Mineral resources

 A mineral is a naturally occurring substances of definite chemical composition and identifiable physical properties.
 Minerals are formed over a period of millions of years in the earths crust.
 Iron, aluminium, zinc, manganese and copper are the important raw materials for the industrial use.
 Important non-metal resources includes coal, salt, clay, cement and silica.
 Stone used for building materials, such as granite, marble, limestone, constitute another category of the minerals.
 Minerals with special properties that humans values such as diamonds, emeralds, rubies. The luster of gold, silver, and
platinum are used for the ornaments.
 Minerals in the form of the oil, gas, and coal were formed when ancient plants and animals were converted into
underground fossil fuels.
mining

 The extraction of the minerals and their ores from the earths interior so that they can be used. This process is known as
mining.
 Mines are of two types surface or deep or shaft mines.
 Mining is hazardous occupation, and the safety of the mine workers is an important.
 Surface mining is less hazardous than underground mining.
 Metal mining is less hazardous than coal mining.
 Mining posses several long term occupational hazards to the miners. Dust produced during mining operations is injurious to
health and causes a lung disease known as black lung.
 Fumes generated by incomplete dynamite explosions are extremely poisonous.
 Radiation is hazardous in uranium mines.
Or
MINING
Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted using large
equipment. During the process, dust and chemicals are released in the air causing
massive air pollution.(cause)
Mining is of 2 types i.e. surface m ani underground mining
Uses and exploitation of minerals
Infrastructure development: The construction of buildings, roads, and other infrastructure requires the use of
mineral resources.
Energy production: Mineral resources such as coal, oil, and natural gas are used as sources of energy for
electricity generation, transportation, and heating.
Economic development: the use of mineral resources contributes significantly to a country’s economic development by
creating employment opportunities, generating revenue and contributing to exports.
Manufacturing: Mineral resources are used in production of wide range of products, including automobiles, electronic
devices, construction materials and machinery.
Coal is used to generate electricity
Is also used for making jewellery
Making alloys(steel) for various purposes
Communication purposes- wires, cables
Medicinal purposes, particularly in ayurvedic system.

Effects of Mining Activities

Environmental Impact:
Habitat Destruction: Mining often requires clearing large areas of land, which can result in the destruction of
natural habitats for plants and animals.
devegetation: vegetation gets removed which also affects the landscape
Water Pollution: Mining can release pollutants into nearby water bodies, contaminating water sources with
heavy metals and chemicals.
Air Pollution: Dust and emissions from mining operations can degrade air quality, leading to health problems
for nearby communities.
Soil Erosion: Mining activities can disrupt soil structure, leading to erosion and reduced fertility

Social Impact:
Displacement: Local communities may be displaced to make way for mining operations, leading to the loss of
homes and livelihoods.
Health Risks: The release of pollutants can pose health risks to nearby residents, including respiratory issues
and waterborne diseases.
Social Conflict: Competition for resources, land, and jobs can lead to social conflicts between mining
companies and local communities.
Economic Impact:

Revenue Generation: Mining can generate significant revenue for governments and local economies through
taxes, royalties, and job creation.
Resource Depletion: Over-reliance on mining can lead to economic instability when resource prices fluctuate
or when resources are depleted.
Boom and Bust Cycles: Mining towns often experience economic booms during the active mining phase but
can suffer economic downturns when mining activities cease.
Long-Term Environmental Legacy:

Abandoned Mines: Unregulated or poorly managed mining operations can leave behind abandoned mines
that continue to pose environmental hazards.
Land Rehabilitation: Effective land rehabilitation and restoration efforts are essential to mitigate the long-
term environmental

impact of mining.
Biodiversity Loss: Mining can lead to the loss of biodiversity in the affected areas, as it disrupts ecosystems
and can harm native species, particularly if they are specialized and cannot adapt to the changes.
Cultural and Heritage Impact: Mining can threaten cultural and historical sites, including indigenous lands
and archaeological sites, erasing cultural heritage and traditional practices.
Climate Change: The energy-intensive processes involved in mining, such as blasting and transportation, can
contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, indirectly contributing to climate change.
Resource Scarcity: Mining can lead to resource scarcity if not done sustainably. Overexploitation of non-
renewable resources can result in future shortages and increased competition for these resources

Effects of over exploitation of minerals

Excessive mining can lead to deforestation, habitat destruction, and soil erosion. It can also disrupt
ecosystems, harm wildlife, and result in the release of harmful pollutants into the air and water.
Resource Depletion: Overexploitation depletes finite mineral resources, making them less available for future
generations. This can lead to scarcity and increased extraction costs.
Land Degradation: Open-pit mining and other forms of extraction can leave behind large scars on the
landscape, making the land unusable for agriculture or other purposes.
Needs heavy energy requirements

Management of MR
Sustainable Mining Practices: Promote environmentally responsible mining techniques, including minimizing
waste, reducing water and energy consumption, and implementing reclamation plans to restore mined areas.
Regulatory Framework: Develop and enforce comprehensive mining regulations that cover environmental
protection, worker safety, and fair economic returns to the government and local communities.
Resource Assessment: Thoroughly assess and quantify mineral deposits through geological surveys, mapping,
and drilling to understand the extent, quality, and quantity of resources available… The efficient use and
protection of mineral resources. Reuse and recycling of the metals. Finding Eco friendly mining technologies.
Search for new deposit

{Tr} Devegetation- vegetation gets removed, landscape gets affected

Ground water contamination- mining pollutes ground water, sulphur is converted into
sulphuric acid which enters into soil.
Surface water pollution-radioactive wastes and other acidic impurities affect the surface
water which kills many aquatic animals.
Air pollution- smelting and roasting is done purify metal which emits air pollutants and
damage the nearby vegetation. It causes many health problems.
Subsidence of land- underground mining results in cracks in houses, tilting buildings and
bending of rail tracks.

LAND RESOURCE
Land resource
Land is the natural resource
It lays a base for survival of living beings
It is a solid surface on the Earth that is not permanently covered by water.
Land resource is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life, economic
activities, transport and communication systems
Increased demand on land in modern times due to the rise in human population has resulted in degradation of land
quality and quantity decline in crop production and competition for land.
This resource includes... hill, valley, plain, river basins.
When land is used efficiently thn it is a renewable res.
When highly toxic industrial and nuclear waste are dumped in it then it can become a non renewable res.
Land degradation is the loss of the productive capacity of the soils for present and future, and it is a global challenge
that affects everyone.
Major land degradation problems
Wind erosion (movement of soil)
Water erosion including mass movement of hill slopes
Dry land salinity
Irrigation-induced salinity
Water logging
Soil structure decline
Soil fertility decline or nutrient loss
Vegetation decline
Tree regeneration
Loss of flora and fauna

Causes of land degradation

Deforestation
Forest soils contain much organic matter. When a forest is cleared, the trees are burnt, which leads to an immediate
loss in organic matter. Cutting forest for fuel wood is another form of deforestation.
Over grazing
When insufficient amounts of grass litter are left for the soil, the soil organisms die and the soil loses fertility.
Industrialization
Industries and mining operations can pollute soils.

Agriculture
Over irrigating farmland leads to salinization, as the evaporation of water brings the salts to the surface of the soil on
which crops cannot grow. Over irrigation also creates water logging of the top soil, so that crop roots are affected and
the crop deteriorates. The use of more and more chemical fertilizers poisons the soil and eventually the land becomes
unproductive.

Effects
Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Land degradation, including soil erosion, salinization, and desertification, can lead to
a decline in soil fertility. This, in turn, reduces agricultural yields and can result in food insecurity for communities that
rely on the affected land for sustenance.
Loss of Biodiversity: Land degradation often destroys or disrupts ecosystems, leading to a loss of biodiversity. As
habitats are altered or destroyed, many plant and animal species may become extinct or endangered.
Increased Erosion and Flooding: Soil erosion, which is a consequence of land degradation, can lead to increased
sedimentation in rivers and lakes. This can result in more frequent and severe floods, damaging infrastructure and
agriculture downstream.
Decline in Water Quality: Land degradation can contribute to the contamination of water bodies as pollutants from
degraded land are washed into rivers and groundwater, affecting both aquatic life and human health.
Displacement of Communities: Desertification and other forms of land degradation can force communities to migrate as
their lands become uninhabitable or unsuitable for agriculture.
Increased Vulnerability to Natural Disasters: Degraded land is often more susceptible to natural disasters such as
landslides and wildfires. These events can cause loss of life and property.
Loss of flora mad fauna: because of the degradation of land some animals migration as the land barren . Due to
unavailability of nutrients some plants may even die.

Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the natural process by which soil is displaced or worn away by various factors such as wind, water, or
human activity.
It can occur gradually over time or more rapidly during events like heavy rainfall or strong winds.
Soil erosion can have detrimental effects on the environment, agriculture, and land use, as it can lead to the loss of
fertile topsoil, reduced water quality, and increased sedimentation in rivers and lakes.
Various methods, such as planting cover crops, installing erosion control structures, and practicing sustainable land
management, are used to prevent or mitigate soil erosion.

Factors affecting soil erosion

Natural factors
Heavy rains on weak soil- rain drops loosen soil particles and water transports them down hill.
Vegetation depleted by draught- rain drops are free to hit the soil, causing erosion during rainfall. Winds blow away the
fine particles during draughts.
Steep slopes- gravity pulls harder-water flows faster, soil creeps, slips or slumps downhill.

Sudden climate change

Rainfall- erosion increases unexpectedly rapidly as rainstorms become more severe.
Drought-water dries up and the soil becomes a play ball of winds. A sudden rain causes enormous damage.
Changing winds- areas previously sheltered, become exposed.
Human Included factors
Change of land- the land loses its cover, then its soil biota, porosity and moisture.
Intensive farming- the plough, excessive fertilizer and irrigation damage the land, often permanently.
Housing development-soil is barred, massive earthworks to landscape the subdivision; soil is on the loose.
Road construction- roads are cut; massive earth work, leaving scars behind. Not enough attention is paid to rainwater
flow and maintenance of road sides.

Desertification is a process of land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, primarily due to various
factors such as climate variability and human activities. It involves the transformation of once fertile or productive land
into desert-like, barren terrain.
Desertification can occur gradually over time and can have severe consequences for both the environment and the
people who depend on these lands for their livelihoods.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which the tropic levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in
successive stages. ecological p comprises of two to four layers. Producers are situated at the lowest level.
In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:
1. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
2.The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
3. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
4.The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in the ecological pyramid.

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

Based on the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in organisms' population.
Three types of ecological pyramids are:

1.Pyramid of numbers.
2.Pyramid of biomass.
3.Pyramid of energy.

PYRAMID OF NUMBER
It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramids of numbers.
1. Upright pyramid of numbers. 2.Partly upright pyramid of numbers. 3.Inverted pyramid of numbers.

UPRIGHT PYRAMID OF NUMBER

The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic level to higher tropic level is called "upright pyramid of
numbers".
Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers.

PARTIALLY UPRIGHT PYRAMID OF NUMBER

A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid, the pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and
hence it is called partially upright of number.

INVERTED PYRAMID OF NUMBER

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher tropic level, is known as Inverted pyramid
of numbers".
in this system one individual producer can support many primary consumers, similarly, one primary consumer can support many
secondary consumers, and so on
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number.
Upright partially upright inverted

PYRAMID OF BIOMASS
The ecological pyramid that is made by considering the amount of biomass that is produced by the living system of
each trophic level is represented by the pyramid of biomass. The pyramid that demonstrates the total weight of
every trophic level in a specific food chain in an ecosystem is the biomass pyramid.
It is expressed in gram per unit area.

Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of biomass.
1. Upright pyramid of biomass.
2. Inverted pyramid of biomass.

UPRIGHT PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first tropic level to consumer level (higher
tropic level) is called "upright pyramid of biomass"
A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer levels.

INVERTED PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer level are called as Inverted pyramid of
biomass.
Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer levels.

PYRAMID OF ENERGY
The ecological pyramid which is formed by determining the flow of energy from one trophic level to another is
known as the pyramid of energy. The producers situated at the base of the pyramid of energy have the highest
amount of energy and the topmost consumer at the top has the least
amount of energy.
It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
In an eco-system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level
The pyramid of energy is always upright…….. The flow of energy in this
pyramid
proves that energy can neither be created nor can be destroyed given by the
law of thermodynamics.
However, as indicated by Lindeman’s 10% regulation law, only 10% of the
energy gets transferred from one level to another as almost the 90% is lost
as heat energy is used in breathing, some are utilized in physiological cycles,
and the rest is utilized by decomposers.