divide-and-conguerstheme when they face any com, be implex problem is divided into smaller sub problems that easily plex problem. It can can be managed very ‘This technique is often applied in the he During the evolution of the statement roject team members learn that the ‘the following functions should be the sinning ofthe project planning, ' Occurs naturally. For example, the team has comm vera With Potential customers and found that Partof automatic copy editing required + © Spell checking © Sentence grammar checking © Reference checking for large documents © eetamand chapter reference validation for large, documents * All these features representa surfunetion that ie SUPpOsed to be implemey further refined Ifthe decomposition wil malge Dlanningeasie, "4 SoRware, Each feature can be Process Decomposition © Anoutlne for project planning is ascertaned bythe rocess fr ce88 framework. itis MrPPropriate to the projec. The framework acivines that characterize eo eecatng task set tae a Software projects, The probern Isto selec ene mse rocess a Process’ model that is ‘engineered by a project team, ste applicable to ‘are to be TOptlate for theSoftware Engineering (SPPU_IT) 45, Quick Read ‘The project manager should decide that which ofthe process model is most appropriate for: © Thecustomers who request the product and the people who will do the work © The characteristics of the software product . ‘© The project environment in which the software team works When a process model is selected, the team then defines a preliminary project plan based on the set of process framework activities. After establishing the preliminary plan, the process decomposition can be started. A complete plan must be created, that reflects the work tasks required to populate the framework activities. Itis always récommended that a software team should be adaptable in selecting the software process model that {s most appropriate forthe project and al the software engineering tasks can be implemented once the process ‘model is chosen. “Usually small projects can be completed using the lincar zequential approach. Iftime constraints are imposed very strictly then the problem might be heavily miodulaized into several small models and generally RAD model would be the correct choice. Ifthe deadline is to be followed very strictly then itis fact that full functionality may not be delivered inthe first, version and inthis scenario, an incremental approach would be most suitable approach. Ifprojects encounter with following characteristics, then some other process models might be selected : © Uncertain requirements © Breakthrough technology © Difficult customers ‘© Significant reuse potential ‘Once the process model has been finalized, the process framework is adapted to it. In all the cases, the generic tion, modelling construction, and deployment canbe used. framework activities like planning, commu Itwill work for the following models © Linear models © Iterative and incremental models, © Evolutionary models and © Even for concurrent or component assembly models. ‘The process framework is invariant and serves as the basis for all software work performed by a software organization, But the actual work tasks do always vary. The process decomposition begins when the project manager asks, “how do we accomplish this framework activity?” For example : A small, relatively simple project may require the following work tasks for the communication activity © Develop list of clarification issues. Meet with customer to address clarification issues. Jointly develop a statement of scope. Review the statement of scope with all concerned. Modify the statement of scope as required, ° ° ° °Tn crank way occ |i thani48 are Thee eres ropresme at = rome Sones appropriate for the small and relatively simple project. It should be noted that work tasks specific neds of the project. : —— Q.2 Wie a short notes on : Cost Estimation. (4 Marks) ans. 5 Cost Estimation Tools and Techniques: «Estimating size er resources is one of the most important topics in software engineering and IT. You will not deliver according to expectations if you don't plan, and you cannot plan if you don't know the underlying dependencies and estimates. ©, Anestimate fsa quantitative assessment ofa future en forecast a project's cost, size, resources, effort, or duration. '* Today's software market, with its increasing reliance on external kinds of technologies for estimation, a practice that has moves functional and component estimates. ‘eStandards are starting to evolve as well, because these esti fenormous amounts of money are at stake. «© Unfortunately, people often confuse estimates with goals or plans. For to needs instead of feasibility, or commit to something “very urgent an “urgency” relates to'current commitments ‘and capacity planning. 4s Im fact, most failures in software projects come from belatedly understa difference between goals estimates, and plans. cteavor's likely cost or outcome. People typically use ‘components and adapted code, has led to new: from mere size-based approximations to imates play such a crucial role in business and instance, they schedule projects according .d important” before checking how this nding and considering the important «Two of the most important Ingredients for proper estimation are people and bistorical dats, They se rcrreated more than you might expect because most organizations lack historical data, thus they form estimates primarily through analogy and experience. «Ie works Ifyou have experlenced people who periodically measure and put their estimates versus acral data thte a historical database. Tools can help reducing the time and costs involved in data gathering, as well as ‘supporting reports, risk management, and scenario analysis. 5 ‘« Following are some Software Estimation Tools o. SLIM-Estimate : It uses a proven top-down.approach that minimizes the input information required to produce fact based, defensible estimates In addition to software cost estimation, SLIM-Estimate's high evel of configurability accommodates the many diferent design processes used by developers. ‘o SystemStar : Itoffers two types of models : COCOMO - Software Cost Estimation Model COSYSMO - Systems Engineering Cost Estimation Model Ga Wha ere the typical probleme with IT cost estimates? Why every project manager is. ‘estimates to alow for successiul cost management? (4 Marks) nager is dependent on realistic cost ‘Ane. : Typical Problems with IT Cost Estimates «© Bvery project proposal needs realistic cost estimates. Similarly, every project manay . ger is de ost estimates to allow fr successful cost management. ger is dependent on realist —..i(‘(“‘éirSoftware King (seruin) ar Quick Rend Dudgeting and cost control it very critical but also challonging under uncertalny, Uncertalnty means we do not have all formation abot the ture, and assumptions we make tolay may come out differently In realty as the Project progres Complexity is a fundamental Issue her simple projects are no challenge in an analytical vento, although they too can be ps mistakes, The complex system isa diferent matter altogether. There are four types of complet © Structural complexity ¢ Seeing how projects Mt together and how Interdependences pose risk and ‘uncertainties © Techical complexity + Maturity of technology and how problems are solved through the design of processes or products, © Directional complexity : Alignment of people's objectives and motivation, and ‘Simple systoms are easy to understand anid represent in a model Thus, to misunderstandings and © Temporal complexity : Bringing on project parts or components ot the right ume and the handling of changes, especially In design, as well as cultural understanding of thme, Project management (PM) I traditionally considered a means of planning and control of activites producing & “unique produetor service, A major callengy in planning is relate cost estimation “This true in IT-development projects based on a comprehensive review of previous cost estimation Papers and articles. ooo