Introduction to Propulsion Systems 1.1 Conservation of momentum 1.2 Conservation of Energy and other thermodynamic Relationships 1.3 One-Dimensional Gas Dynamics, 1.4 Heat Transfer 1.5 Standard Atmosphere 1.6 Unit Conversion Introduction to Propulsion Systems Applications: civil aircrafts, military aircrafts, satellites, planetary probes , missiles, Air-breathing propulsion devices: takes oxygen needed for combustion from the atmosphere > Internal combustion engines + Propeller >Turboprop PTurbojet >Turbofan Ramjet Non-air-breathing propul combustion. Rockets oxidizer is stored inside the engine or does not have + Fluid energy is indicated by KE + enthalpy (internal energy + flow energy) + Engines add energy to the fluid to increase enthalpy (using combustion, solar, nuclear, etc.) . Then, this enthalpy is converted to KE through nozzle. + In space applications, sometimes we use special fluid (ionized) that responds to electric or magnetic field. Thus, fluid is accelerated using applied electric or magnetic field (electric or electromagnetic thrusters= Hall thrusters)Introduction to Propulsion Systems * Rockets performance changes with altitude because nozzle performance changes with altitude. When the atmospheric pressure (back pressure) changes, the nozzle exit velocity changes. + Rockets are used as boosters (for launch), as well as for orbit maneuvers, such as station keeping and attitude adjustments (thrusters) t= 9-wein( +!) nd # ue nS) Equations Continuity Momentum, tity, = Thy time rate of change momentum= force ti(Uous — Uin) Energy Isentropic process ‘Stagnation properties Gy ots (One-Dimensional Gas Dynamics Isentropic tables Normal and oblique shock waves Heat transfer Unit conversionIntroduction to Propulsion Systems Applications: civil aircrafts, military aircrafts, satellites, planetary probes , missiles, * Air-breathing propulsion devices: takes oxygen needed for combustion from the atmosphere > Internal combustion engines + Propeller >Turboprop > Turbojet >Turbofan Ramjet + Non-air-breathing propulsion: oxidizer is stored inside the engine or does not have combustion. Rockets + A typical gas-engine achieves the high exit momentum through a sequence of devices that include compressor, combustor, turbine and nozzle. + The ambient air is ingested in gas-turbine engines. The compressor consists of a series of rotating blades, which aerodynamically is a set of airfoils using rotary motion to generate a pressure differential as the air traverses the blade elements. Introduction to Propulsion Systems + The air pressure is increased in the Compressor, and sent into the combustor where the fuel is injected, mixed with the air, and burned. + The air energy (enthalpy) increase is now used in the turbines to convert some of the thermal energy (enthalpy) into shaft power. This shaft power is used to power the compressor, by simply having a common axis between the turbine and the compressor in turbojet engines. + In turbofan engines, the turbine power is used to run both the compressor and the fan. ‘The fan adds enthalpy to the air stream in the fan section. The energy available at the end of the turbine sect ion is converted to air kinetic energy in the nozzle. + The high kinetic energy of the exhaust stream also has high momentum, which is useful in generating thrust. + Ramjets are a much simpler form of turbojet engines, where "ram compression” of incoming stream at supersonic speed s is sufficient to elevate the pressure of the air. Fuel then needs to be injected into this high-pressure air stream and the resulting flame stabilized in the ram jet combustor, for sustained thrust.Introduction to Propulsion Systems ee i ae Re a Turbofan Engine Introduction to Propulsion Systems Rockets carry all the working fluid (both fuel and oxidizers) on board. The main reason for carrying both the fuel and oxidizer is so that rockets can operate in an air-less environment (e.g, underwater or in outer space), but this also means zero incoming momentum. + The use of rocketry dates back to 900 AD in China, where “black powder” was used as crude flame throwers ("fire lance”), grenades, siege weapons and other devices that delivered shock effects against the Mongols in the 10th century. + Black powder consists of charcoal, sulfur and saltpeter (potassium nitrate), and was probably discovered by accident and perfected through trial-and-error. * This technology was quickly adopted by the Mongols, and spread to Europe and other parts of the world. + Rockets using liquid propellants are, in comparison, relatively new technologies, having been developed in the early 1900s. Modern liquid-propellant rockets contain some of the most advanced technologies (Figure 1.5), due to the high operating pressure and temperatures, in addition to the use of cryogenic propellants such as liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. The high operating pressure requires sophisticated pumping devices, while high temperature necessitates advanced combustion control and cooling technologies.Introduction to Propulsion Systems Nozzle and thrust vector conta system launch support A Booster-extomal tank attachment Solid popotan: fing, aft avionics and eway braces ‘imersions ‘40.168 5.46 m) 12.17 870m) Length Olameter 4 Separation motors £22,050 lb thrust each, ‘SRB-oxtornal tank ‘rust attachmant| rogue chute ato gyro assembles (3), ‘separation avons, operational BE sau Sh! fghtinetumentaon recovery Nos tang avionics, and range safety system Figure 14 Solid-propellant rocket engine. Courtesy of US Department of Defence. Introduction to Propulsion Systems Figure 18 Lig propeant soskst engine (space shuttle main engine), Courtesy of NASA. 0Introduction to Propulsion Systems +A large altitude change during a rocket flight requires modified designs for each of the stages. + At launch, the ambient pressure is roughly equal to the sea level atmospheric pressure, while the pressure decreases with increasing altitude. This results in larger pressure thrust; however, at higher altitudes the nozzle exit pressure becomes greater than the ambient pressure and the nozzle operates in an under-expanded mode. This operation is less than ‘optimum, and the gas expansion continues downstream, creating diamond-shaped shock waves. Upper stages are designed with this aspect in mind, where a larger expansion ratio in the nozzle is used. +In addition to the boost, rockets are used for various orbit maneuvers, such as station. keeping and attitude adjustments. Various factors can contribute to deviations from the target orbit. Gravitational forces of the sun and moon, for example, can cause the orbital inclination to change by approximately one degree per year. The velocity increment that needs to be expended to compensate for this drift is roughly 50 m/s. +Other smaller factors that lead to orbit deviations are the elliptical shape of the Earth’s equator and the “solar wind” which is the radiation pressure due to the sun's radiation. Attitude adjustments are performed with a relatively large number of small thrusters, since all three degrees of freedom need to be accessed in addition to start/stop maneuvers. Introduction to Propulsion Systems + For more recent satellites, electric or electromagnetic thrusters with high specific thrust, are used for low propellant mass requirements and therefore longer mission durations. + Arcjets, for example, use an electric arc to superheat propellants such as hydrazine, which nearly doubles the specific impulse. + Acombination of electric and magnetic fields can also be used in so-called Hall thrusters. + Other space propulsion devices include solar sails and nuclear propulsion, stil at the experimental stage.Introduction to Propulsion Systems Conserv: 1n of Momentum time rate of change momentum: ree war 7n(Uan Un) =F) (for steady state) Conservation of Energy ‘The first law, or the conservation of energy states that the time rate of change of energy contained in the control volume (Ecv) equals to the rate of the heat input (Q) minus the power output (W) plus the net flow energy (input-output) for inlet, compressors, turbines, combustors, nozzles total energy of the fluid in the absence of heat transfer and power, the stagnation enthalpy will remain the same during a flow process. Introduction to Propulsion Systems + For a closed system, there is no energy flux into or out of the volume, and the first law can be written in a differential form. Change of internal energy of a closed system = de heat input - work output. Changes in internal energy or enthalpy can be calculated using the specific heats of the fluid. (8) -a-a[leare can) a= (i) oh-n= fgarmgire-ny For ideal gases, p= pkT het py=e+RT dh =de+ RATIntroduction to Propulsion Systems + For isentropic processes, involving ideal gases and constant specific heats, a.) 2. (2) a AF pi Ma + Stagnation properties are defined as the condition reached when the flow decelerates to zero speed, isentropically. Lwagrear oer Introduction to Propulsion Systems ‘One-Dimensional Gas Dynamics In adiabatic flows, the stagnation enthalpy is conserved, + Using ideal gas equation of state, and using the fact that for steady-state one-dimensional {area A=const) flows pU= pMa= pM V7RT 1 Ma aM Papert a) aT Conservation of momentum in one-dimensional flows udu ‘dp — p+ WU; = Pat Ui <—— p= yp | p= put ya=v0we pater > (y= 2)M +2 yy +y Bn 1) Normal shock Relations 2yMj ~ (y ~ 1) (Total enthalpy =const). y+ (= DM + 2M ~ (v0) G+Introduction to Propulsion Systems + For isentropic flows in ducts, the local Mach number is a function of the cross-sectional area. throat area (M" * Star conditions “*” are imaginary conditions that correspond to M: + If the flow is supersonic, it corresponds to sonic conditions when the flow is compressed isentropically + If the flow is subsonic, it corresponds to sonic conditions when the flow is expanded isentropically * This means that we imagine that flow expands or compresses isentropically to reach sonic conditions. + Thus, star conditions (including throat or A*) can be defined for any flow whether in nozzles or any other situation. + If the flow is through nozzle and is isentropic, the star conditions are real and the throat isat : Introduction to Propulsion Systems + Book “Compressible fluid flow” by Patrick H. Oosthuizen and William E. Carscallen + Chapter 1:1, 5, 7,9, 12,14 + Chapter 2:1, 2,3,4 + Chapter 4: 1,3, 18, 24 + Chapter 8:1, 4, 5,6Isentropic Tables APPENDIX B Isentropic Flow Tables for subsonic homo 1om33 0.2868 Yoor30 035087 Yomst Sweet supersonic Tonsi2 036603 tone Leis 10131 o1s27 sae 1s" ane APPENDIX C Normal Shock Tables for 7 = 1.4 a Pb i in 10000000 ‘1.00000 ——.co000 1.00000 1.89293 tor 098082 LowTI3 1.01325, 0.99999 193790 Hoe 096203108529 1.02634 099992 1984 106 09444s—— 114420 1.03931 099975 203245 Toe 0927711913 L.08217 0.99943 208194 blo ogin77 124800 1.06898 99893 215285 Ti2 089636 129680107 og9e21 218513 Tle 08204 134883 L.09027, 099735 22877 Tig 086816140320, L.10287 = 127231099608 2.28872‘Oblique Shock Waves Given M, and flow deflection @: + use oblique shock charts to get shock angle (A) ( use weak solution) + calc normal component of Mach no. M,,=M, sin 8 ‘use M,, in normal shock tables to get Mi, +M, = M,,/ sin (B- 8) Oblique Shock Waves chartHeat Transfer + There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. * Conduction is due to the molecule-to-molecule transfer of thermal energy, and is described by Fourier’s law of conduction Cone = thermal conductivity [W/m)] + The heat is transferred from hot to cold (the temperature gradient is negative) + In solids, conduction occurs due to lattice vibration and movement of energy carriers such a electrons in conductors. The latter is the reason why most good electrical conductors are also good thermal conductors. Introduction to Propulsion Systems + Although heat is also transferred through conduction in fluids, larger amounts of heat can be moved through the motion of the fluid mass itself. This mode of heat transfer is called convection, and is approximated through Newton's law of cooling. A(T ~ Ts) hheat transfer coefficient (W/(m? K)] on “The heat transfer coefficient, h, is expressed through correlations of Nusselt numbers (Nu). TL Nu Nu(Re, Pr; geometry) L is the characteristic length of the object. Dimensional analysis shows that the Nusselt number is a function of the Reynolds number (flow effects), Prandt! number (fluid properties) and flow geometry. For example, for turbulent flow over a flat plate, the average Nusselt number is given by WL _oosnpet!*py'2 Me = 037 Rel + Radiation heat transfer occurs due to photon energy, and is determined by the Planck distribution multiplied by the spectral emissivity, Nu [W/am] 4 Sep) A S00) — t] A. = wavelength (yum) Cy = Qahed = 3.742 x 108 nt ke = 1.439 x 10 wm KIntroduction to Propulsion Systems * The Planck distribution can be integrated over the wavelength range, to yield the Stafan-Boltzmann law. w rat = #AoT* 9 =5.67 x 10* mk * Since surfaces typically both emit and receive radiation energy, and the emissivity and absorptivity are approximately (exactly at spectral, directional level) equal, the net radiation energy can be written as 1g = #0A(Ts, ~ 72) Introduction to Propulsion Systems Standard Atmospheric Air Properties At sea level (zero altitude), the standard atmosphere air properties pressure Trer = 288.15K = 518.7°R = temperature ‘ney = 340.294 = 1116 = speed of sound fbr 1 Rain = 287" = 53.34 0 = specific gas constant K + As the altitude increases from sea level, the atmospheric pressure decreases according to hydrostatics, that is, the weight of the air above. /\ simplified model can also be used to approximate the air pressure. h (t= J soc < te P= Pree Me") for > 11,000 m 22573Pa; Tre xavitational acceleration = 9.80665 mfIntroduction to Propulsion Systems The temperature profile is somewhat more complex, as shown in Figure 1.8. In the ‘troposphere (h=1 to 11000 m), the temperature decreases linearly as a function of altitude. Then the temperature becomes constant at T,»=216.65K in the tropopause. This is the typical region for the long-range cruise altitude, so that change in altitude does not result in any appreciable change in temperature. Absence of temperature gradients also means that there is little air movement in the tropopause. Above the tropopause, the temperature begins to increase, due to the absorption of ultraviolet components of solar radiation by the ozone present in the stratosphere. The temperature again becomes constant at an altitude of approximately 50 km, and this region is called the stratopause. ‘Above the stratopause, the temperature decreases again with increasing altitude in the region termed the mesosphere. At high altitudes above 100 km, the temperature rises ‘again due to rarified, but finite amount of oxygen which absorbs ultraviolet radiation. This region is called the thermosphere. Introduction to Propulsion Systems Temperate 6 gue LAT tempt pile te Er mgr: Cay of NASA osUnit Conversion Introduction to Propulsion Systems ‘Table 12 Convenion factors ‘acceleration Densiy Eoeeey Mace Mesicinpeah Tra =100eme 1 shyg=32.741bm = 145939 kg 1 hot ton = 2000 oe = 907.187 » Introduction to Propulsion Systems ‘Table 1.2 (Continued) Parameter Power Pressure Specific heat Specific volume “Temperature Metric Metrc/imperial 1W= 105 1KW = 1000 W= 1.341 hp hp = 745.7 74 570kW 1 BTUM = 1.055 056 sm 1 on of reftigeration = 200 BTU/min 1Pa=1Nim? 4504 x 10°* psia =0.020 886 10? Pa= 10"? MPa 1 psia = 144 1b? = 6.894 757 kPa 1 atm = 14.696 psia= 2116.2 Ioffe 92 inHg at 30°F 1 inlig = 3387kPa 1 BTUMbm°F=4.1868 kk. 1 BTUMIbmol -R=4.1868ki/kmol -K TkWfeg-*C=0.23 885 BTU fm -*F = (0.23 885 BTUMbm-R 1m’/kg = 16020 /lbm 1 eNom = 0,062 428 mg TR) = 71°F) + 459.67 = 1.871K) TER)= 187°C) + 32 ANCP)= AMR) =1.84NK) Thkg °C = 1ekg-KIntroduction to Propulsion Systems Velocity mis = 3.60 1.46 667 fs 1 eh = 1.609 kh 1 knot = 1.15 155 miso Viscosity, dynamic kgfm-8=1N-sfm?=1Pa-s=10 1 kg/m-s= 2419.1 Ibf/ft-h= 0.020 886, poise Tbf- sit? 1 centipoise = 10"? = 5.8016 x 10°* IF -bv® poise = 0.001 Pas Viscosity, Im’is=10%em"is 10.764 f/s =3.875 x 10° 1h kinematic 1 stoke= 1 ems =10-4 5 10.764 fs Volume 1m’ = 1000 liter (L) =10% em? (cc) 1 m? =6.1024 x 10*in? =35.315 f =266.17 gal (US) 1 fC =0.028 321 m’ = 28.321. 1US gallon = 231 78544 t= 8pt 1 flounce = 29.5735 em" =0.0295 7351. 1 US gallon = 128 fl ounces, Consumption 1 Ibenfhbf = 28.33 mg/N-s I mgN-s=00 352983 lbm/vibt (TSFO) ‘Specific Thrust 9.807N sg IN. skg= 0.1 019 679 tbfbmis Gas constant R 1672mhe-K I mis?-K=5:980861 12/5? -R ‘17 Problems 1.1. What is the operating principle of vertical take-off and landing aircraft? Use sketches as needed. 1.2. What is the operating principle of helicopter thrust? What are the rotor degrees of freedom? Use sketches as needed. 1.3. Describe the components and operat propellant rockets. 14, Plot the standard atmospheric pressure and temperature as a function of altitude in US units. 15. Plot the standard atmospheric pressure and temperature as a function of altitude in SI units, 16. Fora turbojet engine with air mass flow rate of rt = 100 1lom/s, calculate the thrust in lof at a flight Mach number of a, = 899 fi/s and jet exhaust velocity of 1500fvs? 1.7. In anozzle with air entering at 112 m/s and static temperature of 650K, calculate the exit velocity if the exit temperature is 300K. 1.8, In anozzle with air entering at 310 u/s and static enthalpy of 556 BTUAbm, calculate the exit velocity if the exit static enthalpy is 442 BTU, principles of early versions of Goddard's liquid