Technical Reference on Hydrogen Compatibility of Materials
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels:
Duplex Stainless Steels (code 1600)
Prepared by:
J.A. Zelinski, Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board, Washington DC
C. San Marchi, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore CA
Editors
C. San Marchi
B.P. Somerday
Sandia National Laboratories
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Technical Reference on Hydrogen Compatibility of Materials
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September 2008
Technical Reference on Hydrogen Compatibility of Materials
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels:
Duplex Stainless Steels (code 1600)
1. General
A duplex stainless steel is an alloy containing a two-phase microstructure of face-centered
cubic austenite (γ) and body-centered cubic ferrite (α), where the phases each consist of at least
12 wt% Cr. Generally, duplex stainless steels have compositions in the range 18-26 wt% Cr, 4-7
wt% Ni, and in many cases 2-3 wt% Mo with some nitrogen. The so-called super duplex
stainless steels have alloy contents at (or even slightly greater than) the high end of these ranges.
Duplex stainless steels are typically used in applications that benefit from their high resistance to
stress corrosion cracking, good weldability, and greater strength than other stainless steels [1].
Given this two-phase microstructure, duplex stainless steels provide a mixture of the
properties of each phase so that they are tougher than the ferritic steels and stronger than the
(annealed) austenitic steels by a factor of about two. This implies that their compatibility with
hydrogen also reflects a combination of the phases. Ferrite is highly susceptible to hydrogen-
assisted fracture and has high diffusivity and low solubility for hydrogen. Austenite is generally
much less susceptible to hydrogen-assisted fracture, but has a very high solubility and very low
diffusivity for hydrogen. Consequently, the resistance to hydrogen-assisted fracture increases
with austenite content [2]. A further consequence of the difference in transport of hydrogen in
these two primary phases is that a fully ferritic steel recovers much of its ductility in a few days
when removed from a hydrogen environment, while the presence of 15% austenite results in
much less recovery after removal from a hydrogen environment [2]. No detectable recovery of
ductility is noted in 2205 (35% austenite) thermally precharged with hydrogen then subsequently
stored at ambient temperature for 3 years [2].
In general, duplex stainless steels with internal hydrogen experience significant losses in
ductility as measured by reduction of area in smooth tensile tests [2-6]. Susceptibility to
hydrogen-assisted fracture appears to be greater for material that has been strain-hardened
compared to annealed material [6]. Ductility losses when tested in low-pressure hydrogen gas are
less severe, although quite significant considering the hydrogen fugacity at low pressure. Effects
of gaseous hydrogen on fracture are also manifest in notched specimens [7, 8] and fatigue [9,
10].
1.1 Composition and microstructure
Table 1.1.1 lists the approximate compositional specification ranges for a number of duplex
alloys. Table 1.1.2 provides the compositions of several heats of duplex stainless steel used to
study hydrogen effects. Table 1.1.3 summarizes the nominal tensile properties and austenite
content of materials from several studies on hydrogen effects.
1600 - 1
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
1.2 Common designations
Duplex stainless steels are often designated with four digits: the first two digits represent the
weight percent of chromium, and the second two digits represent the weight percent of nickel;
thus 2205 nominally has 22% Cr and 5% Ni. However, a number of duplex stainless steels have
registered trademarks and tradenames associated with them such as Uranus 50, Zeron 100, and
Ferralium 255. The more common alloys and their tradenames are summarized in Table 1.1.1.
2. Permeability, Diffusivity and Solubility
Hydrogen gas permeation experiments on duplex alloys have not been found in the literature.
Perng and Altstetter, however, have performed gas phase permeation experiments on highly
cold-worked type 301 and type 304 stainless steels that resulted in microstructures with large
fractions of α’ martensite [11]; martensite and ferrite are expected to have relatively similar
hydrogen transport properties since both phases are body-centered cubic (while austenite is face-
centered cubic). Their results show the diffusivity of the 301 austenite-martensite composite
increases with content of martensite and approaches the value measured for a ferritic stainless
steel at high concentrations of martensite. The permeability of the 301 composite is also
generally between the fully austenitic alloys (low permeability) and the ferritic stainless steel
(high permeability), except at the highest martensite contents where the permeability in the
composite is greater than the ferritic stainless steel. The hydrogen solubility is the quotient of the
permeability and the diffusivity, thus the hydrogen solubility of the composite material is again
between the low solubility exhibited in the ferritic stainless steel and the high solubility in the
austenitic alloys.
Electrochemical and off-gassing techniques have been used to determine the diffusivity of
hydrogen atoms in duplex stainless steels. Because of the two-phase structure and, generally,
anisotropic microstructure, hydrogen transport in duplex steels can be a function of orientation.
Hutchings et al. [12, 13] found that hydrogen diffusivity in duplex stainless steel (heat H91) was
greater when the hydrogen flux was parallel to the elongated grain structure, however, this effect
was relatively modest: about a factor of two. They also report that the diffusivity is not strongly
affected by austenite content (γ) in the range 44% to 15%, but the diffusivity increases rapidly as
the material becomes fully ferritic. The ratio of diffusivity of the duplex alloy with no austenite
and with 44% austenite is about 400 [13]. This trend is consistent with the inverse rule of
mixtures reported for diffusivity by Iacoviello et al. [14] of the form
1
=
(1" f# ) + f# (1)
Deff D$ D#
This is a variant of the form proposed elsewhere [15], where f" is the volume fraction of
austenite and Deff is the effective diffusivity of the alloy and Di is the diffusivity of the individual
!
phases. Similar to orientation effects and the effects of austenite content, cold-work was found to
have only a small effect on diffusivity of 2205 duplex stainless steel [16]. The diffusivity values
! 2.1.
reported in these and several other studies are given in Figure
Degradation of tensile ductility due to precharging with hydrogen can be precluded if the
materials are removed from the hydrogen environment and heated [3]. However, it may take an
extraordinarily long time to recover properties without heating [2, 14]. Significant degradation in
1600 - 2
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
tensile ductility was found to remain in thermally precharged 2205 (~35% austenite) after 55
days [3] and 3 years [2] at room temperature, but nearly full recovery of ductility was achieved
by heating at 573 K for 4 hours [3]. As described above, the hydrogen diffusivity is relatively
insensitive to phase distribution for expected ranges (γ content from 25 to 50% or greater), thus
recovery of properties is not expected to be a strong function of the relative amounts of austenite
and ferrite or their morphology.
The concentration of hydrogen in a 2205 duplex stainless steel with about 35% austenite
content (heat Z91A) was found to be about 20 wppm after precharging in 22 MPa H2 gas at
623 K for 48h [2, 5]. Thermal precharging at the same temperature but a slightly lower pressure
(17 MPa) resulted in hydrogen content of 15 wppm [4]. These conditions are reported to be
sufficient to reach uniform saturation in tensile bars with a gauge diameter of 3.2 mm [2, 4, 5].
3. Mechanical Properties: Effects of Gaseous Hydrogen
3.1 Tensile Properties
3.1.1 Smooth Tensile Properties
Room temperature testing of smooth tensile specimens with internal hydrogen (by thermal
precharging in hydrogen gas) shows significant loss in ductility [2-5] as shown in Figure 3.1.1.1
as a function of strain rate. This plot shows the general trend that susceptibility to hydrogen-
assisted fracture is enhanced at low strain rates due to more time for hydrogen redistribution to
susceptible features in the microstructure. In addition, both annealed and strain-hardened 2507
show a significant degradation of tensile ductility: RA as low as 25% for the hydrogen-
precharged material in the strain-hardened condition (Table 3.1.1.1) [6].
Smooth tensile specimens strained in hydrogen gas (external hydrogen) generally show
(Figure 3.1.1.2) an increased susceptibility to hydrogen-assisted fracture as the hydrogen
pressure is increased [3, 5]. Figure 3.1.1.3 compares the absolute RA for a single heat of 2205,
showing that the ductility loss is a function of hydrogen pressure. The higher susceptibility to
hydrogen-assisted fracture at low strain rate in these figures is attributed to the effect of
deformation rate on both hydrogen transport and martensitic transformations [5]: more hydrogen
can be transported in longer tests. The role of martensitic transformations on hydrogen-assisted
fracture in austenitic steels has not been fully resolved, but it appears that martensitic
transformations, while perhaps not necessary for degradation of stainless steels in hydrogen
environments [17], certainly exacerbate hydrogen-assisted fracture when they form [18].
Although it is expected that orientation of the microstructure in duplex stainless steels could
play an important role in hydrogen-assisted fracture, tensile testing of 2205 pipe with internal
hydrogen shows little effect of orientation [4]. Tensile specimens tested in low-pressure external
hydrogen, however, do show some effect of orientation [3-5]. Moreover, banded microstructures
show larger variations with orientation than comparatively isotropic microstructures [4]. For
testing in environmental hydrogen without significant prior hydrogen exposure, hydrogen must
be transported from the surface of the specimen into the lattice. Since hydrogen diffusivity is
much greater in ferrite compared to austenite, the morphology and orientation of the ferrite with
respect to the cross section of the tensile specimen should play an important role on relatively
short time scales, such as those associated with tensile tests. For example, ferrite bands that are
oriented perpendicular to the tensile axis will be more effective at transporting hydrogen to the
1600 - 3
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
center of a tensile specimen than ferrite bands that are aligned along the tensile axis. Moreover,
orientation effects will probably become more important at lower ferrite content because ferrite
will be less contiguous at lower volume fractions.
3.1.2 Notched Tensile Properties
Notched tensile foils of Ferralium 255 (heat P88) suffer a significant reduction in notch
tensile strength and elongation to fracture when tested in 0.11 MPa hydrogen gas compared to
testing in air at ambient temperature [7]. At temperature ≥ 373 K, there is no difference in
properties measured in air and 0.11 MPa hydrogen gas [7].
3.2 Fracture mechanics
3.2.1 Fracture toughness
A significant reduction in the fracture toughness of thermally-precharged 2507 was reported
for material in the strain-hardened condition (Table 3.2.1.1) [6]. Although a fracture toughness
(KIC) of 48 MPa m1/2 in the thermally precharged condition is significantly lower than the
material in the absence of thermal precharging, this value is consistent with threshold stress
intensity factors measured for low-alloy steels [19] that are used in high-pressure hydrogen
service.
3.2.2 Threshold stress-intensity factor
Altstetter et al. determined crack growth rates and threshold stress-intensity factors in
notched sheet specimens of Ferralium 255 (heat P88) where plane stress conditions prevailed [7,
20]. Specimens were tested in up to 0.22 MPa hydrogen gas [7] and precharged to uniform
concentration in molten salts at temperature of 538 K (i.e., internal hydrogen) [20]. These studies
found that threshold values decreased as hydrogen pressure increased. The threshold values were
also greater at elevated temperature for tests performed in hydrogen gas, particularly for tests at
348 K and 373 K [7].
Classic microvoid coalescence was observed on the fracture surfaces of precharged
specimens at low hydrogen contents, while the amount of flat cleavage facets was greater for
specimens with greater hydrogen content [20]. Threshold stress-intensity factors with internal
hydrogen were relatively unaffected by testing temperature in the range 273 and 323 K [20].
3.3 Fatigue
Fatigue testing of a 2507 super duplex stainless steel (M92) in flowing hydrogen gas (i.e.
hydrogen at approximately one atmosphere pressure) resulted in crack growth rates that are
almost an order of magnitude higher than in argon for ∆K > 25 MPa m1/2 with R = 0.5 (ratio of
minimum to maximum K and load) [10]. The crack growth rates, however, were similar for
small stress intensity range (∆K), less than about 15 MPa m1/2 [10]. The upper and lower bounds
of crack growth rates as a function of ∆K from Ref. [10] are shown in Figure 3.3.1. Crack growth
rates also tended to be faster for greater R ratios although they become similar at ∆K >
30 MPa m1/2 [10]. Fractography in this study showed that the ferrite failed by cleavage. A
subsequent study [9] found that temperature in the range 298 K to 453 K had little effect on
fatigue crack growth rates in flowing hydrogen.
1600 - 4
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
3.4 Creep
No known published data in hydrogen gas.
3.5 Impact
No known published data in hydrogen gas.
3.6 Disk rupture testing
Disk rupture tests have been performed on duplex alloys referred to as 326 [21] and IN744
[22]; these alloys appear to be similar to one another with nominally 26Cr-7Ni and no
molybdenum. Duplex stainless steel is classified as displaying little or no sensitivity to hydrogen
in these studies and particularly attractive due to its high-strength [21]. This is at odds with the
tensile and fracture mechanics data outlined in previous sections, perhaps due to the relative
short-time scales associated with the disk rupture tests precluding substantial hydrogen transport
in the lattice.
4. Fabrication
4.1 Primary processing
The resistance to hydrogen-assisted fracture of a 2205 duplex stainless steel (heat E96) was
found to increase with austenite content in tensile testing in external hydrogen (0.2 MPa
hydrogen gas) and with internal hydrogen (thermal precharging in 25 MPa hydrogen gas at
633 K) [2]. The observation that austenitic phases in duplex steels are more resistant to
hydrogen-assisted fracture than ferritic phases is consistent with the view that austenitic stainless
steels are relatively resistant to hydrogen-assisted fracture compared to ferritic steels [23].
4.2 Heat Treatment
Heat treatment was used to produce between about 5 and 50% austenite in duplex stainless
steel 2205. The RA (both with internal and external hydrogen) was found to drop from greater
than 50% to less than 20% as the amount of austenite was reduced (Figure 4.1.1) [2]. The trend
for strain rate effects was similar for all microstructures (see Section 3.1.1). The effect of
austenite content, however, must be balanced with the fact that the yield strengths of the
microstructures with high austenite contents were somewhat lower (600 MPa compared to
750 MPa) than the microstructures with low austenite content (Table 1.1.3); hydrogen effects
tend to be more pronounced in higher strength alloys.
4.3 Properties of welds
Laser welded notched tensile specimens from 2205 plate (heat Y05) were tested in 0.2 MPa
gaseous hydrogen and reported in Ref. [8]. The austenite content in the weld was varied by
controlling the welding process and it was found that material with higher austenite content
showed greater resistance to hydrogen. The notched tensile strength (σs) of the base material
(43% austenitic) was reduced by 9% when testing in hydrogen gas, while the σs of a weld with
only 25% austenite was reduced by 28% in hydrogen gas.
Susceptibility to hydrogen-assisted fracture of duplex stainless steel increases markedly when
the delta ferrite content is increased above 50% in weld deposits produced using an Ar-10 vol%
1600 - 5
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
H2 shielding gas [24]. Hydrogen-bearing shielding gases are used to improve weld pool fluidity
and prevent surface oxidation, but hydrogen is entrapped in the microstructure during the
welding process, increasing hydrogen susceptibility.
5. References
1. RA Lula. Stainless Steel (revised from "An Introduction to Stainless Steel" by JG Parr and
A Hanson). Metals Park OH: American Society for Metals (1986).
2. AA El-Yazgi and D Hardie. Effect of heat treatment on susceptibility of duplex stainless
steel to embrittlement by hydrogen. Mater Sci Technol 16 (2000) 506-510.
3. W Zheng and D Hardie. The effect of hydrogen on the fracture of a commercial duplex
stainless steel. Corros Sci 32 (1991) 23-36.
4. W Zheng and D Hardie. Effect of structural orientation on the susceptibility of commercial
duplex stainless steel to hydrogen embrittelement. Corrosion 47 (1991) 792-799.
5. AA El-Yazgi and D Hardie. The embrittlement of a duplex stainless steel by hydrogen in a
variety of environments. Corros Sci 38 (1996) 735-744.
6. C San Marchi, BP Somerday, J Zelinski, X Tang and GH Schiroky. Mechanical properties
of super duplex stainless steel 2507 after gas phase thermal precharging with hydrogen.
Metall Mater Trans 38A (2007) 2763-2775.
7. T-P Perng and CJ Altstetter. Cracking Kinetics of Two-Phase Stainless Steel Alloys in
Hydrogen Gas. Metall Trans 19A (1988) 145-152.
8. MC Young, SLI Chan, LW Tsay and CS Shin. Hydrogen-enhanced cracking of 2205 duplex
stainless steel welds. Mater Chem Phys 91 (2005) 21-27.
9. TJ Marrow, PJ Cotterill and JE King. Temperature effects on the mechanism of time
independent hydrogen assisted fatigue crack propagation in steels. Acta Metall Mater 40
(1992) 2059-2068.
10. TJ Marrow, CA Hippsley and JE King. Effect of mean stress on hydrogen assisted fatigue
crack propagation in duplex stainless steel. Acta Metall Mater 39 (1991) 1367-1376.
11. T-P Perng and CJ Altstetter. Effects of Deformation on Hydrogen Permeation in Austenitic
Stainless Steels. Acta Metall 34 (1986) 1771-1781.
12. RB Hutchings, A Turnbull and AT May. Measurement of hydrogen transport in a duplex
stainless steel. Scr Metall Mater 25 (1991) 2657-2662.
13. A Turnbull and RB Hutchings. Analysis of hydrogen atom transport in a two-phase alloy.
Mater Sci Eng A177 (1994) 161-171.
14. F Iacoviello, M Habashi and M Cavallini. Hydrogen embrittlement in the duplex stainless
steel Z2CND2205 hydrogen-charged at 200˚C. Mater Sci Eng A224 (1997) 116-124.
15. U Bernabai and R Torella. Thermal analysis of hydrogen-charged austenitic and duplex
stainless steel. Int J Hydrogen Energy 18 (1993) 763-771.
16. SS Chen, TI Wu and JK Wu. Effects of deformation on hydrogen degradation in a duplex
stainless steel. J Mater Sci 39 (2004) 67-71.
17. AW Thompson. Ductility Losses in Austenitic Stainless Steels Caused by Hydrogen. in: IM
Bernstein and AW Thompson, editors. Proceedings of the International Conference on the
Effects of Hydrogen on Materials Properties and Selection and Structural Design: Hydrogen
in Metals, 1973, Champion PA. American Society of Metals (1974) p. 91-105.
18. G Han, J He, S Fukuyama and K Yokogawa. Effect of strain-induced martensite on
hydrogen environment embrittlement of sensitized austenitic stainless steels at low
temperatures. Acta Mater 46 (1998) 4559-4570.
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High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
19. AW Loginow and EH Phelps. Steels for Seamless Hydrogen Pressure Vessels. Corrosion 31
(1975) 404-12.
20. J-H Huang and CJ Altstetter. Cracking of Duplex Stainless Steel Due to Dissolved
Hydrogen. Metall Mater Trans 26A (1995) 1079-1085.
21. PF Azou and JP Fidelle. Very low strain rate hydrogen gas embrittlement (HGE) and
fractography of high-strength, mainly austenitic stainless steels. in: MR Louthan, RP McNitt
and RD Sisson, editors. Environmental Degradation of Engineering Materials III, 1987, The
Pennsylvania State University, University Park PA. The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park PA p. 189-198.
22. J-P Fidelle, R Bernardi, R Broudeur, C Roux and M Rapin. Disk Pressure Testing of
Hydrogen Environment Embrittlement. in: Hydrogen Embrittlement Testing, ASTM STP
543, American Society for Testing and Materials. (1974) p. 221-253.
23. RJ Walter and WT Chandler. Influence of Gaseous Hydrogen on Metals: Final Report.
Rocketdyne for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Canoga Park CA (Oct
1973).
24. K Shinozaki, L Ke and TH North. Hydrogen cracking in duplex stainless steel weld metal.
Welding Journal 71 (1992) S387-S396.
25. ASTM. ASTM DS-56H, Metals and Alloys in the UNIFIED NUMBERING SYSTEM (SAE
HS-1086 OCT01). 2001.
26. SL Chou and WT Tsai. Effect of grain size on the hydrogen-assisted cracking in duplex
stainless steels. Mater Sci Eng A270 (1999) 219-224.
27. WC Luu, PK Liu and JK Wu. Hydrogen transport and degradation of a commercial duplex
stainless steel. Corros Sci 44 (2002) 1783-1791.
1600 - 7
High-Alloy Ferritc Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
Table 1.1.1. Compositions (wt%) of several common commercial duplex stainless steels [25].
AISI No /
UNS No Common Fe Cr Ni Mo Cu Mn Si C N other
Name
21.0 1.35 0.1 0.1 4.0 1.0 0.04 0.20 0.04 max P;
S32101 LDX 2101 Bal
22.0 1.7 0.8 0.8 6.0 max max 0.25 0.3 max S
22.0 4.5 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.03 0.14 0.03 max P;
S32205 2205 Bal —
23.0 6.5 3.5 max max max 0.20 0.02 max S
21.5 3.0 0.05 0.05 2.5 1.0 0.03 0.05 0.04 max P;
S32304 2304 Bal
24.5 5.5 0.60 0.6 max max max 0.20 0.04 max S
Uranus 50 20.5 5.5 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 0.04 0.2 0.03 max P;
S32404 Bal
(Uranus B50) 22.5 8.5 3.0 2.0 max max max max 0.01 max S
24.0 5.5 3.0 0.5 1.5 0.8 0.03 0.20 0.035 max P;
S32520 Uranus 52N+ Bal
26.0 8.0 4.0 2.0 max max max 0.35 0.02 max S
24.0 4.5 2.9 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.04 0.10 0.04 max P;
S32550 Ferralium 255 Bal
27.0 6.5 3.9 2.5 max max max 0.25 0.03 max S
24.0 6.0 3.0 1.2 0.8 0.03 0.24 0.035 max P;
S32750 SAF 2507 Bal —
26.0 8.0 5.0 max max max 0.32 0.02 max S
0.5-1.0 W;
24.0 6.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.03 0.2
S32760 Zeron 100 Bal 0.03 max P;
26.0 8.0 4.0 1.0 max max max 0.3
0.01 max S
23.0 2.5 1.0 1.0 0.75 0.08 0.04 max P;
S32900 329 Bal — —
28.0 5.0 2.0 max max max 0.03 max S
1600 - 8
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
Table 1.1.2. Compositions (wt%) of several heats of duplex stainless steels used to study hydrogen effects.
Heat Alloy Fe Cr Ni Mo Cu Mn Si C N Other Ref.
Ferralium
P88 Bal 26 5.5 3 1.6 nr nr nr 0.16 nr [7]
255
<0.01 P; [12,
H91 Uranus 50 Bal 21.6 6.3 2.51 0.77 0.63 0.87 0.06 nr
0.01 S 13]
0.025 P;
M91 Zeron 100 Bal 24.04 6.827 3.77 0.626 0.77 0.175 0.024 0.215 0.002 S; [9, 10]
0.625 W
0.021 P;
Z91A Bal 22.3 5.7 2.9 0.06 1.62 0.35 0.027 nr [4]
<0.002 S
2205
0.019 P;
Z91B Bal 22.9 5.2 3.12 0.03 0.99 0.5 0.016 nr [3, 4]
0.002S
E96 2205 Bal 23.0 5.0 3.0 nr 1.0 nr nr 0.13 nr [2, 5]
Similar to 0.028 P;
I97 Bal 22.78 5.64 2.5 0.15 1.43 0.39 0.03 0.13 [14]
2205 0.011 S
0.028 P;
C99A Bal 22.15 5.28 3.11 — 1.58 0.53 0.024 0.19
2205 0.002 S
[26]
0.025 P;
C99B Bal 22.4 5.42 3.24 0.21 1.43 0.41 0.014 0.198
0.004 S
L02 2205 Bal 22.79 5.32 3 0.04 1.53 0.37 0.03 0.2 0.03 P; 0.03 S [27]
0.025 P;
Y05 2205 Bal 21.1 5.8 2.7 0.02 1.42 0.45 0.052 0.165 [8]
0.022 S
0.019 P;
S07 2507 Bal 25.22 6.94 3.9 nr 0.46 0.25 0.011 0.287 [6]
0.0006 S
nr = not reported
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High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
Table 1.1.3. Austenite content and tensile properties of duplex stainless steels (prior to hydrogen
exposure) used to study hydrogen effects.
Austenite
Strain rate Sy Su Elt RA
Material content Ref.
(s-1) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
(%)
Z91A - L 651 795 42 84
37
Z91A - T 634 785 41 74
10-4 [4]
Z91B - L 620 740 36 85
35
Z91B - T 600 710 39 83
Z91B 35 — 577 766 36 87 [3]
E96 35 — 623 744 42 78 [5]
E96 - 50 50 592 758 39.1 80.5
-6
E96 - 15 15 3.7 x 10 704 807 30.6 64.7 [2]
E96 - 0 0 743 844 19.9 51.7
L = Longitudinal, T = Transverse
Table 3.1.1.1. Smooth tensile properties of duplex stainless steel at room temperature; measured
in air with internal hydrogen (thermal precharging in hydrogen gas).
Strain
Thermal Test Sy Su Elu Elt RA
Material rate Ref.
precharging environment (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%) (%)
(s-1)
2507, heat S07 None Air 1.2 647 879 25 48 85
-3 [6]
annealed (1) Air x10 745 914 24 35 46
2507, heat S07 None Air 1.2 988 1110 1.2 26 80
[6]
strain-hardened (1) Air x10-3
1208 1221 1.0 12 25
(1) 138 MPa hydrogen, 573 K, 240 h (saturation); measured average concentration of 125
wppm hydrogen (7000 appm)
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High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
Table 3.2.1.1. Fracture toughness of duplex stainless steel at room temperature; measured in air
with internal hydrogen (thermal precharging in hydrogen gas).
Thermal Test Sy † KIC
Material Test method Ref.
precharging environment (MPa) (MPa m1/2)
3PB None Air 988 285 ‡
2507, heat S07
LEFM & [6]
strain-hardened (1) Air 1208 48
EPFM
3PB = 3-point bending specimen, LEFM = linear elastic fracture mechanics, EPFM = elastic-
plastic fracture mechanics
† yield strength of smooth tensile specimen
‡ value determined from JQ (i.e. specimen did not meet the geometrical requirements of
ASTM E1820 for KIC or JIC)
(1) 138 MPa hydrogen, 573 K, 1440 h (saturation); measured average concentration of 125
wppm hydrogen (7000 appm)
Figure 2.1. Hydrogen diffusivity as a function of temperature for several duplex alloys:
Iacoviello, heat I97 [14]; Luu, heat L02 [27]; Chen, heat L02, values for annealed, cold-
worked 20% and 40% respectively in increasing order of diffusivity [16]; Hutchings, heat
H91 [12, 13].
1600 - 11
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
Figure 3.1.1.1. Relative reduction of area of 2205 duplex stainless steel as a function of strain
rate in smooth tensile tests. The material has been thermally precharged with hydrogen at
623 K and several hydrogen gas pressures: closed symbols heat Z91B from Ref. [3]; open
symbols heat E96 from Ref. [5].
Figure 3.1.1.2. Relative reduction of area for 2205 duplex stainless steel as a function of
strain rate in smooth tensile tests. Tests were conducted in hydrogen gas at room temperature
and several hydrogen gas pressures: closed symbols heat Z91B from Ref. [3]; open symbols
heat E96 from Ref. [5]. Trend line from Figure 3.1.1.1.
1600 - 12
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
Figure 3.1.1.3. Reduction of area for 2205 duplex stainless steel (heat E96) as a function of
strain rate in smooth tensile tests comparing internal and external hydrogen. Same data as
from Figure 3.1.1.1 and 3.1.1.2. [5]
Figure 3.3.1. Approximate bounds for crack growth of compact tension specimens (heat
M91) in approximately 0.1 MPa gas, R = 0.5. Crack growth rates are independent of
frequency at 0.1 and 5 Hz. The crack growth rate is intermediate between these bounds for
R = 0.1 in hydrogen at low ∆K, but converges to the upper bound at high ∆K. [10]
1600 - 13
High-Alloy Ferritic Steels Duplex Stainless Steels
Figure 4.1.1. Reduction of area for 2205 duplex stainless steel (heat E96) as a function of
austenite content with internal hydrogen and in external hydrogen. [2]
1600 - 14
