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Conversion of Gasoline Vehicles to CNG Hybrid Vehicles (CNG-Electric Vehicles)

Article in Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology · August 2013
DOI: 10.19026/rjaset.6.3704

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Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology 6(13): 2332-2338, 2013
ISSN: 2040-7459; e-ISSN: 2040-7467
© Maxwell Scientific Organization, 2013
Submitted: November 27,2012 Accepted: March 07, 2013 Published: August 05, 2013

Conversion of Gasoline Vehicles to CNG Hybrid Vehicles (CNG-Electric Vehicles)

1
Hassan Moghbelli and 2Abolfazl Halvaei Niasar
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Arak University of Technology, Arak 38181-41167, Iran
2
Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Kashan, Kashan, Iran

Abstract: The aim of this study is investigation of the feasibility and advantages of using the natural gas as an
alternative to gasoline as a fuel for hybrid electric vehicles. Operating CNG vehicles are really beneficial in the
Middle East region considering the fact that gasoline is offered at a heavily subsidized price and therefore, by
converting a significant portion of the automobiles to run on CNG, the gasoline internal consumption could be
reduced. This in turn will result in more oil being available for export which will be beneficial to the economy of
country. Hybrid Vehicles mainly have a CNG engine along with an electric drive. The batteries of Hybrid Vehicles
are charged by a CNG engine. The engine size is smaller and emissions may be considerably less in hybrid vehicles
relative to typical vehicles since the CNG engine is employed only to recharge the electric batteries. Although CNG-
Electric hybrid vehicles are less common than Diesel-Electric hybrids, but they have been tested in several U.S.
cities such as Denver and Seattle. CNG-electric hybrids hold huge potential for the future in the fact that they are
significantly cleaner sources of energy and are conveniently suited to serve the needs of the current economy and
modes of transportation. The use of these alternative sources of fuels requires investment and significant studies
need to be made to evaluate their efficiencies and reliability. This study would cover most of these aspects and also
explores the use of these technologies with particular reference to Qatar and the Middle East.

Keywords: Compressed natural gas, efficiency, energy consumption, emission, hybrid electric vehicle

INTRODUCTION has been considered as one of the primary alternatives

to petroleum. Natural gas is obtained from three main
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) has emerges as sources: natural gas and condensate wells, oil wells and
one of the cleaner forms of transportation and it has coal bed methane wells. Well extracted methane gas
been proven that the vehicles operating on CNG requires a cleanup process before it can be used in
produce less smog and air pollutants than gasoline- vehicles. CNG for use in vehicles is stored either in
powered counterparts. Dedicated factory-built CNG thick-walled steel aluminum tanks or in fuelling
vehicles are the cleanest internal combustion vehicles locations much like the petrol stations. Natural gas is
available today and are less polluting than conventional produced worldwide and is a much cleaner fuel than
vehicles. The increasing cost of gasoline has seriously diesel and gasoline in terms of particulate emissions
affected the economies of many countries and the and noise pollution. This study investigates the viability
economic capabilities of the people around the world. of using Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as an
Converting the automobiles running on gasoline to alternative fuel to diesel and gasoline. It also describes
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) could provide a better the conversion of gasoline powered vehicles to CNG
alternative by not only using a less expensive fuel powered ones and compares them on the basis of their
compared to gasoline, but also by reducing the efficiencies and pollutants produced over a course of
dependency on oil and meeting the environmental time [http://www.consumerenergycenter.org].
regulations and concerns. Experimental studies conducted by various
CNG is one of the forms in which natural gas is agencies have determined that CNG buses emit about
used for providing energy. It is composed of more than 50% less Nitrogen Oxides (NO x ), 90% less Sulphur
93% methane, 3% ethane and traces of nitrogen, carbon Oxides (SO x ) and about 97% less small particulates
dioxide and alkenes [http://www.tpub.com]. In the last than conventional diesel buses. Many US cities have
few years, the global pressure on the extensive use of natural gas powered buses. Los Angeles, Atlanta,
petroleum as a fuel for vehicles has necessitated the Syracuse, Birmingham, Providence, Fort Worth, San
search for an alternative. CNG compressed to 3100 PSI Diego, among others, have adopted a policy of ONLY

Corresponding Author: Hassan Moghbelli, Department of Electrical Engineering, Arak University of Technology, Arak 38181-
41167, Iran
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 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 6(13): 2332-2338, 2013

Oil price and net oil imports nations all over the world and the domestic household
120 14
of people is also getting affected. From a survey
Net imports conducted by Mark Cooper on “The Impact of Rising
100 12
Price (million of barrels/day)
Prices on Household Gasoline Expenditures” in
Today’s dollars ($)

($/barrel) 10
80 September 2005, some interesting conclusions can be

zFact.com
8 determined. Figure 2 shows the percentage of income
60 spent on gasoline by a lower, middle and upper class
6 household. We can safely conclude that the prices of
40 gasoline are affecting the lower income class the most
4
20
and serve as a great burden on them (Harris, 2000).
2 Examining CNG from the emissions point of view,
0 0 it has the lowest emissions when compared to diesel
and gasoline. Figure 3 shows the carbon dioxide
0

5
0

0
197

197

199

199

200

200
198

198

emissions of vehicles run on CNG and gasoline which

EPA standards clearly indicate that CNG is a much cleaner fuel. With
Global warming, emissions of greenhouse gases such as
Fig. 1: Current oil prices (zFacts, 2011) carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are a matter of
serious concern. From a study carried out by the U.S.
Lower income Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy
12.0 Middle income Laboratory W.S. Wayne and D. Smith, the John Deere
Upper income CNG buses averaged 9.08 g/mi NO x , 0.004 g/mi
10.0 8.9 8.9 10.4 Particulate matter emissions and 2.173g/mi CO2
9.7 emissions compared to 17.9 g/mi NO x , 0.047
Percent of income

9.6
8.0 Particulate matter emissions and 3.159 g/mi CO2
8.2 8.3
emissions from the MY 2004 DDC diesel buses. This
6.0
4.1 4.1 4.4 data clearly suggests the environment friendly aspect of
3.7 3.5 3.8
4.0 3.6 CNG over other forms of fuels (Melendezl, 2005).

2.0 CONVERSION OF DIESEL-ENGINE TO CNG-

1.9 1.8 1.6 1.8 1.9 ENGINE VEHICLES
1.5 1.6
0.0
Natural Gas Vehicles (NGV) use the same
0

4
2
1
9

5
3
200

200
200

200
199

200
200

principle as gasoline powered vehicles. The fuel

mixture of gas and air is introduced in the cylinder of
Fig. 2: Household expenditure on petroleum products the four-stroke engine which is ignited by the spark
(Cooper, 2004) plug moving the piston up and down. However there
are minor modifications which need to be done to
buying natural gas powered buses. It has been estimated convert a gasoline vehicle to CNG powered. The
that about 30% of the buses being built in North flammability and ignition temperatures of a CNG
America are natural gas powered. vehicle are different from gasoline vehicles. The
The Conversion of a gasoline engine to a CNG ignition temperature for a CNG engine is 842 ºF while
engine is really simple and economical and the basic for gasoline engine it is 572 ºF. The conversion of
principle behind this conversion is to deliver a CNG diesel engines to CNG is done by using retrofit systems
and air mixture to the carburetor rather than vaporized or kits available in market. The natural gas engine is
air/gasoline mixture. The cylinders for storing CNG associated with an oxidation catalyst and is termed as
placed either in the trunk of the car or underneath in lean burn natural gas engine. The oxidation catalyst has
case of vans or trucks and these tanks are connected to the feature of reducing the particulate emissions by
the regulator by stainless steel lines. A fuel-air mixer is
about 90% as compared to diesel engines (Dunn, 2003).
then used for producing an air-gas mixture and then
taken to the air intake manifold from where it is The major modification required for a natural gas
introduced for combustion. The engine does not have to engine is the fuel storage space. Unlike gasoline
be modified in any way as it still carries out the same vehicles which have a tank within its body, for NGV’s
basic functions of igniting the fuel and converting the the gas is compressed and stored in high pressure tube
energy of combustion to rotary energy. shaped cylinders placed at the rear end of the vehicle.
The price of gasoline has been rising since the late This reduces the storage space in the car. However, new
1990’s with the current price hovering around 116$/bbl versions of light weight cylinders are being developed
(Fig. 1). This has greatly affected the economies of such as the Integrated Storage Systems (ISSs). These
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 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 6(13): 2332-2338, 2013

Emissions
CNG
Gasoline CO2 Emission (g/mi)
Regulated exhaust emission (g/mi) 219.25
2.0 300
EPA standards 1.595 250
1.5 ULEV LEV 295.7
NMO/NMHC 0.04 0.075 200
NO x 0.20 0.200
1.0 CO 1.70 3.400 150

100
0.5
0.16 50
0.079 0.02 0.065
0.003
0.0 0
NMHC NO x CO CO
2

Fig. 3: Emissions from a natural gas powered versus gasoline vehicle (zFacts, 2011)

have fiberglass shells and impact absorbing foams to pollution control division in Korea, he says that more
reduce damage on account of a car crash. When the than 85% of the pollution in Seoul was from heavy duty
engine in an NGV is started, natural gas flows from the vehicles like trucks and buses. By converting these
storage cylinders into a fuel line. Near the engine, the vehicles to CNG powered ones brings down the
natural gas enters a regulator to reduce the pressure. pollution level drastically. It was found that CNG buses
Then the gas feeds through a multipoint gaseous fuel- emit 70% less ozone forming pollutants and 15% less
injection system, which introduces the fuel into the of carbon dioxide as compared to the conventional
cylinders. Sensors adjust the fuel-air mixture so that CNG buses (Ahn, 2001)
when a spark plug ignites the gas, it burns efficiently. A The groundwork for running CNG buses in Korea
natural-gas engine also includes forged aluminum, was laid in mid-1990’s when the nation had its first
high-compression pistons, hardened nickel-tungsten natural gas pipeline constructed. However, converting
exhaust valve seats and a methane-specific catalytic all the diesel run buses to CNG buses is not an easy
converter (Harris, 2000). task. CNG buses work out to be more expensive than its
In the rear of the vehicle, a semi-trailing arm counterpart. Hence significant measures have to be
suspension sometimes replaces the lateral-link taken by the Government of Korea to initiate this
suspension that comes standard in many gasoline- process of conversion. One step could be setting the
powered cars. This creates more open space in the rear price of CNG lower to that of diesel. This would
undercarriage, yet still provides a smooth, comfortable require heavy initial investment from the Government
ride. NGVs also remove the spare tire and jack, which but would be profitable to Korea in the long term. The
allows for a flat floor plan. "Run-flat" tires, such as theGovernment has also spent considerable amount of
Extended Mobility Tires from Goodyear Tire, are
money on building gas stations for refueling vehicles as
installed to compensate for the fact that the spare tire
well. Another measure taken by the Government to
and jack are missing. Refueling a natural-gas vehicle
promote CNG has been its exemption from Value
may also be a little different. The fueling point is
Added Tax (VAT) and acquisition tax (Ahn, 2001).
typically at the front of the vehicle. An NGV can be
fueled at a "fast-fill" pump in about the same time it The resource allocation to this program from the
takes to fuel any gasoline- or diesel-powered vehicle. Ministry of Energy has also been substantial. About
Alternatively, an NGV can be fueled in five to eight US$ 20 million were allocated to the CNG project.
hours using a "slow-fill" method. The home refueling Another important step taken by the Ministry of Energy
stations offered by Honda are of the slow-fill variety, is increasing public awareness of the environment and
requiring car owners to refuel their vehicles overnight pollution standards in Korea. These efforts on the part
(Harris, 2000). of government of Korea are really beneficial to Qatar as
well. Having the world’s largest natural gas field in
Korean Bus Program: One of the major initiatives to Qatar, namely the North Field, it serves as an excellent
the use of a clean and green fuel was taken by Korea by trade opportunity between the two countries as well as a
launching the Korean CNG bus. Since 1990’s the source of inspiration to Qatar to introduce CNG run
pollution levels in Korea were high. According to a vehicles and reduce their consumption of gasoline and
research carried out by the director of automotive diesel (Ahn, 2001).
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 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 6(13): 2332-2338, 2013

CNG HYBRID VEHICLES

The CNG-electric hybrid is the newest innovation

of improved engine efficiency and use of a clean and
green fuel to propel vehicles. In this kind of vehicle, the
internal combustion engine is associated with an
electric motor. The basic principle of the hybrid vehicle
is to utilize the energy wasted during coasting and
braking in conventional vehicles by converting it to Fig. 4: Parallel hybrid electric configuration (Ranganathan,
2005); Southwest Research Institute
electricity. The energy is stored in a battery until it is
used by the electric motor for accelerating on hilly
slope terrain and low speeds when the internal
combustion engine is least efficient. Unlike all-electric
vehicles, the hybrid ones do not need to be recharged
always as some of the energy required to drive the
motor is stored internally during the braking and
coasting process [http://www.greencarcongress. com/
2008]. This is known as regenerative braking. The
hybrid vehicle systems are of two types: Parallel Hybrid Fig. 5: Series hybrid electric configuration (Ranganathan,
and Series Hybrid. 2005); Southwest Research Institute

Parallel hybrid: In a parallel hybrid bus, the pollution. The San Diego CNG Hybrid Drive System
combustion engine and the electric motor are connected features a Cummins ISB Gas Plus engine, a Siemens
to the transmission independently. The electric motor is 165 kW electrical generator, two Siemens duo
designed to provide power during stop-and-go traffic
inverters, two Siemens 85 kW drive motors and
while at highway speeds the vehicle is powered solely
by the internal combustion engine. During acceleration, Cobasys-developed NiMH batteries. Currently, the
both the electric motor and the combustion engine MTS runs 476 buses of which 75% run on CNG or
power the transmission. In addition, through a process CNG-electric hybrid technology and one of its goals
called regenerative breaking, energy lost due to braking over the next 6 years is to convert its entire fleet of
is recovered and utilized to charge the battery buses to cleaner and greener technology of CNG
(Ranganathan, 2005). The parallel electric hybrid and electric hybrid [https://www.cia.gov/ library/
configuration is shown in Fig. 4. publications].
Series hybrid: A series hybrid bus is exclusively ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
propelled by the electric motor. In a series hybrid bus,
OF CNG VEHICLES
the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is connected to
an electric generator which converts the energy
produced by the ICE into electric power. This There are some of advantages offered by natural
electricity supplies to a motor which turns the wheels of gas vehicles. Natural gas has a very high calorific value
the vehicle. The generator also recharges a battery pack of 50000 kJ/kg second only to hydrogen. Moreover,
which provides supplemental power to the motor. Since Natural Gas vehicles are much safer than gasoline and
the ICE is not connected to the wheels, it can operate at diesel vehicles as the gas is present in thick containers
an optimum rate and can even be switched off for short and the chances of leakage are few. The price of natural
periods of time for a temporary all-electric operation of gas is significantly lower than gasoline and diesel
the bus (Ranganathan, 2005). The series electric hybrid prices. Natural gas is abundant and an underutilized
configuration is shown in Fig. 5. Parallel hybrids have a resource. There are more than 1300 fuel stations in
higher efficiency than series hybrids at constant speeds United States and a well developed pipeline
whereas series hybrids are better off for driving in infrastructure in place for meeting the demand of fuel
traffic. throughout the country. Natural gas prices have been
shown significant stability as compared to oil prices
San Diego CNG hybrid electric bus: The San Diego
which were at an unprecedented high of $145/bbl last
Metropolitan Transit System (MTS) launched its first
CNG- electric hybrid bus on April 10, 2008 which year to a low of about $40 this year. Since natural gas
serves to be much more efficient than a CNG bus in used as fuel is filtered off from sulfur and other
terms of emissions and noise pollution. Though being impurities, it is clean burning and improves the
an expensive venture involving over 1 million dollars, efficiency of the vehicle engine. However, natural gas
the hybrid bus is a new revelation in terms of efficient has a few disadvantages as well. The biggest one being
technology and countering environmental concerns of that a large portion of the trunk space is taken by the

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 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 6(13): 2332-2338, 2013

natural gas cylinders rendering the car less spacious. gas. Different forms of adsorbent/absorbent technology
Also a natural gas vehicle costs more than a has been tried including various organic materials such
conventional gasoline car. Another major drawback is as charcoal, corncobs and even a carbon based form of
that natural gas is a fossil fuel like oil however polyvinyl dine chloride commonly known as Saran
available in plenty (Harris, 2000). developed by Dow Chemicals (Siuru, 2008; Macdonald
and Quinn, 1998) and shown in Fig. 6.
ALTERNATIVE CNG TRANSPORTATION
TECHNOLOGIES HCNG: HCNG vehicles make use of a blend of
hydrogen with natural gas for use in transportation. The
A-CNG or ANG: A-CNG/ANG or absorbed CNG use of hydrogen blended with natural gas is a first step
technology combines the safety aspects of using CNG in a direction towards solely hydrogen powered
with efficient storage and transportation. A-CNG transportation systems in the future. The primary
storage is accomplished by using a porous material to benefit of HCNG over conventional diesel and natural
store the natural gas which adheres to the absorbent gas vehicles is the immediate reductions in the
molecules and is released whenever necessary. By emissions of toxic gases including nitrous oxides into
using the absorbent CNG technology, a larger volume the atmosphere in comparison to CNG alone or in cases
of gas can be stored in a container since it can of diesel or gasoline engines. This could also help in
effectively store a larger volume of gas at a lower large reductions of excess emissions of excess air or re-
pressure. Charcoal is one of the most efficient forms of circulated combustion gases as seen in Fig. 7. In
absorbent materials currently available as it is highly addition, HCNG vehicles can also help pave the way
porous and thereby provides a larger surface area for for the widespread introduction of fuel cell technology
storing a larger volume of natural gas. in the world [http://www.afdc.energy.gov].
The advantages of A-CNG over LNG and CNG are HCNG technology, even though it has a lot of
several. One of the main advantage is that A-CNG can prospects for the future, a lot more research is needed to
be stored at a much lower pressures compared to CNG account for the safety and risk factors associated with
which translate to significant cost savings for the filling the use of Hydrogen gas as a fuel. It has been
stations, efficient use of a vehicles space and lower fuel determined that with a hydrogen composition of about
expenditures for the motorists. A-CNG tanks do not 50%, the leakage, flammability and safety risks are the
occupy considerable amount of a vehicles trunk space same as in case of a tank of CNG [http://www.
and can actually be modeled in any suitable shape to fit metro.net].
a vehicle. A-CNG is compatible with two and three- A lot of companies have started taking interest in
seater vehicles and this could help in expanding this this field and creating a hybrid transportation system
technology to the emerging Asian and African markets. has been a primary target in this fields. The American
This could effectively help in controlling the emerging arm of Doosan Automobiles based in South Korea has
pollution concerns in the developing world and at the already started to lay the groundwork for introducing
same time advocate the effective use of a safer and the HCNG transportation vehicles in the U.S. The
cleaner form for the transportation and use of natural primary findings by the company indicate the cleaner

Fig. 6: Carbon based adsorbents schematic diagram (Siuru, 2008)

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 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 6(13): 2332-2338, 2013

Grams per brake-horsepower-h 4.0 AVL-CNG establishment of refueling stations throughout the
AVL-HCNG country. With the economy booming, the time is right
3.0
for Qatar to undertake this project and step on the
initiative of using cleaner fuels and reduce its carbon
(g/bhp-h)

footprint. As Qatar is in the developing stages of its

2.0 public transport sector, the CNG technology can be
50% experimented in this regard. Moreover, with the shift of
the fuel impetus from petroleum to natural gas would
1.0
give an opportunity to Qatar to export its petroleum and
build on its economy while protecting its environment
0.0 from harmful toxic fuel emissions.
NO x NMHC NO x + CH THC CO
4
NMHC
CONCLUSION

Fig. 7: Comparison of emissions of conventional CNG and The technical aspects of conversion of diesel and
HCNG vehicles [http://www.metro.net]
gasoline engines to CNG vehicles have been discussed.
Examples such as those of Korean bus program and
1600 Production CNG-electric hybrid technology have been illustrated to
1400 build on the argument of using natural gas as an
alternative fuel to petroleum. In specific interest to
Billion cubic Feet

1200
Qatar, the use of CNG engines has great advantages.
1000 CNG is not only a cleaner and greener fuel, but it is
Het exports
800 also available in plenty in Qatar and its production is
nearly two and a half times its current consumption.
600
Qatar is in its development phase in terms of public
400 transportation infrastructure and the use of CNG
Consumption
200 technology from the very beginning would set high
0
standards and show commitment towards the global
fight of global warming. CNG hybrid vehicles are much
95

03
97

00

04
1

2
99

5
96

98

more efficient with less air and noise pollution that

200

200

200
19

20
20

20
19

19
19

19

Year would help energy saving and global warming.

The Hybrid technologies discussed here have been
implemented in some parts of the world and have been
Fig. 8: Qatar’s natural gas production and consumption
(Ranganathan, 2005) successfully tested in many countries. Implementing
and accepting of these technologies require time and
and more efficient aspect of HCNG over the capital and Qatar is situated in a potential in the future
conventional CNG technologies [http://www. Cleanv as it combines alternate forms of cleaner transportation
ehicleexpo.com]. along with the conventional unique position to do this.
Abundant reserves of natural gas and a strong and
CNG AS VEHICLE FUEL-BENEFITS TO QATAR vibrant economy trade positions Qatar to be an ideal
candidate to implement alternate forms of
Qatar’s location in the North Field region serves to transportation.
its advantage as it contains massive reserves of natural Hybrid technologies in CNG transportation hold
gas. The proven natural gas reserves of Qatar have been significant fossil fuel based transportation systems. The
estimated to be around 910.5 trillion cubic feet as of slow migration from a society depending solely on
January 1 2007 and it has the third largest reserves of hydrocarbons to cleaner and more sustainable forms of
natural gas in the world. According to the CIA fact energy requires intermediate steps and hybrid
book, the natural gas production and consumption have technologies are steps in that direction. Implementation
been estimated to be 43.93 billion cu m and 17.93 of hybrid technologies including HCNG would
billion cu m respectively. This indicates that Qatar has eventually pave the way for alternate forms of energy in
the resources to use natural gas for fuelling vehicles the future.
(Ranganathan, 2005). Figure 8 indicates the wide Finally, investing in a CNG transportation system
disparity in the production and consumption of natural and converting vehicles to CNG is a positive step
gas in Qatar. towards reducing the green-house gas emissions
The conversion of conventional vehicles to CNG considering the current worldwide policies regarding
vehicles is however not easy. It involves huge Global Warming? CNG-powered vehicles and hybrid
investments in the purchase of conversion kits and vehicles can contribute significantly to reduce the
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 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 6(13): 2332-2338, 2013

global emission of green-house gases including carbon http:// www. cleanvehicleexpo. com/ presentations/
dioxide. 081014 Tuesday/ Kwangsup_ Hwang_
presentation_EXPO_2008.pdf, Doosan HCNG
NOMENCLATURE Engines, Doosan Infracore Engine America
Division.
CNG : Compressed Natural Gas http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/transportation/af
ANG : Absorbed CNG vs/cng.html, “Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as a
EPA : Environmental Protection Agency Transportable Fuel”, California Energy
EIA : Energy Information Administration Commission.
ISB : Isothermal Saturated Boundary http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/04/san-diego-
NOx : Nitrous Oxides launc.html, San Diego Launches CNG Hybrid-
PM : Particulate Matter Electric Bus.
Sox : Sulphur Oxides http://www. metro. net/ projects_ programs/atvc/
cu m : Cubic meters 1108%20HCNG%20TECHNOLOGY.pdf, Mixed
g/mi : Grams/mile Hydrogen/ Natural Gas (HCNG) Technology -Visit
psi : Pounds per square inch to Collier Technologies, ARIELI Associates,
$/bbl : Dollars/barrel Report No. 1108.
http://www. tpub. com/ content/ altfuels 02/297 1/2971
0013.htm, “CNG composition”, Integrated
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