GAZI UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMANT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CHE364 ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

TERM PROJECT

STUDENT NUMBER STUDENT NAME AND SURNAME

191142043 Hafize Tuğçe ÖNAL
201142006 Gökalp DİLMEN
201142039 Efsane YAYLI
201142055 Yasemin KARADAĞ

Associate: Assoc. Prof. Saffettin Ferda MUTLU

Assistant:

ANKARA/2022
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION

Geothermal energy is energy stored below earth’s surface. The word geothermal is derived from
the Greek words geo (earth) and thermos (heat) and combining these two meanings yields “earth
heat”. Geothermal energy is the thermal energy in the Earth's crust which originates from the
formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials in currently uncertain but
possibly roughly equal proportions. It is heat that is generated within the Earth.

Geothermal energy is a new, renewable, sustainable, inexhaustible, cheap, reliable,

environmentally friendly, domestic, and green energy type. Geothermal reservoirs, formed by
rain, snow, sea and magmatic waters feeding the underground porous and cracked rock masses,
maintain their renewable and sustainable features as long as the underground and reinjection
conditions continue. They are not affected by short-term atmospheric conditions.

Most of the Earth’s geothermal energy does not bubble out as magma, water, or steam. It
remains in the mantle, emanating outward at a slow pace and collecting as pockets of high heat.
This dry geothermal heat can be accessed by drilling and enhanced with injected water to create
steam. However, in drilling productions from geothermal reservoirs, it is obligatory to send the
geothermal fluid back underground (reinjection) after its function is completed, in order not to
discharge the geothermal fluid to the environment and to feed the reservoir. Reinjection has been
made compulsory by law in many countries.

1.1. Histroy of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy has been in existence for billions of years. However, history says that
geothermal energy has been in use for about 10,000 years, starting with the Paleo-Indians who
used the hot springs and natural pools for cooking, bathing, and warmth. According
to Britannica, the world’s first district heating system was installed at Chaudes-Aigues, France in
the 14th century, but it was not until the late 19th century that other cities and industries realized
the economic potential of geothermal resources.

1.2. Areas of Usage

The first industrial use of geothermal energy began near Pisa, Italy in the late 18th century.
Steam coming from natural vents (and from drilled holes) was used to extract boric acid from the
hot pools that are now known as the Larderello fields.
The first residences to receive geothermal heat were in Warm Springs Avenue in Boise, Idaho in
1892 and the first geothermal electric power generation took place in Larderello Italy in 1904 by
Italian scientist Piero Ginori Conti.
It also offers that the American and Italian plants were dry steam facilities, where low-
permeability reservoirs produced only steam. However, New Zealand was able to produce 80%
superheated water and 20% steam due to their high-temperature and high-pressure water, which
emerges naturally. The geothermal power plants in New Zealand were commissioned in 1958
and the Geysers in northern California were commissioned in 1960. The steam from the ground
generates power right away and is sent to the power plants through pipes. In contrast, the
superheated water from the ground is separated from the mixture and flashed into steam. Most
geothermal plants at present are of this latter “wet steam” type.
It was in the 20th century that geothermal energy was first harnessed on a large scale for space
heating, industry, and electricity generation. Direct application of geothermal energy can involve
a wide variety of end uses, such as space heating and cooling, industry, greenhouses, fish
farming, and health spas. It uses mostly existing technology and straight forward engineering.
The technology, reliability, economics, and environmental acceptability of direct use of
geothermal energy has been demonstrated throughout the world. The main types of direct use
(Lung & Freeston, 2001) are bathing/swimming/balneology (42%), space heating (35%, thereof
12% with geothermal heat pumps), greenhouses (9%), fish farming (6%), and industry (6%).

With geothermal resources:

 electric energy generation,
 central heating, cooling (air-conditioning), greenhouse heating etc.
 industrial use, process heat supply, drying etc.
 chemical substance and mineral production, carbon dioxide, fertilizer, lithium, heavy
water, hydrogen etc.
 use for spa purpose (thermal tourism)
 culture fishing at low temperatures (30 °c) etc.
 use by drinking as mineral water
being realized.

1.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy has some disadvantages and advantages. Some examples of advantages
include:
 Geothermal energy is more environmentally friendly than conventional fuel sources such
as coal and other fossil fuels. In addition, the carbon footprint of a geothermal power
plant is low. While there is some pollution associated with geothermal energy, this is
relatively minimal when compared to fossil fuel.
 Geothermal energy is a source of renewable energy that will last until the Earth is
destroyed by the sun in around 5 billion years. The hot reservoirs within the Earth are
naturally replenished, making it both renewable and sustainable.
 Geothermal provides a reliable source of energy as compared to other renewable
resources such as wind and solar power. [It has been proven to be extremely reliable
since geothermal energy does not carry any risk factors in use (explosion, fire, poisoning,
etc.)]
 Energy generated from this resource is easy to calculate since it does not fluctuate in the
same way as other energy sources, such as solar and wind. This means we can predict the
power output from a geothermal plant with a high degree of accuracy.
 Independent of meteorological conditions (independent of wind, rain, sun etc.)

Some examples of the disadvantages of geothermal energy are as follows:

  The largest single disadvantage of geothermal energy is that it is location specific.
Geothermal plants need to be built in places where the energy is accessible, which means
that some areas are not able to exploit this resource. Of course, this is not a problem if
you live in a place where geothermal energy is readily accessible, such as Iceland.
 Although geothermal energy does not typically release greenhouse gases, there are many
of these gases stored under the Earth’s surface which are released into the atmosphere
during digging. While these gases are also released into the atmosphere naturally, the rate
increases near geothermal plants. However, these gas emissions are still far lower than
those associated with fossil fuels.
 Geothermal energy also runs the risk of triggering earthquakes. This is due to alterations
in the Earth’s structure as a result of digging. This problem is more prevalent with
enhanced geothermal power plants, which force water into the Earth’s crust to open up
fissures to greater exploitation of the resource. However, since most geothermal plants
are away from population centers, the implications of these earthquakes are relatively
minor.
 Geothermal energy is an expensive resource to tap into, with price tags ranging from
around $2-$7 million for a plant with a 1-megawatt capacity. However, where the upfront
costs are high, the outlay can be recouped as part of a long-term investment.
 In order to maintain the sustainability of geothermal energy fluid needs to be pumped
back into the underground reservoirs faster than it is depleted. This means that
geothermal energy needs to be properly managed to maintain its sustainability.

1.4. Future of the Geothermal Energy

There are many views on the future of geothermal energy. Geothermal energy will be an
essential part of the future energy mix it can provide baseload power when the wind is not
blowing, or the sun is not shining. Developing a balanced mix of these renewables will ensure
energy security.

Geothermal power is often considered the third or fourth most important source of renewable
energy, behind solar, wind, and hydro. Right now, it accounts for just a small portion of the
world's power capacity, in 2010 it accounted for just around 10,709.7 MW of installed capacity,
but analysts expect geothermal plants to begin proliferating around the globe at a rapid clip.
The reason that geothermal is expected to play an important role in the future is that we're getting
better and better at doing this: we're now drilling geothermal wells with increasing efficiency,
allowing more energy to be captured in each plant.

Geothermal is also getting cheaper, as the technology improves. According to the Union of
Concerned Scientists, since 1980, the cost of operating geothermal power plants has declined by
as much as 50%. In some markets, buying power from geothermal plants will soon be as cheap
as it is from its much dirtier fossil fuel counterparts.

With mandated renewable energy targets in many locales and the Net Zero campaign — a
commitment by many countries to decarbonize their economies by 2050 — interest in
geothermal energy is growing rapidly. Many experts see it as an essential component of the
world’s green-energy future because it could provide carbon-free heat and around-the-clock
baseload power to compensate for the intermittency of wind and solar. Iceland, which sits on an
active geological fault line, perfected the technology with its ubiquitous geothermal district
heating systems. And China is embracing the move to geothermal power, currently developing
more geothermal district heating systems than any other nation.
“Geothermal electricity is always on,” said Tester. “It can provide fully dispatchable power or
heat and is scalable in the same way other renewables are.”

In a recent report, the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) predicted the output of
geothermal in Europe could increase eight-fold by 2050. And a 2019 U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) report — GeoVision: Harnessing the Heat Beneath Our Feet — refers to the “enormous
untapped potential for geothermal.” By overcoming technical and financial barriers, the report
says, generating electricity through geothermal methods could increase 26-fold by 2050,
providing 8.5 percent of the United States’ electricity, as well as direct heat.
2. Geothermal energy Utilization in Turkey
In Turkey, around 600 geothermal prospects and 170 geothermal fields with a temperature range
of 40–242 °C have been discovered. The total proven geothermal electricity generation capacity
is 200 MWe, while the direct use capacity is 2046 MWt. This proven potential increases by 5%
annually with new exploration and drilling activities. The estimated geothermal power and direct
use potential are reported as 4500 MWe and 31,500 MWt, respectively. The potential for
geothermal development in Turkey is generally considered large in terms of moderate and low
temperature resources (<150 ° C ) Therefore, the resources are mostly suitable for direct use
applications.[1,2]
In the following, GE utilization in Turkey is studied in two categories, namely, electricity
generation and direct uses. Direct or non-electric utilization of GE refers to the immediate use of
the heat energy rather than to its conversion to some other form, such as electrical energy.

2.1. Electricity Generation

About 95% of the 170 geothermal fields in Turkey are low-medium enthalpy fields, which are
suitable for direct use applications. Among the remaining nine fields, Denizli–Kizildere (200–242
°C), Aydin-Germencik (232 °C), Canakkale-Tuzla (174 °C), Aydin-Salavatli (171 °C), Kutahya-
Simav (162 °C), Manisa-Salihli (150 °C) and Izmir-Seferihisar (153 °C) are high enthalpy field,
which are suitable for electrical energy production. [3,4,5] The locations of the nine geothermal
fields are illustrated in Fig. 1, while the four fields of highest temperature are summarized
below.

Figure 1: Map indicating Turkey’s geothermal fields suitable for power generation.

2.1.1. The Denizli–Kizildere Geothermal Field

The only operating geothermal power plant of Turkey is the Denizli–Kizildere geothermal power
plant (DKGPP), located near Denizli City in Western Anatolia with an installed capacity of 20.4
MWe. The total capacity of the field is estimated to be 200 MWe. Studies of the geology,
geophysics (gravity, resistivity, seismicity) and geochemistry and gradient drilling were carried
out between 1965 and 1968. To date, a total of 20 deep wells varying in depth from 370 to 1241
m have been drilled, while the encountered temperatures were in the range of 170–212 °C [6].
The most significant characteristic of the field is the high amount of noncondensable gases (2.5%
in the reservoir, 5% by volume of steam, 10–21% by weight of steam and average 13% by
weight of steam at the turbine inlet), with a CO2 content of 96–99%, H2S content of 100–200
ppm and NH3 content of 72 ppm. A liquid CO2 and dry ice production process with a capacity of
40,000 tons/year was built adjacent to the field in 1986. The capacity of the process was
increased to 120,000 tons/year in 1999. Besides electricity and dry ice production, the resources
of the field have also been used for greenhouse heating and space heating of offices and staff
houses of the plant.

The electricity generation of the Denizli–Kizildere geothermal power plant between 1984 and
2001 is illustrated in Fig. 2. As can be seen in this figure, the plant produced on average an
electrical energy of 84,920 MW h in the period between 1984 and 2002, representing an average
electric power of 10.45 MWe in the same period.

Cerci has evaluated the performance of the Denizli–Kizildere geothermal power plant by using
energy and exergy analysis [7]. The second law efficiency of the plant was found to be 20.8%,
while the largest exergy destruction occurred from brine discharge to the Menderes River after
flashing processes in the separators. It accounted for 46.9% of the total exergy input. He also
concluded that a considerable amount of the exergy loss could be saved by implementing one of
the two alternatives described in his study.

Figure 2: Electricity generation of the Denizli–Kizildere power plant between 1984 and 2001

2.1.2. The Aydin-Germencik Geothermal Field

This Aydin-Germencik geothermal field, which is the second economical geothermal field for
generating electricity, was discovered by the MTA. This field, where geothermal studies started
in 1967, is located in the west of Buyuk Menderes Graben about 40 km from the Aegean Sea. To
date, a total of nine exploration wells have been drilled varying in depths from 285 to 2398 m.
The temperatures of the first and second aquifers were in the range of 203–214 and 216–232 °C,
respectively [8]. The field capacity is estimated to be 100 MWe. The first stage of the field
development is planned to build a 25 MWe single flash plus binary power plant [9].
X.1.3. The Canakkale-Tuzla Geothermal Field
The third field with power generation potential is the Canakkale-Tuzla field in northwest
Anatolia. The first well was drilled in 1982, and the temperature encountered was 174 °C in a
reservoir at a depth of 333–553 m in volcanic rocks. A second well was drilled to 1020 m.
Temperatures up to 174 °C were recorded, but the permeability was low. Another two shallow
wells with depths of 81 and 128 m also produced fluid at 146 and 165 °C [10].

2.1.4. The Aydin-Salavatli Geothermal Field

This field is placed close to the central part of the Buyuk Menderes graben and at the same
distance from the Denizli–Kizildere and Aydin-Germencik geothermal fields. Exploration wells
with depths of 1510 and 962 m were drilled in 1987 and 1988, and their reservoir temperatures
were 162 and 171 °C, respectively. It was planned to build a 5 MWe binary or Kalina cycle plant
in the field, but this has not been realized yet [11].

2.2. Direct Use

Turkey is among the five leading countries in its geothermal direct use applications [12]. Turkey
has significant potential for geothermal power production, possessing one-eighth of the world’s
total geothermal potential. Much of this potential is of relatively low enthalpy that is not suitable
for electricity production but is still useful for direct heating applications [13]. Direct use of
geothermal resources has expanded rapidly in the last 36 years from space heating of single
buildings to district heating, greenhouse heating, industrial usage, modern balneology and
physical treatment facilities. Before the 1960s, geothermal resources were only used
spontaneously in bathing and medical treatment in Turkey. The first space heating application by
GE was in a hotel in Gonen-Balikesir in 1964. The first district heating system was built again in
Gonen in 1987 with a capacity of 16.2 MWt. Since then, direct use applications have
significantly increased, as illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1: Development of direct use (excluding spas) installed capacity in Turkey

2.2.1. Space Heating

The total number of geothermal space heating systems is 37 [14]. Of this, largescale, city-based
geothermal district heating systems (LCGDHSs) account for 10. In the country, the district
heating system applications were started with LCGDHSs. In this regard, city-based geothermal
district heating applications can be categorized into two groups, namely,
(a) low temperature applications and
(b) high temperature applications.
 There is one low temperature large-scale city heating application installed in Kirsehir, while
high temperature applications are more numerous [15]. Table 2 shows a list of the city-based
geothermal district heating systems installed in Turkey.

Table 2: City based geothermal district heating systems installed in Turkey

2.2.2. Heat Pumps

Ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs), also known as geothermal heat pumps (GHPs), are an
attractive alternative to conventional heating and cooling systems owing to their higher energy
utilization efficiency [16]. Lund and Freeston [17,18] have reported that GSHPs have had the
largest growth since 1995, almost 59%, representing 9.7% annually. Most of this growth
occurred in the US and Europe, though interest is developing in other countries such as Japan
and Turkey. The installed capacity is 6875 MWt, and the annual energy use was 23,287 TJ/year
(6453 GW h/year) at the beginning of 2000 in 27 countries. It is estimated that the actual number
of installed units is around 500,000, while the equivalent number of 12 kW units installed is
slightly over 570,000. However, the data are incomplete. The 12 kW equivalent units installed
are used as typical of homes in the US and some western European countries [19]. The studies
performed on GSHPs in Turkey can be divided into three groups: (a) heat pump industry,
(b) university studies,
(c) standardization studies.

The utilization of GSHPs in residential buildings is new in Turkey, although they have been in
use for years in developed countries, and the performance of the components is well
documented. In other words, GSHPs have been in the Turkish market since 1998. There are no
Turkish GSHP manufactures yet. High-income earners also prefer these systems. To date, 207
units have been installed in the country, representing a total capacity of 3 MW. The majority of
the installations are in the Marmara region of Turkey, with 140 units in the province of Istanbul
[20]. Considering the ongoing installations, it appears that the growth rate will increase in the
following years [21]. In the Turkish universities, limited experimental studies have been
performed on GSHPs [22]. To date, four experimental systems have been installed, as illustrated
in Table 3 . Fourteen standards were also issued on heat pumps by the Turkish Standards
Institution (TSE), of which only two pertained to water-to-water type heat pumps [23].

Table 3: Main characteristics of GSHPs installed at Turkish universities as of December 2003

2.2.3. Greenhouses
Greenhouse heating by GE is gaining more and more importance in Turkey. Over the last years,
the strategical importance of food production and agricultural policies have stimulated a wide
range of research and investigations on new methods for the exploitation of available GE for
greenhouse heating in the country [24]. The total area of greenhouses heated by GE is estimated
to be about 36 ha, with a total heating capacity of 81 MWt for an average heat load of 2.25
MWt/ha, as shown in Table 4 [25]. The majority of the geothermal heated greenhouses are in the
Aegean region of Turkey. The growth rate of the geothermal greenhouse industry has increased
in the last 3 years due to increases in fuel costs. The potential of new greenhouse development in
the country is very large.

Table 4: Greenhouse heating applications of GE in Turkey

2.2.4. Industrial Use

Although many industrial and process applications of GE exist, the world’s uses are relatively
few. The oldest industrial use is at Lardarello, Italy, where boric acid and other borate
compounds have been extracted from geothermal brine since 1790 [26]. Industrial applications
and agricultural drying uses of GE are few in number in the US [27]. As for the uses in Turkey,
the most well-known application is liquid CO2 and dry ice production, with a plant with a
capacity of 120,000 tons/year operating adjacent to the Denizli–Kizildere geothermal power
plant since 1986. Another industrial use in the region is in the textile industry, using the chemical
properties of geothermal fluid as a whitening material. In Balikesir-Gonen, the wastewater of the
district heating system has been used for the process hot water supply of 54 tanneries. There are
two industrial productions, namely, liquefied carbon dioxide and precipitate calcium carbonate
production, with capacities of 25 and 7000 tons/year, respectively, integrated with the Agri-
Diyadin geothermal system.
2.3. Utilization Opportunities of Geothermal Energy in Turkey

Parallel to the development of GE utilization in Turkey, it is projected that, by the years 2010
and 2020, the total installed capacity will increase to 3500 (500,000 residence equivalents, which
is about 30% of the total residences in the country) and 8300 MWt (1,250,000 residence
equivalents) for space heating and to 500 and 1000 MWe for power production, respectively
[13,17].

To date, all geothermal district heating investments have been carried out by the governorship
and municipalities. However, the private sector has expected to rea- lize these investments as
investors with the governorship and municipalities. Under Turkey’s conditions, the share of the
pipeline network in the geothermal district heating investments is about 70%, followed by
production and reinjection wells at 10%, building adaptation at 10%, heating center at 5%, and
engineering design at 5% [18,34].

Greenhouse heating, balneology, thermal tourism, electricity generation, CO2 and dry ice
production have a significant share of Turkey’s GE utilization. Con- sidering all geothermal
applications in Turkey, a total direct GE utilization capacity of about 820 MW t is obtained.
However, the possible GE potential of Turkey is about 31,500 MWt. The potential of geothermal
district heating systems in Turkey is given in Table 6, where a total of 678 MWt may be utilized.
The cur- rent potential of wells according to their production values drilled for residential uses is
listed in Table 7. Besides this, current geothermal applications and possible utilization
opportunities of some geothermal areas in Turkey are given in Table 8.
v
As can be seen in this table, geofluid temperatures are in the range of 70–94 C, representing
potential for various GE applications such as industrial, district heat- ing, etc. Main geothermal
fields suitable for generating electricity and their possible utilization opportunities are also
shown in Table 9, while capacities of geothermal heating systems in operation are given in
Table 10. It is clear from these tables that most works should be performed to extend GE
utilization throughout the country [72].

Table 5 Geothermal District Heating Potential of Turkey [34]

Table 6 Current Potential of Wells According to Their Production Values Drilled for Residental Uses [34]
Table 7 Current Geothermal Applications and Possible Utilization Opportunities in Turkey [34]

Table 8 Main Geothermal Fields Suitable for Generating Electricity in Turkey and Possible
Utilization Opportunities [33,34,35]
Table 8 (Continued)

Table 9 Capacities of Geothermal Heating Systems in Operation [36]

Table 9 (Continued)
Table 9 (Continued)
3. Conclusion

GE is a clean, proven, and reliable resource for supplying the needs of a sustain- able society
and helping to improve the global environment. At present, Turkey is among the five leading
countries in the world due to its geothermal direct use applications, while it is among the first
seven countries as regards abundance of geothermal resources around the world. The main
conclusions derived from the present study may be summarized as follows:

 Since Turkey is an energy importing country, GE has the potential to play an important role in
the future energy supply of Turkey.

 There is no geothermal law in Turkey as yet. There is, however, a geothermal law sketch. It is
expected that GE development will significantly speed up in the country if this law becomes
effective.

 Although Turkey has no laws for the development of geothermal resources as yet and there is a
lack of governmental support, direct use applications have been growing rapidly and proved by
the public sector.

 GE offers technically and economically feasible possibilities for the develop- ment of different
agricultural production sectors in Turkey.

 In Turkey, governmental investment in the energy sector is far behind the demand. To meet the
fast growing demand, privatization and restructuring studies have started in the energy sector
and the required legislation for private sector and foreign investment are arranged. The
Electricity Market Law was enacted in March 2001 and the transition period was completed in
September 2002. The Electricity Market Regulatory Agency (EMRA) is fully authorized to
regulate the market and license activities. New financing mechanisms are also needed to
promote investment in energy efficiency and renewable energy.

 Up-to-date information on GE utilization in Turkey could not be easily and completely found.
Especially for city-based geothermal district heating systems and greenhouses, there were
some differences between the data given by vari- ous researchers and companies. This means
that, in general, good documented systems for GE should be established in the country.

 It should be underlined that is already confirmed and proven that GE can be commercially
competitive with other energy sources.
 The main uses of GE cover a wide range of applications, such as space heating and domestic hot
water supply, greenhouse heating, swimming and balne- ology, industrial processes, heat
pumps, and electricity generation. Based upon the current status, the majority of geothermal
application in Turkey have been realized in district heating systems.

 Turkey’s geothermal resources are considerable, but they have not yet been systematically
explored. Geothermal wells drilled to date in Turkey, which has 170 geothermal fields, are few
in number. More geothermal wells should be drilled for extending geothermal applications
throughout the country.

 Based on the values for wells drilled, Turkey’s geothermal power production potential is
estimated to be 764.81 MWe.

 The only operating geothermal power plant of Turkey is the Denizli–Kizildere geothermal power
plant with an installed capacity of 20.4 MWe, while the total capacity of the field is estimated to
be 200 MWe.

 In Turkey, there are nine geothermal fields suitable for generating electricity.

 City-based geothermal district heating applications started in 1987 in Turkey. However, to date,
their development has been relatively low.

 Heating by GE is the cheapest compared to conventional heating systems and has thereby
gained wide acceptance among users in Turkey. Besides this, the cooling applications of GE are
very limited in Turkey. Therefore, they should become widespread throughout the country.

 GSHPs are economically preferable to the conventional space heating/cooling systems used in
Turkey. The primary barrier to marketing GSHP systems in Turkey is, however, the incremental
cost of installing ground heat exchangers, which makes the total investment higher. There is
customer resistance to GSHP technology in the country because Turkish heating systems differ
in many respects from the US ones and the first installation cost of GSHPs is relatively high
compared to the other conventional systems.

 The installation of GSHPs in Turkey has been growing rapidly over the past 2 years, reaching a
total installed capacity of 3 MW.

 Industrial applications of GE are few in number in Turkey.

 In the implementation of the geothermal schemes in Turkey, optimization criteria should be
taken into account.

 One of the most important barriers preventing widespread use of renewables is the lack of a
coherent national energy plan in which the role of renewables is well explained, as well as
defining properties among alternatives.

 In the long term, GE will remain a viable option to furnish clean, reliable power in Turkey.

 Geothermal development offers a viable energy alternative to fossil fuel. However, environmental
and social dimensions of geothermal development must be carefully and properly managed.
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