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9 ABS57310.1177/0002764212466239American Behavioral ScientistArnold and Bongiovi

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Article
American Behavioral Scientist

Precarious, Informalizing, 57(3) 289­–308

© 2013 SAGE Publications
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DOI: 10.1177/0002764212466239
Transforming Concepts http://abs.sagepub.com

and Understandings

Dennis Arnold1 and Joseph R. Bongiovi2

Abstract
There is a considerable body of academic and activist research that studies the
prevalence of precariousness in contemporary societies. It goes by many names that
are often interchangeable, including precarious work, precarity, informalization, and
casualization. These are typically rooted in emerging theories of labor and work
that temporally correspond to the globalization of production, distribution, and
consumption in the neoliberal era. This article examines new ways of looking at
the global economic system as a whole while focusing on the diverse experiences
associated with precarious work. We address prominent social movements and
scholarly responses to changes in work and life, including transforming politics and
policy initiatives.

Keywords
precarious work, informal employment, flexibilization, informalization, casualization,
contractualization

A striking trend in global labor studies over the past two to three decades is the broad
array of terms and definitions used for different labor “types” or categories. Terms in
academic, activist, and other literature include precarious work or employment, pre-
carity, informalization, casualization, contractualization, flexibilization, nonstandard,
irregular, and contingent employment among others. Whereas some of these terms are

1
Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
2
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Corresponding Author:
Dennis Arnold, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, Netherlands
Email: [email protected]

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290 American Behavioral Scientist 57(3)

descriptive, others are rooted in emerging theories of labor and work that temporally
correspond to the globalization of production, distribution, and consumption in the
neoliberal era. These processes and work practices have affected both less developed
and advanced industrialized countries. Yet meanings vary and shift significantly from
one national or subnational context to the next. Indeed, there is no singular experience
with precarious work, the term most commonly used in this special issue (see Kalleberg
& Hewison, 2013 [this issue]). Rather, there is a differential vulnerability based on
education, age, family responsibility, occupation, industry, welfare, and labor market
protections (Bacchetta, Ekkehard, & Bustamante, 2009). Furthermore, vulnerability
arising from precarious work is context specific and segmented by gender, race, eth-
nicity, citizenship status, and religion (Arnold & Aung, 2011). Accordingly, rather
than forward rigid analytical contours, this article engages different meanings and uses
of these terms and concepts in select literature.
Global scale transitions and transformations shape the increasing precariousness of
work. Globalization has been associated with increased social and economic instabil-
ity and crises (Harvey, 2010). Income inequality has grown substantially, as the
wealthier have become richer and those with lower incomes poorer, while the middle
sectors have remained relatively unchanged (International Labour Organization [ILO],
2005). Economic insecurity and inequality are strongly related, whereas economic
security is only weakly related to economic growth (ILO, 2005). Rapid GDP growth
has not led to reductions in vulnerable employment. Policy makers’ and development
organizations’ preoccupation with growth has numerous impacts for workers, in par-
ticular as they relate to the perceived need for greater flexibility (Kalleberg & Hewison,
2013). Since the 1980s, countries with relatively high levels of so-called formal labor
and socioeconomic development have reverted to precarious work (Kalleberg, 2009,
2011; Vosko, Zukewich, & Cranford, 2003). In developing and less developed coun-
tries, the picture is even bleaker. Wage labor and “working class exploitation” is
increasingly a privilege rather than a curse (Burawoy, 2010), and a growing array of
unremunerated activities are becoming essential to retain jobs, and even to ensure
basic survival (Bernstein, 2007).
The growing power and reach of global capital has exceeded the ability of nations
and labor movements to regulate it, exacerbating inequality and precarious work.
Numerous labor trends have been associated with neoliberal globalization, including
a decline in attachment to employers, an increase in long-term unemployment,
growth in perceived and real job insecurity, increasing nonstandard and contingent
work, risk shifting from employers to employees, a lack of workplace safety, and an
increase in work-based stress and harassment. The lack of public and private invest-
ment in skills and development is accompanied by a lack of access to schooling,
where women and ethnic and racial minorities disproportionally bear the brunt of
these disadvantages (ILO, 2005; Kalleberg, 2009, 2011; Standing, 2008; Vosko,
MacDonald, & Campbell, 2009).
These trends are not entirely new, and follow previous patterns. Capital is con-
tinually in search of spatial, technological, and product fixes, but with each phase of
improvement the intensity of capital investment and productivity requirements

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Arnold and Bongiovi 291

increases (Harvey, 2003; Silver, 2003). Not only have supply chains stretched across
national boundaries to cover greater geographic scope, lead times have become shorter
to respond to oscillations in consumer demand (Gereffi, 2005). As the geographies of
production continue to expand, the process is often reproduced with tighter margins
that provide lower remuneration for workers (Silver, 2003). One result is the increas-
ing difficulty for workers and their families to manage and maintain the social repro-
duction of labor (Arnold & Pickles, 2011; Lee, 2007). On the one hand, precarious
work is a response to competitive pressures from capital. On the other, capital’s
increased global mobility and need for flexibility is a reaction to the wave of struggles
and strength of labor in the industrialized countries in the 1960s and 1970s (Castells &
Portes, 1989; Hardt & Negri, 2001; Harvey, 2005; Silver, 2003). The saturation of
markets, along with the high levels of competition that introduced the process of
global outsourcing, obligated firms to develop techniques and technologies to enhance
or create mobility and flexibility, which also created new barriers to labor organizing
(Precarias a la Deriva, 2006). These processes have diminished workers’ bargaining
power and rights across different countries and contexts (Silver, 2003), and at the same
time generated new forms of struggle (Casas-Cortés, 2009; Hardt & Negri, 2001).
One of the most noticeable implications for labor is the rapidly diminishing trade
union density since the end of the 1970s. According to the ILO (2005), higher union
density is associated with more equality. The representational gap, or absence, is a
critical factor in global insecurity and inequality (ILO, 2005; Standing, 2008).
However, theorists and social movements have long recognized the central role that
trade unions have played in co-opting workers interests. Italian theorist Mario Tronti
(1966, p. 13) noted “the platform of demands that the trade union puts forward is
already controlled by those on whom it is supposed to be imposed: by the bosses who
are supposed to ‘take it or leave it.’” This suggests that trade unions are not a panacea.
On the other hand, a defining element of workers’ vulnerability is power relations in
favor of capital (Chang, 2009). Thus, the lack of workplace and social representation
is a central element producing, reordering, and perpetuating social, economic, and
political disparity, as well as marginalization and vulnerability. As later sections of
this article demonstrate, these issues are critical to both understand, and ultimately
eliminate, precarious work.
The remainder of the article is organized as follows. We first review the informal
economy and employment in that sector, as well as its ambiguous relationship with
both development and the formal economy. We then discuss flexibilization, informal-
ization, casualization, and contractualization of the formal economy. In the last two
sections, we discuss both precarity and precarious work, which are related but distinct
concepts.

Informal Economy Employment

Initially the term “informal sector” was based on the distinction between wage
employment and self-employment. “Informal economy,” on the other hand, covers
both the informal sector and the different forms of informal employment found in

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292 American Behavioral Scientist 57(3)

both the informal and formal sectors (Cling et al., 2010). According to the latest ILO
definition, informal employment is understood to include all remunerative work, both
self-employment and wage employment, not recognized, regulated, or protected by
existing legal or regulatory frameworks, as well as nonremunerative work undertaken
in an income-producing enterprise. However, definitions vary considerably by coun-
try, resulting in national statistics that make comparisons difficult (Arnold & Aung, 2011).
In sum, the new definition of the informal economy

focuses on the nature of employment in addition to the characteristics of enter-

prises. It also includes informal employment both within and outside agricul-
ture. . . . Under this new definition, the informal economy is comprised of all
forms of “informal employment”—that is, employment without labour or social
protection—both inside and outside informal enterprises, including both self-
employment in small unregistered enterprises and wage employment in unpro-
tected job. (Chen, 2007, p. 2)

Although the informal economy is by definition very difficult to measure, the past
decade has seen considerable advances in statistical analysis of the size of the informal
economy. By all estimates, the informal economy is formidable, and its implications
for questions of workers’ rights are reemerging at the center of labor agendas and
research. Bernstein (2007, p. 5) collects two key statements to this effect:

According to the CIA’s World Factbook of 2002, “By the late 1990s a stagger-
ing one billion workers representing one-third of the world’s labour force, most
of them in the South, were either unemployed or underemployed.” I take the
quotation from Mike Davis, who restates it in his own way: “(T)he global infor-
mal working class . . . is about one billion strong, making it the fastest-growing,
and most unprecedented, social class on earth” (Davis 2006, p. 199, 178).

A wide variety of opinions and approaches characterize research and writing on

informal economy employment. The ILO “discovered” the informal sector while
studying urban labor markets in Africa in the early 1970s and ascertained that it was
growing side by side with the formal economy (Centeno & Portes, 2003). Since then
a number of different approaches have been advanced with respect to engaging the
informal economy. Hart’s (1973) ILO study postulated a dualist approach character-
ized by the informal-formal economy binary. In addition to the dualist view that has
held sway in many studies of the informal economy, as discussed below, three other
main approaches to informal employment have been consistently identified in the lit-
erature (Bacchetta et al., 2009; Chen, 2007; Cling et al., 2010). The structuralist view
held that informal and formal sectors were linked through global production and sup-
ply chains, where small and informal businesses supply large and more formal busi-
nesses. The legalist, or orthodox, view argued that the informal sector was a vital and
necessary part of the economy. It is a site of entrepreneurial activity, in some cases a

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Arnold and Bongiovi 293

reaction to stifling bureaucracy and/or the growing power of organized labor. More
recently, an integrated approach has developed, combining elements of all three of
these other approaches (Bacchetta et al., 2009; Chen, 2007; Fields, 2005). This view
holds that different sectors and segments exist in various combinations, in accordance
with the different realities and conditions of countries and regions. A consequence of
this unifying view is that the debate among certain scholars and institutions has shifted
towards an assessment of the relative size of the different segments and the factors that
influence them (Bacchetta et al., 2009).
Though clearly refined since Hart’s early study, the ILO and other international and
multilateral organizations continue to employ a binary understanding of the informal
and formal economies. It was particularly prominent when support for Western-led
approaches to economic development, or the “Washington Consensus,” was strong.
Like many other issues seen as “problems” by the World Bank and other actors, the
informal economy has been diagnosed as an attribute of underdevelopment, to be
absorbed into the formal economy upon more economic development and precise
application of policy responses (Bacchetta et al., 2009; Centeno & Portes, 2003;
Chang, 2008; ILO, 2002). Experiences in the postwar era, particularly in Western
Europe, Japan, and the newly industrializing countries of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong
Kong, and Singapore reinforced this view. However, more recent unprecedented
economic growth in Asia and other regions from the 1980s has not led to similar
outcomes.
Paradoxically, despite its economic and social weight, knowledge of the informal
economy is extremely limited in most developing Asian countries and researchers
have paid little attention to the subject. Cling and colleagues (2010, p. 5), writing on
Vietnam, offer explanations for this situation:

First of all, the concept of what constitutes “informal” is vague with a multitude
of definitions having been put forward by different authors. Secondly, measur-
ing the informal economy is a tricky business since it operates on the fringes of
the economy. Thirdly, the informal economy suffers from a lack of interest on
the part of the authorities as it does not pay (or pays little) taxes and is seen more
as a nuisance (especially in the towns) and a mark of underdevelopment inevi-
tably doomed to extinction by the country’s economic growth.

An explanation for the growth of informal employment in particular, and the

informal economy more generally, is the lack of institutionalized labor protection,
economic expansion without a balanced distribution of wealth and “the forced integra-
tion of the population into capitalist social relations—which involves massive rural-
urban migration—produces an increasing ‘informal sector’” (Chang, 2009, pp. 170–171).
Workers in the informal economy, according to Chang, are fully open to market des-
potism and bullying by public authorities, without institutional protection either from
unions or the state. From another perspective, “formal” working classes employed on
“standard” employment terms are now and always have been the exception to the

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294 American Behavioral Scientist 57(3)

global norm (Arnold & Aung, 2011). For these reasons, “the informal economy should
be viewed not as a marginal or peripheral sector but as a basic component—the base,
if you will—of the total economy” (Chen, 2007, p. 2). In this respect, “peripheral”
geographic locations in the global economy (particularly the developing world), and
“peripheral populations” working in the informal economy are no longer at the fringes
of the global economy, but increasingly at the heart of contemporary shifts and trans-
formations (Arnold & Aung, 2011; Balibar, 2004).
Yet the fundamental problem with the formal-informal approach is that it tells us
what work relations and economies are not, that is, “formal.” For the few who are
“formal,” labor and social protections are increasingly elusive, as we argue in the fol-
lowing sections. Engaging the binary construction risks reinforcing it, thus further
marginalizing vulnerable populations. Furthermore, the informal economy will not
meet “inevitable extinction.” Work in the informal economy is unlikely to be transi-
tioned into employment in the formal economy. Alternate theoretical and empirical
approaches are needed to de-link social and labor protections from “formal” employ-
ment arrangements. It is to these efforts that we turn.

Flexibilization: Informalization,
Casualization, and Contractualization
The Standard Employment Relationship and Flexible Labor
For several decades flexible labor has been a topic of academic research and debate.
Along with nonstandard work and contingent employment,1 it has come to dominate
mainstream debates and thinking on labor, particularly when compared to informal-
ization, casualization, and precarity. Much academic literature approaches these
new forms of work in comparison to the standard employment relationship (SER).
According to Vosko (2010, p. 51), the SER is “a regulatory architecture built upon
employment status (i.e., the bilateral employment relationship), standardized working
time (normal daily, weekly, and annual hours), and continuous employment (perma-
nency).” This is so despite the fact that the SER only existed for a minority of work-
ers, even in industrialized countries, who were typically males and members of
majority racial and ethnic groups (Vosko, 2010). Importantly, the SER and tripartite
labor relations (employer–state–trade union) generally remain the model upon which
labor laws and policies are based, including most newly industrializing countries
(Arnold & Toh, 2010; Chang, 2009; Vosko et al., 2003).
Flexible labor (and the associated shift to flexible specialization) has become a
widespread phenomenon in the 1980s and 1990s in industrialized countries. According
to Ofreneo (2010), labor flexibility is the ability to reduce or increase employment or
wage levels with ease, increase mobility, make more elastic use of skills, and intro-
duce nonconventional work arrangements. In short, labor flexibility, perhaps most
thoroughly measured by the World Bank’s annual Doing Business reports, is employers’
ability to hire or fire workers, or increase or lower their wages according to business

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Arnold and Bongiovi 295

needs and worker performance. However, this type of labor flexibility should be dis-
tinguished from other types, focusing on the transformation of the workers into pro-
ductive, versatile and committed workers through the employers’ investments in skills
and better industrial relations and human resource management practices (Ofreneo,
2010, citing Ashton & Sung, 2002). Economists dub the first type “external labor
market flexibility,” and the latter “internal labor market flexibility” (Ofreneo, 2010).
In sum, labor flexibility has become a central tenet of neoliberal-led structural reforms.
It is deemed necessary to overcome labor market rigidities, boost employment, and
promote development. Yet for many scholars, activists, and workers, flexibilization is
synonymous with lower pay, insecurity, and more regular unemployment.
“Informalization” is a conceptualization of the changing world of work focusing on
the latter interpretation of flexibility.

Informalization
Informalization, as used by two labor scholars, Dae-oup Chang and Guy Standing, is
indicative of the often related but equally different uses of labor terminology and
concepts. Standing’s use reflects the informal economy literature, discussed below,
and Chang’s focus is moving beyond the normative assumptions that formal is good
and informal is bad for workers and labor markets. For Chang (2009, p. 167), “infor-
malisation is a process that imposes a common social form on labouring activities in
both developing and developed countries.” Informalization is one of the most distinct
trends in the global economy that has created the increasingly informal or formless
characteristic of capitalist labor (Chang, 2009). One pathway to this outcome has been
the outsourcing of work previously done within corporations to firms using contract
or casual labor (see below), or to home-based industries and the self-employed.
The defining element of informalizing labor is power relations rather than the regu-
latory framework (Chang, 2009). This has broad implications since enacting new labor
regulations, or making workers “formal” or in an SER, will not improve the lot of
workers if they have no power of enforcement. Thus, the formation of the working
class and any standard form of employment is based on power. As discussed in the
introduction, a result of the neoliberal offensive on labor is that the barriers to the free
movement of capital were removed (Harvey, 2005). These include the social institu-
tions that constituted the traditional working class and formal labor, that is, regulated
labor markets, state provision, and unions (Chang, 2011). As a result, the maximized
mobility of capital requires flexible and disposable labor that can be utilized according
to the needs of capital in constant movement (Chang, 2011). This leads to Chang’s
“paradox of East Asian development,” which is that the quantitative increase of the
traditional working class has been marginal in the rise of East Asia as a workshop of
the world. It is not a working class in the traditional sense but “classes of informal
labor” that compose the informalization of labor (Chang, 2009, 2011; see Figure 1).
Standing (2008) provides a related yet technical approach to informalization (and
other categories, see below). According to Standing (2008, p. 23), informalization has

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296 American Behavioral Scientist 57(3)

A. Labor in the informal sector

Informal self-employed (street vendors, home workers, teleworkers, garbage pickers, shoe
shiners, non-self-subsistence small scale farmers, artisans), informal employees (family
business workers, domestic workers, landless agricultural workers), migrant workers
B. Increasing informal labor of the formal sector: Atypical labor not protected by
regulatory framework.
Contracted workers (including daily workers), agency or dispatched workers, task-based
casual workers, formal self-employed, disguised formal self-employed, migrant workers
C. De-facto informal labor – formal workers in informalizing (or informalized) formal
economy, workers who have no power to enjoy the legal and institutional regulation
and standards to which they are entitled
Contracted workers, agency workers, part-timers, migrant workers, workers in export
processing zones (EPZ), workers in developing countries with none or few democratic trade
unions
A – B: Labor in informal economy: ILO definition
B – C: Informalizing formal economy

Figure 1. Classes of informal labor

Source: Chang (2011).

taken three forms. The first predominates in most developing countries, and is a preoc-
cupation of commentators in Latin America and South Asia. Basically, it consists of
movement of petty production activities in the slums, into low productivity, low-
income livelihoods to achieve survival. This corresponds to definitions of informal
employment identified in the previous section. The second is a response to the growth
of the first, in that it consists of firms informalizing their employment by turning to the
use of subcontractors, outworkers, and the like. The third refers to the use of illegal
forms of labor, to avoid tax and social contributions and to achieve systematic evasion
of regulatory safeguards. All three forms of informalization have spread to industrial-
ized countries in the neoliberal era, and have become institutionalized in the develop-
ing world, both as a result of state policy and, in other cases, the relative absence of
explicit state involvement.

Casualization
For Standing (2008, p. 23), casualization is a key component of broader informaliza-
tion transitions and trends. It refers to a shift from regular, quasi-permanent employ-
ment to the use of workers in short-term employment arrangements. Two distinct
trends are at play: “explicit” and “implicit” casualization. The first, according to
Standing, is the one on which most comment is made, that is, a shift of employees
from regular to casual categories. This is, perhaps, most commonly associated with a
related category, precarious work (see below). The second is more pervasive, refer-
ring to the “gradual weakening of the conditions that characterize regular employment
[the SER], so that regular employment takes on the character of casual, in all but
name” (Standing, 2008, p. 24). This corresponds to Chang’s “de-facto informal labor”
in the figure.2

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Arnold and Bongiovi 297

Standing’s casualization definition reflects Vosko et al.’s (2003), in that it is pri-

marily about replacing regular, full-time workers. They go on to note that the term has
come to include most jobs that tend to offer less security than the SER with respect to
hours, earnings and benefits. Vosko et al. (2003) highlight the relevance of a gender-
based analysis of casualized work (and other categories, see below). For instance, one
result of casualization is that certain groups of men, such as those under 25, recent
immigrants, or visible minorities, are experiencing downward pressure on earnings
and conditions of work as they increasingly take jobs in occupations where women
have traditionally been employed. Women are more likely to be in part time, tempo-
rary, and marginal employment, and therefore even more negatively impacted by these
employment trends than men (Vosko et al., 2003).
These two definitions of casualization are associated with the transition from
Keynesian-oriented full employment to neoliberal-oriented labor market flexibility.
That said, casualization has also deeply impacted developing countries where regular
full-time employment never took root as the norm throughout the labor market. This
is most apparent with the increasing use of fixed duration contracts, commonly known
as contractualization.

Contractualization
Chang (2009) identifies contractualization as one of the key trends facilitating broader
informalization of labor. In the manufacturing sector of most Asian countries, increas-
ing informalization develops through contractualization and agency work (also known
as dispatched work or outsourced work) (Chang, 2009, p. 172). Contractualization
replaces permanent workers with the increasing number of fixed-duration contract
workers. As such, it is a similar process to casualization. Contractualization differs in
that it identifies terms of employment more specifically. For instance, contract work-
ers can be either employed directly by their workplace, or by agencies that dispatch
(outsource) workers to the workplace. Most, if not all, agency workers are employed
on fixed-duration contracts. Although workers are employed on fixed-duration con-
tracts, a contracted employee can end up working for the same employer for a number
of years (Arnold & Toh, 2010; Chang, 2009). However, not all contract workers are
employed through agents or direct short-term contracts. Firms increasingly use indi-
rect forms of employment by affiliating with small subcontract firms, which are de
facto recruitment agencies. These are only a few examples of different forms of con-
tractualization, with a very broad range of different national legislation, loopholes,
and employer tactics utilized in different national contexts and sectors (Ofreneo, 2010).
Chang’s approach to contractualization complements Standing’s (2008) view. For
Standing, contractualization refers to the global trend towards individualized labor
contracts. The motives for this are complex:

The employment relationship is always an incomplete contract, since workers

can always adjust their effort [to] bargain, and there is always a process of
informal renegotiating as an employment relationship unfolds. What individualized

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298 American Behavioral Scientist 57(3)

contracts often attempt to do is to tighten the conditions to minimize the uncer-

tainty for the employer and to maximize the capacity to impose penalties for
abrogation of the terms of the labor agreement. (Standing 2008, p. 25)

Standing finds that this may seem like de-casualization, but in fact it opens the door
to contractualization, with governments and employers dismantling collectively bar-
gained contracts. When collective bargaining mechanisms are dismantled, or where
the scope is reduced, space for individualized contracts opens.
This section has reviewed different concepts associated with contemporary labor
forms. The focus has primarily been changes in the workplace. The following section
broadens the conceptualization and stretches the analytical lens beyond work to its
links with social aspects such as housing, debt, and life itself.

Precariousness
There is a considerable body of academic and activist research that studies the preva-
lence of precariousness in contemporary societies. It goes by many names that are
often interchangeable, such as precarious labor, precarity, the precariat (precarious-
proletariat), and precarious work. This section distinguishes precarity from informal-
izing, contingent, flexible, and other forms of employment described in the previous
section. It then considers recent scholarly approaches to the social and political impli-
cations of precarious work.

Precarity
Precarity, as with informal and contingent labor, has been an organizing tool of social
movements. Conceptually, precarity differs in that it seeks to identify and signify a
new phase of capitalism that is qualitatively different from previous eras, rather than
a return to pre-Fordist capitalism. Precarity is most clearly associated with European
social movements and theorists concerned with identifying a process of “political
subjectification” in which new perspectives can cooperate in the production of a com-
mon ground of struggle (http://thistuesday.org/node/93). It rejects, however, the uni-
fication of social struggle under a dominant “banner” such as the proletariat. Indeed,
a central contribution of precarity conceptualizations is finding new ways of looking
at the system as a whole without ignoring the multitude of movements and individuals
(Sarrantonio, 2008).
Precarity encompasses sociological, political science, geographic, and ethno-
graphic studies, as well as incorporating some of the most innovative theoretical work
being produced in Italy, Spain, and France (Neilson & Rossiter, 2008). Precarious
work/employment is related, but suggests an academic approach to the issue that is an
offspring of industrial relations, sociology of work, and ILO studies on work and eco-
nomic security. All combined, research on this topic has gathered pace, yet academic
work suffers from a time lag. In the case of the debates concerning precarity, however,

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Arnold and Bongiovi 299

the period of this lag roughly coincides with the demise of this concept as a platform
for radical political activity in Europe in the mid-2000s (Neilson & Rossiter, 2008).
In the early to mid-2000s there was a lively intellectual debate surrounding precar-
ity in open access publications and blogs, particularly in Europe. The concept of pre-
carity and its social movement orientations have been developed by theorists emerging
from, or at times engaging, the Italian autonomist tradition as a way to think about
changes in capitalism since the 1970s (Casas-Cortés, 2009; Robinson, 2010). In the
European context, precarity is characterized by precarious labor, in which the avail-
ability and conditions of work are unstable. In its most ambitious formulation, precar-
ity would encompass not only the condition of precarious workers but a more general
existential state, understood at once as a source of “political subjection, of economic
exploitation and of opportunities to be grasped” (Neilson & Rossiter, 2008, p. 52, cit-
ing Lazzarato, 2004). Hence, it is not only the disappearance of stable jobs but also the
questions of housing, debt, welfare provision, and the availability of time for building
effective personal relations that become aspects of precarity (Neilson & Rossiter,
2008, citing Foti, 2004). For these groups, particularly in Italy, Spain, and France,
precarity is used to mobilize people traditionally outside or on the margins of trade
union organizing, most prominently women and immigrants (Casas-Cortés, 2009;
Precarias a la Deriva, 2004; Robinson, 2010). The precarity “movement” in Europe
goes beyond workplace organizing—life itself becomes a central concern (Precarias a
la Deriva, 2006):

We define precarity as the set of material and symbolic conditions that deter-
mine a vital uncertainty with respect to the sustained access to the essential
resources for the full development of the life of a subject. . . . These new and
metamorphic forms of life can get caught by the discourses and technologies of
fear and insecurity that power unfolds as dispositive of control and submission,
or, and this is what we are betting on, that can conceive new individual and col-
lective bodies, willing to edify organizational structures of a new logic of care
that, faced with the priorities of profit, place in the center the needs and desires
of persons, the recuperation of life time and of all its creative potentialities.
(Precarias a la Deriva, 2006)

In terms of social struggle, precarity refers both to the critical analysis of current
trends in the neoliberal economy, as well as the rethinking of heterogeneous class
formations (Casas-Cortés, 2009; see below). Casas-Cortés’s (2009, p. 328) ethno-
graphic study of social movements in Spain finds that precarity is used “both as an
analytical tool and as a strategic point of departure to produce political subjectivities
and re-invent different alliances and ways of struggle.” This is due in large part to the
recognition that work is constantly changing for many, and it makes little sense to
organize around it.
Precarity is often contrasted to the Fordist and Keynesian orders that preceded it.
From this perspective, precarity and precarious work appear as irregular phenomena

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300 American Behavioral Scientist 57(3)

only when set against this norm. Precarity has most prominently been used as an accu-
sation against the reduction or elimination of certain, primarily state backed social
protections common among formerly Keynesian states (Arnold & Aung, 2011). Yet
even among industrialized countries, use of precarity or precarious work is infrequent
or absent. For instance, the term is prominent in debates in France, Italy, and Spain,
playing a minor role in Germany, Canada, Australia, and Japan, and is relatively
absent in the UK, U.S., Ireland, the Netherlands, and Sweden (Vosko et al., 2009).
Flexibilization and casualization, rather than precarity, are the terms more com-
monly used in English (Casas-Cortés, 2009), particularly among labor and social
movements.
Precarity studies in their “traditional” formulation are characterized by innovative
theoretical postulations and radical social movements, along with cross-cutting ana-
lytical tools for understanding the changing contours of work in the global economy.
Not surprisingly, this has found a broader appeal in the academy and among other
analysts. In the process, precarious work, as opposed to a more general social and
existential precarity, is being studied in ways similar to flexible and casual labor. This
is a contentious issue for Europeans and other activists and theoreticians concerned
with the networked and flowing assemblage of a social movement discourse and prac-
tice. The appeal, initially at least, of precarity is that it recognizes the diversity of
social movements and multiple demands, rather than attempts to unify them under a
new social category that seeks to represent diverse perspectives. In this light the fol-
lowing section considers emerging theorizations of precarious work and the
“precariat.”

Precarious Work
The term precarious work presumes focus on a workplace that can be distinguished
from life outside of work. Yet a recent formulation of precarious employment by Leah
Vosko (2010) utilizes many of the same characteristics of precarity discussed in the
previous section, particularly as they relate to social location and social context:

[Precarious employment can be defined as] work for remuneration character-

ized by uncertainty, low income, and limited social benefits and statutory enti-
tlements. Precarious employment is shaped by the relationship between
employment status (i.e. self- or paid employment), form of employment (e.g.
temporary or permanent, part-time or full-time), and dimensions of labor market
insecurity, as well as social context (e.g. occupation, industry, and geography)
and social location (or the interaction between social relations, such as gender,
and legal and political categories, such as citizenship). (Vosko, 2010, p. 2)

Vosko’s (2010) contention is that in select advanced industrialized countries the

SER rests on its exclusions—including, in this era, a historically a male breadwinner/
female caregiver gender contract and national citizenship. The necessary response is

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Arnold and Bongiovi 301

thus to eliminate these margins by embracing a plurality of forms of employment

(beyond the SER), alongside reconfiguring citizenship boundaries and gender rela-
tions and, in the process, identifying new models for labor and social protections.
There is no return to the “glory days” of the SER and the Fordist labor accord (Chang,
2009; Hardt & Negri, 2001; Vosko, 2010).
Guy Standing also utilizes concepts associated with precarity to better understand
and conceptualize the changing contours of work and social labor. Vosko, Standing,
and the ILO have put forth labor market and broader social insecurity as a defining
element in the study of precarious work. Vosko (2010), for instance, identifies four
dimensions of labor market insecurity: degree of certainty of continuing employment,
degree of regulatory effectiveness, control over the labor process, and adequacy of the
income package. This is similar to the ILO’s (2005) typology of work security. As lead
researcher for the ILO’s (2005) report Economic Security for a Better World, Standing
identifies seven forms of work-related security, of which “income security” and
“(voice) representation security” are considered primary.3 Insecurity, as with precarity
studies, is a defining element of Standing’s (2011b) recent work, The Precariat: The
New Dangerous Class.
The term precariat dates back to the 1980s and has been used frequently in France,
Italy, Japan, and other countries. Standing has popularized the term in English with his
book.4 Standing’s (2008, 2011b) primary contribution to studying precarious work is
the introduction of seven categories that serve as an alternative to the traditional work-
ing class-capitalist divide that is ill-equipped to accurately represent the complex lay-
ers of social-labor formations in contemporary global capitalism. Standing’s paradigm
borrows from Marx’s delineation of the bourgeoisie, petite bourgeoisie, proletariat,
and lumpenproletariat (the “outcasts and degenerates” of society and the “dangerous
class,” according to Marx). Each is categorized relative to its location in the globalized
economy and its access to security, either within or outside the “old” state structures.
They form a “socio-economic security continuum” from most to least secure (Standing,
2008, pp. 20–22).
The Elite are “a tiny minority of absurdly rich and high earning people, whose
impact is out of proportion to their number” and are global citizens “detached from
national regulatory and social security systems, not needing or contributing to them,
neither psychologically—not feeling committed to their maintenance—nor politi-
cally.” Proficians are professionals and technicians, often working as consultants or
short-term contractors. Lacking security, but well compensated, they are a commodi-
fied group of casual workers, detached from labor law protection in that they are easily
categorized as providing entrepreneurial services. The Salariat work in public corpo-
rate and corporate bureaucracies and are the least subject to casualization. They have
employment security, but may suffer from job and skill reproduction insecurity.
Because of high incomes and identification with management, employers, the elite,
and proficians, members of the salariat feel detached from the state social protection
system, seeing their future security in terms of private insurance benefits, and earnings
from judicious investment. Core Workers are the old working class, beneficiaries of

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302 American Behavioral Scientist 57(3)

welfare states, and tend to be in full-time, regular, and unionized jobs. They have
never composed a majority in most countries and have been shrinking, reflecting “de-
industrialization,” the dispersion of manufacturing around the world, and the pursuit
of labor market flexibility. They had most forms of labor security, but are increasingly
exposed to income, job, and employment insecurity, through flexible job practices and
weakening of unions, and are also experiencing more re-commodification and casual-
ization than other groups. Flexiworkers are a disparate group comprised of nonregular
workers, including casual workers, outworkers, and agency temps. In the pre-globalization
era, it was presumed this informality would decline as economies developed. Now
they appear to be the future as a growing number are trapped in petty activities in rural
and urban areas, lack entitlement to mainstream statutory protection, and are disenti-
tled to social transfers. The Unemployed have risen and suffer growing labor market
and income insecurity because unemployment benefits have been cut, their duration
has been shortened, and conditions have been tightened. The Detached are a growing
category, cut off from mainstream state benefits, lingering in poverty, anomic,
and threatening those above them in the income spectrum and representing fear
that induces concessions from the near poor, the ultimate tool of inequality and
casualization.
Standing’s typology pushes the conceptualization of precarious work beyond rela-
tion to social security, pension benefits, and other state-backed social protections. At
one end of the continuum, the elite and the proficians have disengaged from the wel-
fare state, presumably by choice, whereas for the salariat and further across the con-
tinuum, state social protections are either in decline or are (and have been) nonexistent.
The implications are many, particularly for the precariat. Standing’s precariat (2011a)

consists of a multitude of insecure people, living bits-and-pieces lives, in and

out of short-term jobs, without a narrative of occupational development, includ-
ing millions of frustrated educated youth who do not like what they see before
them, millions of women abused in oppressive labour, growing numbers of
criminalised tagged for life, millions being categorised as “disabled” and
migrants in their hundreds of millions around the world. They are denizens; they
have a more restricted range of social, cultural, political and economic rights
than citizens around them. (p. 1)

Standing’s rhetoric on the “dangers” associated with the precariat is convincing.

The rise of neo-fascists in Europe and the age-old scapegoating of migrant workers
and immigrants in times of crisis are clearly alarming. Yet whether or not the precariat
is an emerging class is contested. In advanced industrialized countries there is a clear
disintegration of inclusion, or feeling part of the national social collective, and the
organization of work. Yet the class fragmentation Standing identifies has not yet trans-
lated into a sustained response from the working class, the poor, and the marginalized
(Bernstein, 2007; Chang, 2009). Whereas segments of the precariat or “multitude”
may have appeared in recent events in Puerta del Sol, Occupy Wall Street, and the

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Arnold and Bongiovi 303

Seattle WTO protests and the excitement surrounding the World Social Forum in the
early 2000s, sustained and structural challenges to the neoliberal order, particularly
during the global economic crisis, have been limited. This raises the important ques-
tion of what can be done to meet the challenges precarious work generates.
Vosko’s (2010) proposal is centered on “beyond employment”, a vision of labor
and social protection inclusive of all people, regardless of their labor force status, from
birth to death. It aims to enable paid workers to change employment status without a
loss of protection, while not compelling workers to trade precariousness for the capac-
ity to perform tasks essential to social reproduction. Vosko suggests that citizenship
boundaries be recast—extending beyond nation-state, while upholding the fusion of
community membership and territory, leading to a “postnational” membership of
inclusive citizenship. The difficult task is to address poverty and income inequality in
low-income countries, or those prone to migrate to more advanced economies.
Vosko’s institutional approach forms a potentially useful conversation with Kathi
Weeks’s (2011) “postwork” labor politics. Weeks states that in taking work as a given,
it has been depoliticized, or removed from the realm of political critique. Focusing on
the United States, she contends that work-based activism has withered, and along with
it employment is regarded an obligation that contributes to defining others and our-
selves as social and political subjects. A postwork society would allow people to be
productive and creative rather than relentlessly bound to the employment relation.
Weeks notes that we have idealized the work ethic, and work for others, as the primary
means for income distribution. At a time when growing numbers of people are dislo-
cated from this opportunity, Weeks argues that we should not be mobilizing for a
return to the perceived ideal, but rather an autonomous alternative rooted in commu-
nity and social alternatives for income distribution.
In this section we have reviewed prominent scholarly approaches to precarious
work. The increasing detachment of most social classes from the community, nation,
and state leave growing numbers of workers, and those wishing to be workers, increas-
ingly adrift from social bonds and safety nets previously associated with work, par-
ticularly in wealthy countries. The ideals of the welfare state and the SER, that not
long ago replaced traditional social protections associated with families, have been
gradually reduced or eliminated. On the one hand, social precariousness generates fear
of chauvinistic backlashes. On the other hand, the researchers cited in this and the
previous section all recognize, to varying degrees, that the boundaries between life and
work have qualitatively changed in contemporary capitalism. They varyingly suggest
imaginings of possible postwork politics in which social protections are based on
inclusion, rather than the often exclusionary effects of working-class politics for
immigrants, women, and other groups, while re-centering precarious, casual, and
informal workers as a new kind of political subject, rather than an anomaly from the
“standard” employee. Yet a major challenge remains—an overwhelming majority of
writers concerned with precarious work and precarity focus on advanced industrial-
ized countries. Identifying “precarious politics” in developing Asia, assuming it exists,
and theorizing around it is a largely unanswered challenge.

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304 American Behavioral Scientist 57(3)

Conclusion
The literature reviewed in this article focuses on changing and multitudinous labor
forms in the global economy from a variety of perspectives. Much work remains to
be done to understand and theorize this changing landscape. Debate and discussion on
innovative alternatives to hegemonic development and political-economic paradigms
are clearly needed. Recent precariat-led events in the Mediterranean region—the Arab
uprisings and protests in Spain and Greece—show that workers’ vulnerability can
lead to explosive confrontations with state authorities, particularly over perceived
(and real) corruption and disparity. It also shows that workers’ protests in these
instances have moved beyond their “official” trade union representatives, and cross-
class alliances are being formed. Despite the initial success of the movements in the
Arab states to topple entrenched regimes, it appears the prevalence of the informal
economy and precarious work has yet to be addressed (Daley, 2011; Minder, 2011).
Standing (2011b) reminds us that welfare states were built only when the working
class mobilized and, through collective action, demanded relevant policies and institu-
tions. Thus, in North Africa, the Middle East, Southern Europe, and other regions, the
situation points to the need to better understand the role of states in precarious labor
regimes. Importantly, it begs the question whether states are still the relevant institu-
tion to provide social guarantees in a globalized world, and if not, then what is? This
raises important questions for how precarious work is approached, particularly in
developing and least developed countries where the state has provided little if any
social protections. Furthermore, there is a need to better understand the ambitions,
desires and strategies of precarious workers’ efforts in organizing and the broader
implications of social struggle for alternatives to the dominant development
paradigms.

Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the seminar leaders, Arne Kalleberg and Kevin Hewison. We also
acknowledge the support of the Institute of Sociology at Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article: This article is a part of a Sawyer Seminar Program that
received support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

Notes
1. Nonstandard is the widely used term in Canada, whereas contingent is more often used in
the United States (Vosko et al., 2009). The broadest measure of nonstandard employment

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Arnold and Bongiovi 305

used in Canada comprises four situations that differ from the norm of a full-time, full-year,
permanent paid job: part-time employment; temporary employment, including term or con-
tract, seasonal, casual, temporary agency, and all other jobs with a specific pre-determined
end date; own account self-employment (a self-employed person with no paid employees);
and multiple job-holding (two or more concurrent jobs) (Krahn, 1995).
2. Standing (2008, p. 24) continues, “And one must beware of interpreting figures on employ-
ment tenure as evidence that there is limited casualisation. A trend from regular to casual
work status does not necessarily mean that the average duration in employment will decline.
It means that more people are working with insecure employment status.”
3. The seven forms of economic security are (ILO, 2005, p. 14) labor market security or adequate
employment opportunities, through state-guaranteed full employment; employment security, or
protection against arbitrary dismissal, regulations on hiring and firing, and imposition of costs
on employers for failing to adhere to rules; job security, a niche designated as an occupation
or “career,” plus tolerance of demarcation practices, barriers to skill dilution, craft boundaries,
job qualifications, restrictive practices, and craft unions; work security, or protection against
accidents and illness at work, through safety and health regulations, and limits on working
time, unsociable hours, and night work for women; skill reproduction security, or widespread
opportunities to gain and retain skills, through apprenticeships and other forms of employment
training; income security, or protection of income through minimum wage machinery, wage
indexation, comprehensive social security, progressive taxation to reduce inequality and to
supplement those with low incomes; and representation security, or protection of collective
voice in the labor market through independent trade unions and employer associations incor-
porated economically and politically into the state, with the right to strike.
4. It also exists in French (précariat), Italian (precariato), and German (Prekariat).

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Bios
Dennis Arnold is an economic geographer trained in political economy and development stud-
ies. He is Assistant Professor of Globalisation and Development at Maastricht University, the
Netherlands. Dennis currently publishes and teaches on three interrelated areas: labor, migra-
tion and citizenship; global production network analysis; and continental Southeast Asia bor-
derlands. His work has appeared in Antipode, Geography Compass, Journal of Contemporary
Asia, Routledge edited books, and a monograph published by the Human Rights in Asia Book
Series (2007, Mahidol University).

Joseph R. Bongiovi is a graduate student in Sociology at the University of North Carolina at

Chapel Hill where he focuses on organizations and work from an international and comparative
perspective. He had a 20 year career as a global human resources executive with a number of
Fortune 500 companies and served as an officer in the United States Army. He has a Masters
in Industrial and Labor Relations from Cornell University and a Bachelors of Arts with majors
in Government and International Studies and Spanish and an Area Studies Concentration on
Latin American Studies from the University of Notre Dame.

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