Unit one

Definition, scope, and subject matter of anthropology

- The term anthropology is a compound of two Greek words, ‘Anthropos’ and ‘logos’,
which means ‘human being/mankind’ and ‘reason/study/science’ respectively.
- Anthropology is the study of people-their origins, development, and contemporary
variations.
- It is the systematic exploration of human biological and cultural diversity, across time
and space. anthropology as the holistic and comparative study of humanity. It
explores human biology, society, and culture and considers their interrelations.
- Anthropology seeks to explain how and why people are both similar and different
through a comparative study of contemporary human societies.
- The goal of anthropology is to develop an integrated picture of humankind
- There is no time and space left as far as man exists. The temporal dimension covers
the past, the present, and even the future.
- In terms of the spatial dimension, anthropology studies from the Arctic to the Desert,
from Megapolis to hunting-gathering areas. Wherever human beings live, there is
always anthropology.
- Anthropology offers two kinds of insight.
 produces knowledge about the biological and cultural variations in the world.
 Offers methods and theoretical perspectives to solve societal problems.

Unique Features of Anthropology

1. Its broad scope
- Interested in all human beings, contemporary/past, ''primitive''/ ''civilized''.
- Interested in many different aspects of humans, including family lives, marriages,
political systems, economic lives, technology, belief systems, health care systems,
and languages.
- No place or time is too remote to escape the anthropologist's notice.
- No dimension of humankind, from genes to art styles, is outside the
anthropologist's attention.
2. Its unique approaches: Holism, relativism, and comparative
3. Emphasis on insider’s view/emic perspective
 How a particular group of people explain their actions or give meaning to their
cultural practices.
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 4. The micro-focus: Paying great attention to local/ micro-social processes certainly
helps us to better understand big changes in societies.
5. Its methods of research: emphasis on extended fieldwork
Misconceptions about anthropology
- Anthropology is limited to the study of "primitive" societies.
- Anthropologists only study rural people and rural areas.
- Anthropology wants to keep and preserve primitive, defunct cultural practices in
museums and anthropologists are advocates of defunct, obsolete culture.
- Anthropology is the study/analysis of fossil evidence of proto-humans like that of
Lucy/Dinkinesh.
Contributions of Anthropology
- Anthropology helps us understand our own ways of life. Through the process of
contrasting and comparing, we gain a fuller understanding of other cultures and our
own.
- Anthropologists identify the needs and interests of local people for the betterment and
change of their lived experiences. It also protects local people from harmful policies
and projects that threaten them.
- Anthropology creates global awareness and a deep appreciation of humanity’s past
and present.
- Anthropology helps us fight against prejudices and discrimination/ethnocentrism
- Anthropology helps to understand the logic behind and justification for human
activities and behavior.
- Anthropology is also used as a tool for development. Paying attention to local
conditions is crucial to solve community problems. (It recognizes the advantages of
consulting local people to design a culturally appropriate and socially sensitive
change).

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 Unit Two

Sub-fields of Anthropology

1. Archaeological Anthropology
 Studies the ways of lives of past peoples by excavating and analyzing the material
culture/physical remains they left behind
 The material culture/physical remains that archaeologists excavate, and study are
artifacts, features or eco-facts

Artifacts: are material remains made and used by past peoples. E.g., Tools,
ornaments, arrowheads, coins, and fragments of pottery are examples of artifacts.

Features: are made or modified by past people, but they cannot be carried away from
the site. E.g., house foundations, ancient buildings, fireplaces, and steles.

Eco-facts: are non-artefactual, organic, and environmental remains such as soil,

animal bones, and plant remains that were not made/altered by humans; but were used
by them.
 Eco-facts provide archaeologists with data concerning the environment and
how people used natural resources in the past.

Archaeology has also its own subfields or areas of specialties

Prehistoric archaeology: investigates human prehistoric cultures. It focuses on the

entire period called prehistory- between 6,000 years ago and the time of the first stone
tools (the first artifacts), around 2.5 million years ago.

Historic archaeologists: help to reconstruct the cultures of people who used writing
and about whom historical documents have been written.

Ethno-archaeologists: study the material culture of current societies (e.g., pottery

products) to understand the cultures (lifestyles) of past societies.
 Archaeological findings in the north, south, east, and western part of the
country have shown our county belonged to those countries which have old
civilizations.

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 2. Linguistic Anthropology

- Focuses on the evolution of languages by studying contemporary human

languages as well as those of the past.
- Studies how language is used within a society and how the human brain acquires
and uses languages.
- It tries to understand language variation in its structures, units, and grammatical
formations.
- Studies human language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice
in its social and cultural context, across space and time.

Linguistic anthropology is divided into four distinct branches

Structural /Descriptive Linguistics: studies the structure of linguistic patterns. It

studies grammatical patterns of languages to identify the similarities and differences
among contemporary languages.

Ethno-linguistics (cultural linguistics): examines the relationship between language

and culture. In any language, certain cultural aspects are emphasized (such as types of
snow among the Inuit, cows among the pastoral Maasai, or automobiles in U.S.
culture) are reflected in the vocabulary.
Historical linguistics: deals with the emergence of language in general and how
specific languages have diverged over time.
 Focuses on the comparison and classifications of different languages to
differentiate the historical links between them.
Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics examines how the use of language defines social
groups. It investigates linguistic variation within a given language.
 No language is a homogeneous system in which everyone speaks just like
everyone else.
3. Socio-cultural anthropology: studies contemporary societies and cultures throughout
the world.
 It describes, analyzes, interprets, and explains the social, cultural, and material
life of contemporary human societies.
 Society is a group of people who have similar ways of life, but culture is a
way of life of a group of people.

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  Indigenous anthropology or ‘anthropology at home has also emerged as more
and more anthropologists have begun doing fieldwork in their own societies.
 Socio-cultural anthropologists engage in two aspects of the study:
Ethnography (based on fieldwork) and Ethnology (based on cross-cultural
comparison).
Ethnography
- Provides a comprehensive account of a particular community, society, or culture.
- It describes the features of specific cultures in as much detail as possible
- Resulted from extensive field studies (usually a year or two, in duration) in which the
anthropologist observes, talks to, and lives with the people he or she studies.
- The anthropologists (ethnographers) present the account in the form of a book, article,
or film.
Ethnology
- It is the comparative study of contemporary cultures and societies
- It examines, interprets, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnographic data
gathered in different societies.
- It uses such data to compare and generalize about society and culture.
- Ethnologists seek to understand both why people today and in the recent past differ in
terms of ideas and behavior patterns and what all cultures in the world have in
common with one another.
- Ethnologists attempt to identify and explain cultural differences and similarities, to
build theories to enhance our understanding of how social and cultural systems work.
- Indeed, the primary objective of ethnology is to uncover general cultural principles,
the “rules” that govern human behavior.

Socio-cultural anthropology uses ethnographical and ethnological approaches to answer all

sorts of questions related to culture and human societies.

Ethnography Ethnology
Requires fieldwork to collect data Uses data collected by a series of
researchers
Often descriptive Usually synthesizes ethnographic data
Group/community specific Comparative/cross-cultural

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4. Physical/Biological Anthropology: focuses on the biological aspects of human
beings. There are two major areas of research in physical anthropology: 1) human
evolution, and 2) modern human variation.
Physical anthropology itself is further divided into various specialized fields of study:
paleoanthropology, primatology, etc.
Palaeoanthropology is the study of human biological evolution through the analysis
of fossil remains from prehistoric times.
Primatology: The study of the biology and behavior of primates, that is, the animals
that most closely resemble human beings in terms of a physiological and anatomical
structure.
Primatologists observe primates such as gorillas, chimpanzees, gibbons, and
orangutans in their natural habitats to ascertain the similarities and differences
between these other primates and humans.

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 Unit Three
Human Culture and Ties that Connect Society

Definition of Culture
- Anthropologists and sociologists define culture in different ways.
- A widely accepted and more comprehensive definition of culture was provided by the
British anthropologist Edward B. Tylor. He defined culture as “a complex whole
which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities
and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.
- Culture is the common way of life shared by a group of people. It includes all things
beyond nature and biology.

Characteristic Features of Culture

a) Culture is learned

- Culture is not transmitted genetically; rather it is acquired through the process of

learning or interacting with one’s environment.
- The process of acquiring culture after we are born is called enculturation.
- Enculturation is specifically defined as the process by which an individual learns the
rules and values of one’s culture.

b) Culture is shared

- For a thing, idea, or behavior pattern to qualify as being “cultural” it must have a
shared meaning by at least two people within a society.
- For a society to operate effectively, the guidelines must be shared by its members.
- Without shared culture members of a society would be unable to communicate and
cooperate hence confusion and disorder would result.

c) Culture is symbolic

- A symbol is something verbal or nonverbal, within a particular language or culture

that comes to stand for something else.
- There would be no obvious, natural, or necessary connection between the symbol and
what it symbolizes.

d) Culture is all-encompassing

- Culture encompasses all aspects, which affect people in their everyday lives.

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 - Culture comprises countless material and non-material aspects of human lives.
e) Culture is integrated
- Cultures are not haphazard collections of customs and beliefs. Instead, culture should
be thought as of integrated wholes, the parts of which, to some degree, are
interconnected with one another.
- When we view cultures as integrated systems, we can begin to see how particular
cultural traits fit into the whole system and, consequently, how they tend to make
sense within that context.

f) Culture can be adaptive and maladaptive

- Humans have both biological and cultural ways of coping with environmental
stresses.
- Besides our biological means of adaptation, we also use "cultural adaptive kits,"
which contain customary activities and tools that help us in managing everyday lives.
- Sometimes, adaptive behavior that offers short-term benefits to subgroups or
individuals may harm the environment and threaten the group's long-term survival.
g) Culture is dynamic
- There are no cultures that remain completely static year after year.
- Culture is changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as time
passes modifying or changing the old ways. This is the characteristic of the culture
that stems from the culture’s cumulative quality.

Aspects/Elements of Culture

Two of the most basic aspects of culture are material and nonmaterial culture.

Material culture

- Material culture consists of human-made objects such as tools, implements, furniture,

automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, bridges, and the physical substance which has
been changed and used by man.
- It is concerned with external, mechanical, and utilitarian objects.

Non – Material Culture

- The term ‘culture’ when used in the ordinary sense, means ‘non-material culture’.
- It is something internal and intrinsically valuable and reflects the inward nature of
man.

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 - Non-material culture consists of the words the people use or the language they speak,
the beliefs they hold, the values and virtues they cherish, the habits they follow, the
rituals and practices that they do, and the ceremonies they observe.
- It also includes our ways of acting, feeling, and thinking. Some of the aspects of non-
material culture are listed as follows:

Values

- Values are the standards by which members of a society define what is good or bad,
beautiful, or ugly.
- Every society develops both values and expectations regarding the right way to reflect
them.
- Values are a central aspect of the non-material culture of a society and are important
because they influence the behavior of the members of society.

Norms

- Norms are shared rules or guidelines that define how people “ought” to behave under
certain circumstances.
- Norms are generally connected to the values, beliefs, and ideologies of society.

Norms vary in terms of their importance to culture, these are:

a) Folkways: Norms guiding ordinary usages and conventions of everyday life are
known as folkways.

- Folkways are norms that are not strictly enforced, such as not leaving your
seat for elderly people inside a bus/taxi. They may result in a person getting a
bad look.

b) Mores: Mores (pronounced MOR-ays) are much stronger norms than folkways.

- Mores are norms that are believed to be essential to core values and we insist
on conformity. A person who steals, rapes, and kills have violated some of
society’s most important mores.
- People who violate mores are usually severely punished, although punishment
for the violation of mores varies from society to society.

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Cultural Unity and Variations: Universality, Generality, and Particularity of Culture

- In studying human diversity in time and space, anthropologists distinguish between

the universal, the generalized, and the particular.

1) Universality

- Universals are cultural traits that span across all cultures

- Biological universals: a long period of infant dependency; year-round sexuality; a
complex brain that enables to use symbols, languages, tools, etc.
- Social universals: life in groups, family, food sharing, incest taboos, etc.
- The most universal form of incest taboo involves mating between members of the
immediate (nuclear) family: mother-sons, father-daughters, and brother-sisters.
- The institution of marriage, religious rituals, and property rights are all cultural
universals. The existence of art, dancing, bodily adornments, joking, and rules of
hygiene.
2) Generalities: are cultural traits that occur in many societies but not all of them.

- Societies can share the same beliefs and customs because of borrowing, domination
(colonial rule) e.g., farming, nuclear family, monogamy, strict control over women’s
virginity, etc.

3) Localized Cultures: Trait of a culture that is not widespread.

- Cultural particulars include the specific practices that distinguish cultures from one
another.
- These are cultural traditions that are unique to only a few societies.
- For example, the practice of attaching a circular piece of pottery material by incising
the lower edges of the lip among Mursi women, the practice of going naked among
some peoples in southwest Ethiopia, etc. could be localized cultures.

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 Evaluating Cultural Differences: Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism, and Human
Rights

The concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism occupy a key position in anthropology.

Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism

The tendency to see the culture of one's own Cultural relativism suspends judgment and
group as the only right way of living and to views about the behavior of people from
judge others by those standards. the perspective of their own culture.
Our group is the center or axis of everything, No culture is better or worse; we are just
and we scale and rate all others with different
reference to it
Ethnocentrism is not characteristic only of A culture has to be studied in terms of its
complex modern societies. People in small, own meanings and values.
relatively isolated societies are also
ethnocentric in their views about outsiders.
It is a cultural universal.
Cultural relativism is the idea that each
Ethnocentrism results in prejudices about
culture is unique and distinctive, but that
people from other cultures. IT prevents us
no one culture is superior.
from understanding and appreciating another
culture.

The positive aspect of ethnocentrism has to

do with the protection that it can provide for
a culture. Acts as a conservative force in
preserving traditions of one's own culture.

Culture Change

- Any anthropological account of the culture of any society is a snapshot view of one
particular time.

Culture change can occur because of the following Mechanisms:

- Diffusion: occurs when cultural elements are borrowed from another society and
incorporated into the culture of the recipient group.

 The spread of a certain material culture or non-material culture trait created in

a certain society diffuses to other societies through contact, war, trade, etc.

- Acculturation: is the exchange of cultural features when groups have continuous

firsthand contact.

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  Happens in situations of trade or colonialism. In continuous contact, cultures
exchange and blend foods, recipes, music, dances, clothing, tools, and
technologies.

- Invention- the process by which humans innovate, creatively finding solutions to

problems.
- Globalization includes diffusion and acculturation, working to promote change in a
world in which nations and people are increasingly interlinked and mutually
dependent.

 Emigrants transmit information and resources transnationally, as they maintain

their ties with home (phoning, faxing, emailing, making visits, and sending
money). In a sense, such people live multi-locally in different places and
cultures at once. They learn to play various social roles and to change behavior
and identity depending on the situation.

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 Unit Four

Marginalized, Minorities, and Vulnerable Groups

Definition of concepts

What is marginalization?
- Treatment of a person/social group as minor, insignificant, or peripheral.
- Involves the exclusion of certain groups from social interactions, marriage relations,
sharing food and drinks, and working and living together.
Who are mostly marginalized?
 Women, children, older people, and people with disabilities; Religious, ethnic, and
racial minorities.
 Crafts workers (tanners, potters, and ironsmiths) are marginalized in Ethiopia.

What is vulnerability?

 Refers to the state of being exposed to physical or emotional injuries.

 Vulnerable groups: are people exposed to possibilities of attack, harm, or
mistreatment.

Minority groups

 refer to a small group of people within a community, region, or country

 minority groups can be ethnic, religious, or racial in a given community, region or
country

Gender-based marginalization is related to gender inequality which involves discrimination

based on gender. The manifestations of gender inequality varied from culture to culture.

 Involves the exclusion of girls and women from a range of opportunities and social
services.
 Women and girls are also vulnerable to gender-based violence such as rape, child
marriage, abduction/forced marriage, domestic violence, and female genital
cutting/mutilation.
 There are customary practices that affect the health and well-being of girls and
women. These practices collectively are called harmful traditional practices (HTPs).

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 Marginalized occupational groups

 The most marginalized occupational groups are tanners, potters, weavers, and
ironsmiths.
 Craft workers such as potters and tanners are considered impure and excluded from
social interactions, ownership of economic resources (e.g., land), and participation in
associations and celebrations.

Type of Manifestations of marginalization

marginalization

Spatial - Craft workers settle/live on the outskirts of villages, near forests, on poor land, and
marginalization around steep slopes.
- They are segregated at marketplaces (they sell their goods on the outskirts of
markets).

Economic - Craft workers are excluded from certain economic activities including production
marginalization and exchanges. In some cultures, they are not allowed to cultivate crops.
- They have limited access to land and land ownership.

Social - Craft workers are excluded from intermarriage, they do not share burial places
marginalization with others; they are excluded from membership of associations such as iddirs.
- When marginalized groups are allowed to participate in social events, they must sit
on the floor separately-sometimes outside the house or near the door.

Cultural Cultural marginalization is manifested in negative stereotyping such as the

marginalization following:
- Occupational minorities are labeled as impure and polluting; they are accused of
eating animals that have died without being slaughtered.
- Occupational minorities are also considered unreliable, lacking morality, respect,
and shame.

Age-based vulnerability
 Refers to the susceptibility of people (children and older people) to different forms of
attack, physical injuries, and emotional harm.

Children: Discrimination and vulnerability

- Children are among vulnerable groups exposed to harm because of their age.

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 - Younger girls are exposed to double marginalization and discrimination because of
their gender.
Child marriage: involves girls below the age of 18 and has the following harmful
consequences:
- Young girls enter marital relationships when they are too young to give their consent
to get married.
- Inhibits girls' personal development; hinders girls’ chance to education
- Exposes young girls to sexual abuse by their older husbands.
- Leads to early pregnancies increasing risks of diseases and complications during
delivery.
Factors encouraging child marriage:
Social Norms
 Social norms contribute a lot to the continuation of child marriage in many parts of
the world. Chastity of girls is one of the social norms that influence parents and
relatives to protect girls from pre-marital sex.
 Premarital sex and pregnancy expose the girl and her family to social exclusion
 The value attached to virginity. A girl’s reputation and family social status are
associated with the sexual purity of girls.
 Community members influence unmarried teenage girls to get married as early as
possible.
Economic Issues
 In many areas of Ethiopia marriage provides economic security for young girls.
Marginalization of older persons
 The phrase ‘older persons’ refers to adults aged 60 and above.
 According to the UN (2009), older people will increase to 2 billion by 2050.
Ageism refers to stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against people based on age.
 Older persons are marginalized because they are considered social burdens

Religious and Ethnic minorities

 The Jewish people suffered from discrimination and persecution in Germany and
other Western European countries
 Muslim Rohingyas are among the most marginalized and persecuted people in the
world.

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Human right approaches and inclusiveness: Anthropological perspectives

- All forms of marginalization and discrimination contradict the principles of human

rights.
- The major human rights conventions denounce discrimination against women,
children, people with disability, older people and other minority and vulnerable
groups.
- People with disabilities have the right to inclusive services and equal opportunities.
- Anthropology appreciates cultural diversity and commonality.
- Cultural relativism is one of the guiding principles in social anthropology.
- Anthropology also avoids value judgments such as saying, ‘this custom is backward
or primitive’. This does not mean that we need to appreciate every custom and
practice.
- Anthropologists do not support/appreciate customary practices that violate the rights
and well-being of individuals and groups.

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 Unit Five

Inter-Ethnic Relations, Identity, and Multiculturalism in Ethiopia

Ethnic Groups and Ethnic Identity

Ethnic Group

 Max Weber (1978): defined an ‘ethnic group’ as formed based on belief in common
descent and shared by its members, it extends beyond kinship and political solidarity
in relation to other groups. It is represented by common customs, language, religion,
values, morality, and etiquette.
 Ethnic groups constitute an identity as defined by outsiders who do not belong to the
group and the “insiders” who belong to the same group.
 Fredrick Barth (1969a) displaces 'culture' from the front stage of ethnic studies and
argues that the focus of research ought to be the boundaries that delimit the group and
not the ‘cultural stuff’ it encloses.
 According to Barth, cultural difference per se does not create ethnic collectivities. It is
the social contact with others that leads to the definition and categorization of an ‘us’
and ‘them’
 Barth’s work has transformed the study of ethnic differences from the study of
cultural contents (language, religion, and customs) to the study of the interaction
processes.
 Barth’s research established a foundation for understanding ethnicity in universalist
rather than particularist terms.
 The difference is created, developed, and maintained only through interaction with
others (i.e., Frenchness is created and becomes culturally and politically meaningful
only through the encounter with Englishness, Germaness, Danishness, etc.).

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  For ethnicity to come about, the groups must have a minimum of contact between
them, and they must entertain ideas of each other as being culturally different from
themselves. If these conditions are not fulfilled, there is no ethnicity, for ethnicity is
essentially an aspect of a relationship, not a property of a group.

Considering various definitions provided to define ethnicity, Hutchinson and Smith’s

(1996) identified six main features that the definition of an ethnic group consists of.

- A common proper name.

- A myth of common ancestry.
- Shared historical memories.
- One or more elements of common culture.
- A link with a homeland (specific territory)
- A sense of solidarity

Theories of Ethnicity: Primordialism, Instrumentalism and Social Constructivism

The Primordial Model of Ethnicity

 Ethnicity is fixed at birth. Ethnic identification is based on deep, ‘primordial’

attachments to a group or culture
 Ethnicity and ethnic attachment are “natural and innate”, which would never change
over time, and it is “ancient and perennial”
 Ethnicity is something given, ascribed at birth, fixed and permanent
 At birth, a person “becomes” a member of a particular group. One’s ethnicity is thus
“fixed” and an unchangeable part of one’s identity.
 Ethnic identity is assigned at birth, inherent in human nature, and passed on
genealogically from generation to generation.

Instrumentalist (Situational) Theory of Ethnicity

- Ethnicity is based on people’s “historical” and “symbolic” memory, is something

created, used, and exploited by leaders and others in the pragmatic pursuit of their
own interests.
- View ethnicity as situationally defined depending on rational calculations of
advantage
- Leaders (political elites) use and manipulate perceptions of ethnic identity to further
their own ends and stay in power.

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 - Ethnicity is created in the dynamics of elite competition within the boundaries
determined by political and economic realities.
- “Placed [a] greater emphasis on the ethnic group as a collectively organized strategy
for the protection of economic and political interests”.
- Taken to its extreme this would suggest that the ethnic group should be regarded not
as a community at all but as a rational and purposive association.
Constructivist Theory of Ethnicity
- Ethnic identity is not something people “possess” but something they “construct” in
specific social and historical contexts to further their own interests.
- It argues individual agents could construct their ethnic group and identity drawing on
subjective features.
- Ethnicity is constructed and that ethnic identities are not singular, nor are they fixed
- Ethnic identity has to be conceived of as a process, affected by history as well as
contemporary circumstances, and by local as well as global dynamics.
- Construction does not take place out of the blue. It depends on historical, social, and
the presence of ethnic raw materials to be utilized.

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 Unit Six

Customary and Local Governance Systems and Peace Making

Indigenous and local governance

- Indigenous systems of governance have been used to maintain social order across
Ethiopia.
- The role of indigenous governance was indispensable before the advent of the modern
state system.
- Understanding indigenous systems of governance help us to know our cultures and
enhance intercultural understanding.

The Oromo Gadaa

- The Gadaa is an indigenous system of governance, conflict resolution, and

peacemaking.
- It is ‘an age grading institution of the Oromo that has a complex system of
administration, law-making, and dispute settlement’.
- Gadaa is widely mentioned as an egalitarian (democratic) system of governance.
- In the Gadaa system, political power is transferred from one generation set (Luuba) to
another every eight years.
- Gadaa officials such as the Abba Gadaa and Abba Seera (father of law) serve for eight
years and leave their position to the new generation of Gadaa officials.
- The Gadaa system involves a continuous process of law-making and revision and the
law-making process has room for wider participation of the people.
- For example, Gumi gaayo, a law-making assembly of the Borana Oromo. It is held
every eight years to revise, adapt, make, and publicize the customary law (seera) and
custom (aadaa) of the Oromo.

The Gedeo Baalle

- Baalle is an indigenous system of governance of the Gedeo of southern Ethiopia

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 - The Baalle and the Gadaa system of the Oromo have a grading system and exercise
periodic transfer of power every eight years.
- The customary law of the Gedeo is called Seera. The Ya’a, the general assembly, is
the highest body of the Gedeo indigenous system of governance.
- The Baalle is a complex system that has three administrative hierarchies: Abba Gada,
Roga (traditional leader next to the Abba Gada), and two levels of the council of
elders known as Hulla Hayyicha and Songo Hayyicha.
- The Gedeo system of governance has the following major institutions: the ya’a
(general assembly), the Seera (customary law), the Abba Gada, and the council of
elders.
- The Abba Gada is the leader of the Baalle.
- The Baalle system has a body of laws called Seera.
- Conflicts are resolved by the Songo hayyicha at the village level. When disputes are
not settled at the village level, cases can be referred first to the Hulla Hayyicha and
finally to the Abba Gada.

Intra-ethnic conflict resolution institutions

- Societies have devised different institutions and mechanisms to control, manage and
resolve conflicts to maintain peace and social order.

- Peoples across Ethiopian regions have indigenous institutions and mechanisms of

conflict resolution and peacemaking (customary dispute resolution mechanisms;
traditional mechanisms of conflict resolution; grassroots justice systems; and
customary justice institutions)

Common aspects of indigenous justice systems

- High involvement of elders at different stages of the conflict resolution process.

- Preference and respect for elders known for their qualities including experience in
dispute resolution; knowledge of customary laws, procedures, norms, and values
of the society; impartiality, respect for rules and people; the ability to listen and
speak politely; honesty and tolerance.
- Focus on restoring social relationships, harmony, and peaceful coexistence.

However, Indigenous justice systems also have differences in terms of hierarchies,

procedures, and levels of complexity.

Components of Customary Justice Institutions

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 1. Customary Law
- Refers to a body of rules, norms, and a set of moral values that serve as a
wider framework for human conduct and social interactions. The Sera of the
Sidama, the dere woga of the Gamo, the Seera Aadaa of the Oromo; Ye Siltie
Serra of the Siltie, Gordena Sera of Kestane Gurage are examples of
customary laws.
- In most cases, customary laws are available orally. Some customary laws are
published in recent years (the Sebat Bet Gurage published their customary law
named Kitcha; Kistane/Sodo Gurage has a written version of customary law
known as Gordena Shengo).
2. Council of Elders
- Comprises highly respected and well-experienced community members who
have detailed knowledge of the customary laws.
- Members of the elder’s council are also known for their personal qualities
such as truthfulness and experience in settling conflicts.
- Elders often serve their communities voluntarily without any payment.
- The institution of the council of elders has different names for various ethnic
groups: Yehager Shimagile (Amhara), Jaarsa Biyyaa (Oromo), Baliqenet
(Siltie), Hayyicha (Gedeo), Guurtii (Somali), Dere Cima (Gamo), Deira
Cimma (Wolayita), and Cimuma (Burji).
3. Customary Courts/Assemblies
- Refers to public assemblies that serve two major purposes:

o hearing, discussing, and settling disputes, and

o revising, adapting, and making laws.

- For instance, among the Siltie people, the customary courts are called Raga System
while the Gamo uses the term Dubusha to refer to customary courts.

- The customary justice system of the Gamo people of Southern Ethiopia has the
following branches: 1) Dere Woga, customary laws, 2) Dere Cima, the council of
elders, and 3) Dubusha, customary courts or assemblies.

Strengths and limitations of customary justice systems/institutions

Strengths of customary justice institutions

- Incur limited cost in terms of time and resources/money

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 - Conflict resolution processes are held in public spaces in the community
- Decisions are easily enforced through community-based sanctions
- Restore community cohesion, social relations, collective spirit, and social solidarity
- Rely on respect for elders, forgiveness, and transferring compensations, embedded in
indigenous beliefs

Limitations of customary justice institutions

- Indigenous justice institutions are dominated by men (the council of elders is not open
to elderly women). Women are excluded from participation at customary courts and
assemblies with a few exceptions.
- Their potential in resolving inter-ethnic conflicts and restoring peace is very limited.

Inter-ethnic conflict resolution institutions

There are some examples of inter-ethnic conflict resolution institutions in some parts of
Ethiopia.

- Abbo Gereb is the indigenous institution that addresses inter-ethnic conflicts in Rayya
and Wajirat district, Southern Tigray.
- Abbo Gereb, literally means the father of the river Gerewo. Abbo Gereb serves to
settle disputes between Tigray and lowland Afar.
- When conflict arises between parties from two ethnic groups, notable elders from
Tigray and Afar come together to resolve the dispute and restore peaceful relations.
- Most of the elders involved in inter-ethnic conflict resolutions are bilingual: speaking
Tigrigna and Afar.
- There are also inter-ethnic conflict resolution mechanisms when conflicts arise
between Afar, Issa, Tigrayans, and Argobba.
- The mechanisms of inter-ethnic disputes have different names (Xinto among the Afar,
Edible among the Issa, Gereb among the Tigrayans, and Aboroge among the
Amhara.).

Legal pluralism: interrelations between customary, religious, and state legal systems

- Legal pluralism refers to the existence of two or more legal or justice systems in a
given society or country.
- It is the co-existence of multiple legal systems working side-by-side in the same
society.

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- Multiple legal institutions, including customary laws and courts, state laws and courts,
and religious laws and courts (e.g., the Sharia Law) work side-by-side in most parts of
the country.
- The 1995 Constitution of the FDRE also grants specific rights to ethnic groups, which
ultimately involves the recognition of indigenous legal systems.
- The Constitution provides some spaces for religious and customary laws and courts to
address personal and family cases.
- Legal pluralism is a pervasive phenomenon in Ethiopia because a single legal system
cannot address all legal cases and maintain peace and order.

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