High Educ

[Link]

The influence of Work-Integrated Learning and paid work

during studies on graduate employment
and underemployment

Denise Jackson 1 & David Collings 2

# Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature 2017

Abstract To enhance employability and improve the career prospects of graduating students,
this study explores the influence of practical experience on graduate employment outcomes in
an Australian setting. To develop our understanding of the relative benefit of different forms of
practical experience, the study evaluates the influence of both Work-Integrated Learning
(WIL) and paid work in the final year of study on graduate employment and underemploy-
ment. Two samples are used, N = 628 and N = 237, to evaluate institutional data on practical
experience combined with national data on graduate employment outcomes. Findings indicate
that participating in WIL does not produce an increase in full-time employment rates. There is
some evidence to suggest that it could lead to higher quality, relevant employment in both the
short and long term. Paid employment during the final year of undergraduate study produced
higher full-time employment rates, but had little effect on underemployment. Findings will
help to inform stakeholders of the relative benefit of curricular and extra-curricular work
experience and contribute to the dearth of empirical evidence on the value of activities
designed to improve graduate employment prospects. This is particularly important given
growth in the supply of graduates, concerns for credentialism, soft graduate labour markets and
global economic weakening.

Keywords Work-Integrated Learning . Work experience . Employment . Underemployment .

Part-time work

* Denise Jackson
[Link]@[Link]

David Collings
[Link]@[Link]

1
Centre for Innovative Practice, School of Business and Law, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, WA
6027, Australia
2
Strategic and Governance Services Centre, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia
 High Educ

Introduction

The strategic directive to enhance employability is now widespread in higher education (HE)
worldwide (Kinash et al. 2016). Impetus continues for HE providers to develop work-ready
graduates so they can meet the needs of industry and produce workers that can successfully
drive innovation and lead nations in fiercely competitive global markets. HE providers are also
motivated by enhanced employability to assist their graduating students with meeting personal
career aspirations and progression. Typically, according to recent research on millennial
workers, this means securing—or creating through self-employment—a role that provides
both intrinsic satisfaction and financial rewards (Deloitte 2016). To help graduates secure their
desired employment outcomes, HE providers must—in collaboration with industry—develop
graduates who are adequately prepared to identify suitable career opportunities and can apply
their skills and knowledge successfully in the contemporary working environment.
Favourable graduate employment outcomes are becoming increasingly important to stake-
holders in undergraduate education. In Australia, these outcomes are documented publicly,
such as the award of a one- to five-star rating based on graduate achievement of full-time (FT)
employment four to six months post-graduation (Good Education Group 2017). Positioning on
the employment ratings league table now appears critical for HE providers, augmented by an
increasing focus on the return on undergraduate education (Webber 2016) due to rising costs
(Burke et al. 2017) and intense competition in student markets (Department of Education and
Training [DET] 2016). Using employment outcomes as a measure of return on investment is
likely to continue amid widening participation in HE, an oversupply of graduates and ensuing
fears of credentialism (see Daly et al. 2015).
Graduate labour markets remain highly competitive worldwide, and there is evi-
dence of continued weakening in Australia with falling rates of FT employment
(Karmel and Carroll 2016; Social Research Centre [SRC] 2016a) and rising levels
of graduate underemployment (Karmel and Carroll 2016), the latter also apparent in
other developed countries (see, for example, Cunningham 2016a; Heyes et al. 2016).
One initiative considered to enhance employability (Kinash et al. 2016) and improve
employment outcomes (Silva et al. 2016a, b) is Work-Integrated Learning (WIL). Also
referred to as work-based learning and experiential learning, WIL is the intersection of
academic and workplace learning where students connect with industry as a formal
component of their learning program. WIL comes in many forms, such as largely
unpaid, short work placements common to Australia; sandwich degree programs (two
years at university, one paid year in industry and one final year in university) in the
UK; and alternating terms in university and industry such as the cooperative education
model in North America. For students unable to commit to being physically based in
the workplace, and for certain industry partners such as smaller businesses or those
based in remote areas, WIL may include simulated or virtual workplace learning,
consulting or industry-based projects.
In Australia, WIL is a core element to some degree programs, being mandatory for course
qualification and/or accreditation. This may involve highly structured periods in the work-
place, such as practicums in education and nursing or less-formalised approaches where
students must provide evidence of completing a certain number of hours of relevant work
experience, such as in engineering. WIL is predominantly unpaid in Australia and is becoming
increasingly popular across disciplines traditionally less engaged in this space as a means of
enhancing preparedness for graduate employment. Offerings, however, remain relatively
High Educ

minor in comparison with North America where paid cooperative education forms a significant
component of most degree programs.
There is, however, a lack of empirical evidence to support the widely held assumption that
WIL improves employment prospects (Department of Employment 2016a; Wilton 2012) and
evaluation of the relative advantage of different forms of practical experience. The research
objectives for the study were, therefore, to (i) examine the influence of WIL on graduate
employment and underemployment, (ii) examine the influence of paid employment during
studies on graduate employment and underemployment and (iii) explore graduate perspectives
of inhibitors and enablers to employability and employment. In this study, WIL refers to a
work placement whereby students are physically based in the workplace for a given period,
combined with reflective activities which integrate their learning in the professional and
classroom settings. Institutional data on students within particular courses who did, and did
not, complete elective WIL were merged with data, derived from a national dataset, on
graduate employment outcomes and participation in paid employment during studies. The
paper is structured to first provide a review of relevant literature on the influence of WIL and
paid employment on graduate employment outcomes. This is followed by an overview of
methodology, the results and a discussion of the findings. The conclusion outlines implications
for stakeholders, perceived limitations of the study and future directions for research.

Background

Contemporary graduate labour market in Australia

The Australian graduate labour market is characterised by a long-term fall in FT employment

from 85.2% in 2008 to 70.9% in 2016 (SRC 2016a). This could, however, be aggravated by
underlying changes in the contemporary working environment which is increasingly
characterised by part-time (PT) working, fixed-term contracts and casual employment
(CEDA 2015). Amid the decline of the organisational career (Sturges 2016), graduates are
required to manage their own careers and successfully navigate horizontal movements across
different organisations with a typical worker now experiencing 17 jobs in their lifetime
(McCrindle 2015). They are increasingly expected to be globally mobile, agile and flexible
in the roles they undertake (Foundation for Young Australians [FYA] 2015).
The continued focus on measuring graduate outcomes through FT employment outcomes
may be misguided given the shift in contemporary work practices. Importantly, the
casualisation of work is not always perceived as a negative situation by workers who often
enjoy the freedom and flexibility offered by these arrangements (Golden et al. 2013). Rising
graduate underemployment, however, creates a less positive picture as it refers to a layer of
graduates who are involuntarily not utilising their formal education in their current role (Glyde
et al. 1977). This suggests they are unable to pursue their desired career pathway, perhaps due
to labour market circumstances, and questions the value of participating in HE (Cunningham
2016b; Tomlinson 2008). Cunningham notes the difficulties in measuring underemploy-
ment, and caution is needed in interpreting figures as some workers may opt to
underutilise their skills due to personal needs and considerations (UK Commission
for Employment and Skills 2016). The impact of underemployment includes elevated
levels of job dissatisfaction (Green and Henseke 2016), lower pay (Thompson et al.
2013) and psychological effects (Wilkins 2007).
 High Educ

The value of Work-Integrated Learning

To cope with the evolving labour market, and to enable graduating students to differentiate
themselves from the growing pool of new recruits, HE providers continually seek viable ways
of enhancing student employability. The notion of employability has broadened significantly
with contemporary models extending beyond the refinement of non-technical skills to incor-
porate pre-professional identity (Trede et al. 2012), effective career self-management skills
(Jackson 2016a) and socially connectedness with the capabilities to grow and develop their
professional networks (Bridgstock 2016). The influential role of external factors on employ-
ability, such as personal circumstances and labour market trends, is also acknowledged
(Guilbert et al. 2016). WIL is considered an effective platform with reported benefits of
improved non-technical skills (Smith et al. 2014); greater clarity of expectations, requirements
and characteristics of a student’s intended profession (Jackson 2016b); improved technical
expertise and its application in a professional setting (Dall'Alba 2004); career development
learning (Smith et al. 2009); improved portability of skills across different contexts (Hoeckel
2014) and easier transition to the workplace (Matthew et al. 2012). As asserted by Sin et al.
(2012), students who have broad and deep conceptions of their future professional work transit
into the world of work with relative ease (324).
In Australia, there is increasing impetus to embed and mandate WIL in elective programs,
driven by the National Strategy for WIL (Universities Australia et al. 2015). WIL is not only
recognised by educators as a useful vehicle for advancing preparedness for employment, but it
also meets the growing demand among international students for practical experience (Inter-
national Education Association for Australia [IEAA] 2012). It is widely considered by
stakeholders to enhance job prospects (Jonck 2014; Silva et al. 2016a) through the provision
of relevant work experience which is highly desired among graduate employers (Graduate
Careers Australia (GCA) 2016) and/or networking benefits (Wilton 2012). Silva and col-
leagues acknowledge, however, that studies on the impact of WIL on employment outcomes
are often limited to one institution, one discipline and/or the short-term effects rather than on
long-term career progression. They argue there is a relatively high focus on the benefits of
WIL from employer and student perspectives rather than actual assessment of the impact on
career progression.
Wilton (2012) asserts there is inconsistent evidence that WIL improves employment
outcomes. This aligns with common misconceptions that employability equates to employ-
ment (Pegg et al. 2012), and therefore, introducing WIL as a pedagogical initiative to enhance
employability will automatically result in improved employment prospects (see Oliver 2015).
Unfortunately, bias in graduate recruitment and selection processes and interference created by
personal circumstances and external factors such as labour market buoyancy mean the
relationship between employability and employment is not always aligned. Just because
WIL enhances employability does not necessarily mean, therefore, that it will produce better
employment outcomes among participating students.

Benefits of paid employment

Using national data of students graduating from Australian universities, there is significant
evidence that paid employment in the final year of study improves the FT employment
outcomes of new graduates (Karmel and Carroll 2016; Jackson 2014; Oliver 2011) and their
pay (Bartolj and Polanec 2016a; Coates 2015). The value of paid employment extends to non-
High Educ

technical skill development (Smith 2009); enhanced confidence (Muldoon 2009) and net-
working, career planning, demonstration of successful job search techniques and successful
transition into the workforce (Coates 2015). Some suggest, however, that paid employment
can distract students during their studies (James et al. 2007) and worsen their academic
performance, particularly in the early stages of their degree (Bartolj and Polanec 2016b).
Compared with WIL, Kinash et al. (2016) found that PT employment was not as highly
regarded by employers as some believed it to be time-consuming, rarely aligned with their
career aspirations and prevented students from engaging in other valuable activities to enhance
their employability. As WIL forms part of a student’s curriculum, they are essentially gaining
practical experience as part of their studies so should still have additional time available for
extra- and co-curricular activities which are highly beneficial to enhancing employability
(Bourner and Millican 2011). Assuming the WIL program adheres to quality principles (see,
for example, Billett 2011) and students are matched to their degree subject or major, their
learning may also be more relevant than PT employment as it may better facilitate the practical
application of discipline-based knowledge and skills (Gracia 2010). This is critical for
enhancing confidence, identifying gaps in their technical expertise and encouraging students
to bring innovative ideas from their classroom learning, as well as the successful transfer of
skills and knowledge when they finally enter the workforce as a new graduate (Wilton 2012).
Interestingly, Kinash et al. (2016) found no evidence of either WIL or PT employment
enhancing graduate outcomes.
Little attention appears to have been given to whether paid employment may be more
effective in improving employment outcomes than a WIL experience. Relatively little is
known on if and how graduate employers prioritise WIL or paid employment in their
recruitment and selection processes as employer surveys which evidence the importance of
practical work experience as selection criteria (see, for example, AAGE 2016; GCA 2016) do
not differentiate between WIL, service learning, volunteering and paid employment. The lack
of employer engagement with WIL—evidenced by an imbalance in the supply of students and
availability of work placement opportunities (Department of Industry 2014)—may suggest a
preference for paid employment. This could, however, merely reflect internal barriers such as
inadequate resourcing, poor management buy-in and concerns for capacity to provide suitable
mentoring and poor awareness of WIL or a lack of appreciation among industry stakeholders
of their responsibility to support WIL as a means of collaboratively developing graduate work
readiness (Jackson et al. 2017). High levels of employer engagement in unpaid internships
(Department of Employment 2016b) add further confusion to what employers actually prefer.

Method

Participants

The study compares the employment outcomes of those who completed WIL—in the form of
an academic unit which mainly aimed at completing a work placement—with those who did
not, with additional attention paid to the impact of work undertaken by students during their
final enrolled year. Two different samples were analysed in the study; both comprised bachelor
graduates from the same Western Australian (WA) University. The first involved 628 graduates
who completed their courses in 2013 and had already completed the Graduate Destination
Survey (GDS) at four months post-graduation. Only domestic graduates were included, with
 High Educ

international graduates deemed too difficult to contact by telephone, and this far out from
graduation. Their characteristics are summarised in Table 1. Participating education and
nursing graduates were excluded from this sample, given the highly standardised and
competency-based practicums which form a core component of their degree structure in
Australia. It is important to note that WIL was still a course requirement for some graduates
in the sample, such as engineering. The second sample of 237 bachelor graduates—both
domestic and international—completed their studies in 2015 and their characteristics are also
summarised in Table 1.

Procedures

For the first sample, the institution’s survey unit used a sampling frame of approximately 1200
domestic bachelor graduates from across the disciplines who had completed their qualifica-
tions during 2013. Graduates were asked key questions about work and study status as at 1st
March 2015, and whether or not they had completed WIL units during their studies, and the
nature of those units. All questionnaires were completed by telephone during mid-March.
Calling was halted when 800 interviews were completed. Calling was conducted randomly
within the sampling frame to guard against any inherent list order bias.
For the second sample, institutional data was extracted from the Graduate Outcomes Survey
(GOS), a national survey administered by HE providers twice annually and which replaced the
GDS in 2016. Managed by the SRC, the survey was administered online and the WA provider

Table 1 Demographic and study characteristics of bachelor graduates for samples 1 and 2

Characteristic Sub-group Sample Sample

1—2013 2—2015
(N = 628) (N = 237)

N % N %

Gender Male 238 37.9 151 36.3

Female (1) 390 62.1 86 63.7
Age (time of GDS/GOS) 0–24 years 372 59.2 127 53.6
25–29 years 89 14.2 51 21.5
30–39 years 87 13.9 33 13.9
40 years plus 80 12.7 26 11.0
Citizenship Domestic 628 100 187 78.9
International (1) 0 0 50 21.1
Employment in the final year study Yes (1) 495 78.9
No 132 21.1
Completion of WIL Yes (1) 232 36.9 78 32.0
No 391 62.3 159 67.1
Unsure 5 8 0 0
WIL a course requirement Yes 190 82.8 0 0
No 42 17.2 237 100
Primary discipline Natural and physical sciences 33 5.3 0 0
Information technology* 34 5.4 32 13.5
Engineering and related technologies 35 5.6 0 0
Agriculture, environmental and related studies 14 2.2 6 2.5
Medicine and related 135 21.5 0 0
Management and commerce 92 14.6 155 65.4
Society and culture 171 27.2 44 18.6
Creative arts 114 18.2 0 0
High Educ

achieved an institutional response rate of 45.4%, aligning with other HE providers in Australia
(SRC 2016a). For this second sample, students who had completed specific elective WIL units
were identified from institutional records and were flagged as completing WIL within the
graduate survey dataset. Only those graduates who had completed identical courses, but did
not complete WIL, were retained in the sample for comparative purposes. The 12 elective WIL
units were selected from a range of disciplines across the university on the basis of similarity in
WIL program characteristics. These include the completion of a minimum of 100 h of work
experience in a workplace context relevant to their discipline during the academic semester.
There was flexibility in structure with some placements completed in a block format and others
over one or two days per week during the 13-week period. All incorporated key elements of
quality WIL, such as integration of classroom and workplace learning through activities and
assessments based on feedback and reflection. Students were required to volunteer for the
elective WIL program and needed to demonstrate reasonable academic performance and sound
work ethic in previous academic units.

Measures

Employment

For the first sample, respondents were asked questions on their work/study and job-seeking
status as at 1st March 2015—as approximately 16-month-out graduates—in the same format
as those they had previously answered when completing the GDS as four-month-out gradu-
ates. Respondents were asked if they were in FT work (35 h per week or more), PT work (or
had accepted an offer for either) or were not working. They were asked if they were seeking
work and, if so, whether they sought full or PT employment. These enabled the calculation of
AVAILFT1—a variable which is used or can be easily derived in GDS/GOS—which catego-
rises those graduates available for FT employment into either working FT or seeking FT
employment. For the second sample, the GOS collects data on the employment and study
activities of new graduates. Employment outcomes were measured, the same as the first
sample, using AVAILFT1. It should be noted that GOS, unlike GDS, includes those
studying on a FT basis in the calculation of AVAILFT1.

Underemployment

A range of measures were utilised to explore underemployment for samples 1 and 2.

In their review of literature examining underemployment, Scurry and Blenkinsopp
(2011) assert that—among other things—a graduate may be defined as underemployed
if ‘they possess more formal education than their current job requires’ (646). They
acknowledge that the term underemployment is used interchangeably with over-edu-
cation. In sample 1, respondents were asked to rate, at both time points and on a 5-
point Likert scale, the importance of their degree qualification to their current job.
The proportion responding ‘required’ or ‘important’ was combined to create a binary
outcome variable of 1 and used as a proxy indicator of being employed at a graduate
level. Graduates assigning ratings of lesser importance were classified as 0 and
considered underemployed. While the use of degree qualification importance is used
in other studies (see, for example, Li et al. 2016), it is focused on vertical job
mismatch yet could also inadvertently capture horizontal mismatch, that where a
 High Educ

graduate of one discipline is working in a different one. Interestingly, Scurry and

Blenkinsop also classify horizontal mismatch as a form of underemployment if it is
involuntary.
GOS introduced a more nuanced set of variables to measure underemployment which were
utilised for the second sample. The Scale of Perceived Overqualification (SPOQ), developed
and validated by Maynard et al. (2006), comprises eight items—rated on a 5-point Likert scale
from strongly disagree to strongly agree. A composite measure was also derived (see SRC
2016b) and, in combination, these were used to determine the extent to which a respondent
perceives themselves as overqualified, equating to underemployment.

Other

For the first sample, excluding nursing and education graduates, respondents were asked if
they had undertaken an academic unit mainly aimed at completing a work placement and
whether this was compulsory for their course. Finally, students were asked to comment on any
aspects of their degree program and general experience at the institution which were most
useful for improving graduate employment outcomes and any barriers to enhancing their
employability. Survey points were four to six months post-graduation—herein termed as four
months—and 14 to 20 months, herein termed as 16 months. The measures used in both
samples are summarised in Table 2.

Analysis

Analysis was conducted using Excel and SPSS 23.0 and in two parts: examination of
employment outcomes followed by underemployment.

Employment

First, an analysis of the employment outcomes of graduates available for FT employment in

sample 1 (4 and 16 months post-graduation) and sample 2 (4 months post-graduation) was
undertaken. Those who were unsure they had completed a work placement were removed
from sample 1, reducing it to 623. Variations in those who had obtained FT employment were

Table 2 Summary of measures for samples 1 and 2

Sample 1 Sample 2

Year graduated 2013 2015

Completed graduate survey 2014 Graduate Destination Survey (GDS) 2016 Graduate Outcomes
Survey (GOS)
WIL units completed (yes/no) Asked in telephone survey Derived from student records
Worked in the final year of study 2014 GDS Not available
(yes/no)
Employment outcomes data Employment at 4 to 6 months (GDS) Employment at 4 to 6 months
Employment at 16 months (telephone (GOS)
survey)
Underemployment Importance of degree qualification to Scale of Perceived
current role (IMPQUAL) Overqualification (SPOQ)
Enabling/barrier factors Open response in telephone survey Not available
regarding employability
High Educ

then explored using binary logistic regression. The importance of WIL, paid employment,
gender, age, discipline and citizenship (where possible) was examined. Predictor variables for
logistic regression are presented in Table 1 with reference categories for categorical variables
indicated by a (1). Information technology (IT) was the base category for discipline, unpacked
to create a set of binary dummy variables, and is indicated by an asterisk.

Underemployment

The incidence of underemployment was explored by analysing responses to questions about

the importance of degree qualification to a graduate’s current job. For the first sample, this was
a single question (was your qualification ‘required’ for or important to you job). For the second
sample, a bank of eight questionnaire items collectively known as the ‘Scale of Perceived
Overqualification’ (SPOQ) was used. There is growing acknowledgement that some graduates
may genuinely choose to work on a PT basis (UK Commission for Employment and Skills
2016) and that PT working does not always indicate underemployment. To highlight any
differences relating to this, analysis was conducted for those available and in FT employment
and also for those currently in either full or PT work at the four- and 16-month stages. Cross
tabulations and chi-square analysis were used to explore any associations between underem-
ployment and both the completion of a work placement and paid employment during the final
year of study (α = .05). For the second sample, a series of MANOVAs was conducted to
examine variation in the SPOQ scale for gender, age, completion of WIL, discipline and
citizenship.

Inhibitors and enablers of employability and employment

Thematic analysis and inductive coding at the individual response level, using the principles of
qualitative research (Thomas 2006), were undertaken to identify any open responses which
referred to the value of WIL—or paid employment—enhancing or hindering employability
and employment prospects.

Results and discussion

Employment

It is important to frame any analysis of FT graduate employment outcomes within the

broader context to gauge whether variations may be attributed to environmental issues,
rather than participation in WIL or paid employment in the final year of study. Data
provided by GOS, and its predecessor the GDS, indicate that while there has been a
significant fall in FT graduate employment since 2008, the percentage employed
(70.9%) was identical for both 2013 and 2016 (the time of the second survey) with
only a slight fall and rise in between (SRC 2016a). Similarly, the employment-to-
population ratio (the number of employed persons as a percentage of the civilian
population aged 15 years and over) for Australia indicates very little difference
between June 2013 (61.6%) and June 2017 (61.3%) (Australian Bureau of Statistics
2017). This stability may allow us to more reliably make suggestions pertaining to the
role of WIL or PT employment on any variability arising in employment outcomes.
 High Educ

Influence of WIL

The employment outcomes of graduates in both sample 1 (N = 623) and sample 2 (N = 237)
are presented in Table 3. Results for sample 1 indicate that, in the short term, there is an
improved FT employment outcome for those who reported completing a placement—57.3% of
those available for employment—than those who did not at 47.0%. The FT employment rate
after 16 months for those who completed a placement in their course is essentially the same as
for those who did not, with both groups at just below 75%. With less than one fifth of those
reporting they had completed an elective placement, further comparison of compulsory versus
non-compulsory placements is less reliable. Figures show, however, little difference in the
proportion securing FT employment with the broader sample at both the four-month (55.5%)
and 16-month (75.4%) stages. Employment outcomes for sample 2 comprise the 237 graduates
available for FT employment and whose course offered an elective work placement—and was
undertaken by at least one GOS respondent. Results showed greater disparity in the proportion
securing FT employment between those who completed a placement (65.2%) and those who
did not (75.2%) than in the first sample.
Logistic regression coefficients for FT employment outcomes for those available for
employment are presented in Table 4 for sample 1’s four- and 16-month stages and sample
2. Tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) were within the recommended threshold
values for all predictor variables (Hair et al. 2010). The six graduates within ‘agriculture,
environmental and related studies’ in sample 2 were, however, removed as their inclusion
created an inflated standard error in the logistic regression analysis, indicative of
multicollinearity (Hair et al. 2010). The Wald statistic and the associated p value predict group
membership, and a negative B value means the variable decreases the predicted odds of
obtaining FT employment with an opposite effect for a positive value. Significant regression
coefficients are marked by asterisks. Exp(B), the exponentiated coefficient, with a value less
than one denotes a negative effect on the odds of FT employment while values greater than one
indicate that variable will make FT employment more likely to occur. The effect size for age is

Table 3 Employment outcomes of graduates (samples 1 and 2) by completion of WIL and paid work during the
final year of study

FT employment outcomes

Available for FT employment In FT employment Seeking FT employment

N % N % N %

Sample 1 (N = 623), 4 months

WIL (N = 232) 131 56.5 75 57.3 56 42.7
No WIL (N = 391) 200 51.2 94 47.0 106 53.0
Work (N = 491) 272 55.5 158 58.1 114 41.9
No work (N = 132) 59 44.7 11 18.6 48 81.4
Sample 1 (N = 623), 16 months
WIL (N = 232) 157 67.7 117 74.5 40 25.5
No WIL (N = 391) 230 58.8 170 73.9 60 26.1
Work (N = 491) 325 66.3 255 78.5 70 21.5
No work (N = 132) 62 47.0 32 51.6 30 48.4
Sample 2 (N = 237), 4 months
WIL (N = 78) 66 84.6 43 65.2 23 34.8
No WIL (N = 159) 125 78.6 94 75.2 31 24.8
 High Educ

Table 4 Logistic coefficients for full-time employment for samples 1 and 2

Employment—sample 1 Employment—sample 2

4 months 16 months 4 months

B SE Wald Sig Exp(B) B SE Wald Sig Exp(B) B SE Wald Sig Exp(B)

Gender − 263 .272 .934 .334 .769 .080 .286 .078 .779 1.083 − .450 .392 1.317 .251 .638
Age .024 .015 2.416 .120 1.024 .030 .016 3.379 .066** 1.031 − 022 .019 1.336 .248 .978
Employment final year study 1.751 .459 14.537 .000* 5.761 1.019 .369 7.603 .006* 2.770
Completion of WIL .256 .734 .122 .727 1.292 − .510 .612 .693 .405 .601 − .483 .348 1.923 .166 .617
Discipline Science .296 .793 .140 .709 1.345 − 1.363 .721 3.575 .059** .256
Engineering and related technologies .288 .659 .191 .662 1.333 .187 .629 .088 .766 1.206
Agriculture, environmental and related − .442 .900 .242 .623 .643 1.377 1.216 1.282 .257 3.965
studies
Medicine .231 .560 .171 .680 1.260 .601 .594 1.025 .311 1.824
Management and commerce .516 .551 .876 .349 1.675 .833 .591 1.987 .159 2.301 − .562 .615 .834 .361 .570
Society and culture .677 .553 1.497 .221 1.968 .085 .556 .024 .878 1.089 − .998 .692 2.078 .149 .369
Creative arts − .452 .582 .602 .438 .636 .369 .557 .440 .507 1.447
WIL*employment .104 .771 .018 .893 1.109 .332 .663 .250 .617 1.393
Citizenship − .909 .413 4.846 .028* .403
Pseudo R2 .180 .142 .091
χ2 47.863 39.314 12.552

*p < .05
**p < .10
 High Educ

expected to be smaller given it is a continuous variable (Hair et al. 2010). The interaction effect
for employment during the final year of study and completion of a placement is presented as
predictor one*predictor two.
At the four-month stage for sample 1, correct predictions were 71.6% for those employed
FT and 53.7% for those seeking employment, with 62.8% of all cases being classified
correctly. At 16 months post-graduation, correct predictions were 62.0% for those employed
FT and 70.4% for those seeking employment, with 68.2% of all cases being classified
correctly. For sample 2, 65.7% of cases were correctly predicted for those employed FT and
53.7% for those seeking employment, with 62.3% of all cases being classified correctly. The
insignificant logistic regression coefficients indicate that completing a work placement does
not clearly increase the likelihood of FT employment in either the short or long term, aligning
with other studies which have not produced consistent, empirical evidence to support the
widely held assumption of WIL producing more favourable employment outcomes (see, for
example, Peters et al. 2014; Wilton 2012). Wilton, in his analysis of employment outcomes
among graduates four years since graduation, conjectured that the benefits of WIL are less
clearly evident over time. This first sample, despite the lack of a statistically significant short
term effect, provides some support to Wilton’s suggestion.

Influence of work in the final year of study

For sample 1, when measured at the four-month stage, of those who had worked during their
final study year and were available for FT work (N = 272), the FT employment rate was 58.1%,
compared with just 18.6% of those who did not work in their final year. At the 16-month stage,
78.5% of those who worked attained FT employment compared with 51.6% of those who did
not report such work. There was a strong increase in predicted odds for securing FT
employment for those working during the final year of studies. Graduates at the four-month
stage were almost six times more likely to attain employment although this positive effect fell
to a three-time greater likelihood at the 16-month stage. It is not possible to provide data on the
employment outcomes of those working during their final year of study in sample 2 as this
variable is not included in the GOS.
The importance of paid work resonates with earlier studies and the ‘washing out’ effect
over time may represent those who did not work during their studies ‘catching up’ through
establishing professional networks and adding relevant experience to their résumé portfolio.
Also, the strong effect in the short term is likely to be inflated by those who worked in their
final year simply remaining with their current employer at the four-month post-graduation
stage. Further analysis shows that of the 158 graduates who secured FT employment and
worked in their final year of study, just over half were still with the same employer at four
months. Logistic regression results show no interacting effect between completing a placement
and being in paid employment during the final year of study.

Other variations

Sample 1 and 2 results indicate there were no gender effects for FT employment in either the
short or longer term, aligning with Jackson’s (2014) exploration of the determinants of short-
term graduate employment outcomes. Karmel and Carroll (2016) also found any differences
between FT employment among males and females of only small magnitude. Other studies,
however, have found males tend to enjoy higher salaries and better long-term job prospects
High Educ

(Coates and Edwards 2011). Regarding age, there were no reported variations in either sample
in the short term yet some evidence of improved outcomes among mature graduates in the
longer term 16-month measures (p = .066). This contrasts with Wilton (2012) who detected the
reverse effect. The only significant difference by discipline in both the short and long term
across the two samples was in science (p = .059). For these graduates, the odds of achieving FT
employment at the 16-month time point were significantly lower than graduates from IT.

Underemployment

Approximately one half of the graduates in FT employment at both the four- and 16-month
stages in sample 1 believed their degree qualification was either required or important to their
role, the remaining half considered underemployed for the purpose of this study. For sample 2,
utilising the SPOQ scale, 52.2% of graduates were classified as underemployed.

Influence of WIL

Table 5 summarises the importance of degree qualification to graduates in sample 1 by the

completion of a work placement and whether they undertook paid work in their final year of
study. Results are presented both for those available for and in FT employment and those
currently working on a PT or FT basis. There was a more notable impact of completing a
placement on underemployment, in alignment with Nunley et al. (2017) US-based study. For
sample 1, 77% of graduates in FT employment at the four-month stage who had completed a

Table 5 Underemployment among sample 1 graduates by completion of WIL and paid work during the final
year of study

Importance of qualification

Formal requirement Important Somewhat important Not important Do not know

N % N % N % N % N %

4 months in FT (N = 169)
WIL (N = 75) 40 54.8 16 21.9 8 11.0 9 12.3 1 .6
No WIL (N = 94) 21 23.4 20 22.2 14 15.6 34 37.8 0 0
Work (N = 158) 60 39.5 32 21.1 21 13.8 38 25.0 1 .6
No work (N = 11) 1 9.1 4 36.4 1 9.1 5 45.5 0 0
4 months in FT/PT (N = 475)
WIL (N = 187) 66 37.3 31 17.5 11 6.2 67 37.9 2 1.1
No WIL (N = 288) 33 12.3 45 16.7 45 16.7 140 52.0 6 2.2
Work (N = 433) 88 21.7 68 16.8 52 12.8 190 46.9 7 1.7
No work (N = 41) 11 27.5 8 20.0 4 10.0 16 40.0 1 2.5
16 months in FT (N = 287)
WIL (N = 117) 63 53.8 20 17.1 15 12.8 19 16.2 0 0
No WIL (N = 170) 49 28.8 40 23.5 39 22.9 42 24.7 0 0
Work (N = 255) 104 40.8 54 21.2 49 19.2 48 18.8 0 0
No work (N = 32) 8 25.0 6 18.8 5 15.6 13 40.6 0 0
16 months in FT/PT (N = 517)
WIL (N = 202) 91 45.0 35 17.3 25 12.4 51 25.2 0 0
No WIL (N = 315) 64 30.3 63 20.0 61 19.4 127 40.3 0 0
Work (N = 445) 137 30.8 82 18.4 74 16.6 152 34.2 0 0
No work (N = 71) 18 25.4 15 21.1 12 16.9 26 36.6 0 0
 High Educ

placement rated their qualification as required or important to their current role, compared with
46% for those who had not. At 16 months, 71% who had completed a placement rating their
qualification as relevant compared with 52% who did not.
Including PT workers, at the four-month stage, 55% who had completed a placement rated
their qualification as required/important in comparison with 29% who had not. At 16 months,
62.3% who had completed a placement considered their degree relevant to their current role, in
comparison with 50.3% who did not. The impact of the work placement for FT workers is
clearly visible both in the short term, χ2 (4, N = 163) = 22.000, p = .000, and long term, χ2 (3,
N = 287) = 18.602, p = .000, with those completing a placement recording significantly higher
levels of graduate-level employment than those that did not. Although the disparity in ratings
between those who did and did not complete a placement lessened in the long term, the
placement effect appears more profound for those working FT. When PT workers are included
at both time points, a higher proportion of graduates declared their degree as not important to
their current role, providing some support for perception that part-time roles are of a lesser
quality (see, for example, Kauhanen and Nätti 2015).
For sample 2, the mean and standard deviation for each of the eight items relating to
overqualification, equating to underemployment, are presented in Table 6 for graduates who
did and did not complete a placement. The means are lower for all eight items for those who
completed a placement, with the exception of the fourth item which is reverse coded and thus a
favourable result. The percentage that strongly agreed or agreed with the items is also lower
across the board for those who completed a placement. With the exception of the fourth item,
this suggests those who completed a placement consider themselves to be overqualified
relatively less than those who did not. While ratings are still higher than one might wish, it
is important to remember that the survey was completed only four months post-graduation and
when graduates may still be settling into roles or earning supervisor with respect to work
autonomously and take on additional responsibility.
Derived as a scaled score from these eight items (with averages over 3.5 defined as
‘perceived to be overqualified’), 46.2% of those working FT who did not complete a
placement perceived themselves as overqualified for their current role in comparison with
34.1% who did. Including both PT and FT workers, 54.7% who did not complete a placement
perceived themselves as overqualified for their current role compared with 47.4% who did.
This adds support for the value of undertaking a work placement in helping graduates to secure
relevant and quality employment which utilises their qualification. Findings again highlight a
greater incidence of underemployment among graduates working on a PT basis. A MANOVA
was conducted (α = .05) to detect any variation in the multiple SPOQ items for completion of a
placement. A significant effect, however, was not reported for those working FT nor those
working on a FT or PT basis.
Findings for the influence of work placement completion are, therefore, mixed. Sample 1
provides some support for Peters et al.’s (2014) study of 3340 Ontario graduates which found
that ‘employed graduates who participated in WIL were more likely to feel that they were
appropriately qualified for their job, that their job was related to their long-term career goals
and that their job was related to their studies’ (6). Although lower incidence of underemploy-
ment among those who completed a placement is evident in the second sample, this was not
significantly so. The results for the second sample, then, cannot provide strong counter
evidence to that of Wilton’s (2012) who found those who did not complete a work placement
were proportionately more likely to be in higher level occupations and ones which utilised
their degree qualification highlight the need for further empirical review.
 High Educ

Table 6 Analysis of underemployment for sample 2

In FT employment (N = 137) In FT/PT employment (N = 191)

WIL (N = 43) No WIL (N = 94) WIL (N = 60) No WIL (N = 131)

M SD N % SA/ M SD N % SA/ M SD N % SA/ M SD N % SA/

A A A A

Job requires less education than respondent has 2.71 1.289 41 31.7 3.18 1.367 93 48.4 3.07 1.333 56 44.6 3.38 1.364 128 56.3
Respondent has more job skills than are required 3.27 1.304 41 41.5 3.70 1.178 93 64.5 3.56 1.254 57 54.4 3.77 1.165 128 67.2
Someone with less education than respondent could perform job 2.88 1.327 41 49.0 3.19 1.296 93 52.7 3.14 1.274 57 47.4 3.38 1.267 128 59.4
well
Respondent’s previous training is being fully utilised 3.20 1.100 41 41.5 3.19 1.218 93 45.2 2.98 1.157 57 35.1 3.05 1.248 128 41.4
Respondent has more knowledge than needed 3.29 1.289 41 43.9 3.70 1.202 92 64.1 3.58 1.238 57 56.1 3.82 1.151 127 69.3
Respondent’s education level is above the level required 3.44 1.305 41 53.6 3.60 1.267 92 58.7 3.60 1.266 57 57.9 3.80 1.189 127 67.7
Someone with less work experience than respondent could do just 2.49 1.267 41 19.5 2.82 1.285 93 35.5 2.68 1.284 57 24.6 3.00 1.280 128 39.8
as well
Respondent has more abilities than needed 3.44 1.119 41 51.2 3.72 1.164 93 65.6 3.68 1.088 57 61.4 3.84 1.104 128 71.1
 High Educ

Influence of paid employment

The benefit of paid employment during one’s studies dissipates when considering its impact on
relevant employment, rather than simply attaining a FT role. Referring to Table 5, for sample
1 at the four-month stage, 60.6% of those who did work considered their degree qualification
either a formal requirement or very important to their current role, compared with the 45.5%
who did not work. There were no significant differences in underemployment for those who
were employed in their final year of study although the results for importance of qualification
are more favourable for those did work. Further, 45.5% of those who did not work, compared
with 25% who did, believed their degree was of no importance to their current job. At the 16-
month stage, the effect of paid employment is slightly more apparent, χ2 (3, N = 287) = 8.448,
p = .038, with 62.0% of those who worked stating their current role was either formally
required or very important in comparison with 43.8% who did not work.

Variations in underemployment

A series of MANOVAs was conducted (α = .05) to detect any variation in the multiple SPOQ
items for gender, age, discipline and citizenship. First, for those in FT employment, no
significant effects were recorded. For graduates working on either a FT or PT basis, a
significant result was recorded only for discipline, λ = .805, F(24, 496.553) = 1.606,
p = .035, partial η2 = .070. Univariate analysis produced significant results for all SPOQ items
(p < .01), excluding the fourth item relating to the utilisation of previous training. Post hoc
analysis indicates that society and culture performed consistently weakly. Other than the fourth
item, graduates in this discipline achieved significantly higher ratings and were over-educated
compared with either or both IT and management and commerce. The absence of a gender
effect contrasts with Karmel and Carroll (2016) who found males secured better quality jobs
than females.

Inhibitors and enablers of employability and employment

Student responses to identifying enhancers and inhibitors in their courses for their employment
prospects and employability were analysed to detect specific references to WIL. Of the 623
graduates, 135 specifically referred to the value of their work placement and there were six
underlying themes to how graduates felt the work placement was useful. First, one quarter of
respondents felt the practical experience gave them a stronger chance in job applications and
improved their confidence in the labour market, particularly due to good references from their
host employer. Second, also related to employment prospects, 15% stated their placement
directly resulted in paid employment. Third, one fifth found the placement helped develop
their professional networks which enhanced their future employment prospects. Shifting the
focus more towards enhancing their employability rather than specific job outcomes, 15%
stated the placement experience provided them with valuable insight into their intended
profession and industry. Greater clarity on the expectations and requirements of the different
roles within their field helped them understand their career goals and better identify which
pathway to pursue. Fifth, 17% felt the placement enhanced their confidence and developed
their non-technical skills and/or technical expertise through the opportunity to practice and
apply theory in a professional setting. Finally, the remaining 8% of students stated the work
placement was useful but did not embellish in what way.
High Educ

A further 20 respondents spoke of the usefulness of non-placement WIL initiatives within

their course—such as simulations and industry-based projects—and the benefits replicated
some of the themes identified by graduates who completed placements. These included
enhanced understanding of how their profession operated and skill development through the
practical application of disciplinary knowledge and skills. Usefulness was therefore focused on
improving individual employability rather than increased chances of job attainment due to
gaining practical experience, professional networking and securing a job through an industry
partner. Findings gave a sense that educators need to concentrate on improving the networking
aspects of less traditional WIL offerings to better align with the benefits offered work
placements.
In regard to barriers which graduates felt inhibited the development of their employability
and/or employment prospects, there was an overwhelming belief among respondents that
inclusion of more work placements in their course would have assisted them. Almost 30%
of the 623 graduates advocated either expanding current placement offerings or introducing
work placements into their course. These graduates felt undertaking a placement, or more
placements, would provide them with the practical experience they needed to secure employ-
ment as this was a high priority among graduate employers. Respondents believed that
experience was critical to getting a foot in the door in a highly competitive graduate labour
market as it enabled them to interact with potential employers and practice applying their skills
and knowledge in a professional setting.
Findings support evidence of the importance attributed to gaining relevant work experience
(see, for example, Messum et al. 2017) and the imbalance in student demand for work
placements and the pool of placement opportunities (Department of Industry 2014). Findings
affirm and add impetus to the need to drive and implement initiatives to increase employer
engagement in WIL and upscale WIL offerings to increase student engagement with em-
ployers. Interestingly, of the 446 students who did not directly identify the lack of work
placement opportunity as a barrier to enhancing employability, there was an overwhelming
focus among their responses on the need for courses to offer more networking opportunities
and connection with local employers to enhance employability and improve employment
prospects. These students noted the weak graduate labour market and economic circumstances
and felt it was more about ‘who you know’ then ‘what you know’ to currently secure
employment. This, again, highlights the need to ensure that non-placement WIL not only
offers an authentic learning experience but also enables participating students to establish
professional networks during their experience.

Conclusions and implications

Findings in the two samples are mixed, but overall they do not indicate that graduates who
reported completing a placement unit experience better FT employment rates than those who
did not. Employment during the final year of study, however, considerably increased the
likelihood of attaining FT employment in both the short and long term, although this may, in
the shorter term at least, be attributed to new graduates simply remaining with the same
employer after their studies. There appeared to be no difference in the influence of placement
completion on employment outcomes with respect to whether or not a graduate worked in their
final year. The more favourable influence of paid work, rather than WIL, on employment
outcomes is perhaps surprising. It contradicts Nunley et al. (2017) findings that graduate
 High Educ

employers favour relevant work experience given employment during studies may not always
be relevant to a student’s intended career. Perhaps student initiative and motivation to
successfully secure and undertake paid employment carries more weight on graduate résumés
than participation in an experience organised through the student’s institution? More
favourable employment outcomes among participants in sandwich degree (Brooks and
Youngson 2016) and cooperative education programs (Ferguson and Wang 2014) may also
suggest that implementing lengthier periods in industry could be more helpful with obtaining
employment.
Findings in this study support others who question the widely held belief that undertaking
WIL will result in more favourable employment outcomes (Kinash et al. 2016; Yackee 2015).
They confirm that universities should not consider WIL to be their ‘silver bullet’ for improving
an institution’s position in FT employment league tables. It is important that stakeholders move
beyond defining graduate success as the metric of attaining FT employment, particularly given
the rise in portfolio careers, and recognise WIL’s capabilities in enhancing graduate prepared-
ness for success in the contemporary world of work, through improved non-technical skills,
professional networking and exposure to the expectations and requirements of their intended
career pathway. These alone substantiate the need for relevant stakeholders to collaborate,
resource and drive the National Strategy for WIL (Universities Australia et al. 2015), irre-
spective of FT employment outcomes.
In relation to underemployment, there was a more notable difference among graduates who
completed a work placement with some findings suggesting they were more likely to achieve
relevant, quality employment. This may be evidence of WIL’s documented impact on career
self-management and professional identity development, giving students and graduates a
clearer sense of purpose and direction, thus empowering them to achieve their self-defined
goals of career success in a more timely and efficient manner than those who lacked exposure
to established professionals in their field. Alternatively, as asserted by Nunley et al. (2017), it
may signal superior productivity to future employers. The mixed evidence, however, for the
impact of placement completion on underemployment could indicate mediating effects of
other extra-curricular, co-curricular or curricular activities or interventions intended to enhance
employability, such as volunteering, study tours, career self-management interventions and
skill development programs. Individual differences in personal circumstances, mobility and
academic success may also have prevented a clear and consistent finding with respect to
completing work placements and underemployment. Given the lack of data on the relevance of
work undertaken during the final year of study, it is not possible to separate and measure the
benefits of demonstrating commitment to (any) paid employment from those gained from a
career-relevant experience with exposure to seasoned professionals, an important area requir-
ing empirical review.
There was no evidence that participating in paid employment during the final year
would assist in securing relevant, graduate-level employment in the short term yet
some evidence of a positive effect in the long term. This trend may represent the
transition of graduates who initially remained with their employer during studies to an
employer offering more desirable work and who valued their commitment and work
ethic demonstrated by a history of regular, paid employment. A worker’s ability to
retain employment for a particular length of time may be of increasing concern given
the high mobility levels and a lack of reported loyalty among younger generations.
The impact, however, of periods of unemployment has been reported as bearing no
influence on the decisions of graduate recruiters (see Nunley et al. 2017).
High Educ

Males and females fared equally well in the labour market in relation to both employment
and underemployment. More mature graduates appeared to secure better FT employment
outcomes in the longer term yet performed similarly to their younger counterparts in respect
to underemployment. Using IT graduates as a basis for comparison, there was little difference
in FT employment outcomes across the disciplines other than for science who were
disadvantaged in the longer term. Relatively weak performance by science graduates was
also noted in Coates and Edwards (2011) longitudinal study of Australian graduate employ-
ment outcomes. Graduates of the society and culture discipline grouping experienced signif-
icantly higher levels of underemployment than all others. This prompts a review of
interventions initiatives available for students to develop their skills in career self-manage-
ment—including strategies for seeking quality employment and developing professional
networking capabilities—in addition to the workplace relevance of program offerings.
To date, there has been significant focus on supply-side employability strategies with
industry declaring their needs for employable graduates through the prioritisation of certain
employability skills and HE providers responding through developing and embedding grad-
uate attribute frameworks. Perhaps a similar pattern will occur with employers now insisting
on relevant work experience as a key selection criterion and universities duly responding with
embedding WIL throughout courses with less traditional WIL models. Will, however, graduate
employers simply continue to raise the bar on what is required and put more pressure on
graduates (and HE providers) on the level and nature of required experience, and other
selection criteria, to secure employment?
Without adequately resourcing sustainable and scalable models of WIL, continued calls for
practical experience may augment the continued growth of unpaid internships which can be
both illegal and enhance inequalities among already disadvantaged groups who are often
unable to participate (Department of Employment 2016b). It is therefore critical that employers
collaborate with HE providers, and their students, on supporting WIL opportunities to
appropriately prepare new graduates not only for their individual outcomes but for successful
innovation, global competitiveness and strong economic performance. Employers must clarify
precisely which outcomes they expect from practical experience during the degree program
and support students through paid employment or formal WIL programs. In North America,
for example, cooperative education is integral to industry operations with significant numbers
of students regularly interchanging between campus-based and industry-based learning during
their studies.
Defying logic in a highly competitive graduate labour market and rising underemployment,
there remain reported skill gaps among graduates (Tymon 2013; UK Commission for
Employment and Skills 2016) and evidence that employers would be willing to employ more
graduates if they were appropriately skilled (GCA 2016). Some interpret this as the need for
HE providers to review their strategies for making graduates more employable, including what
is taught, teaching methodologies and how student outcomes are measured (see Kinash et al.
2016). Other strategies to improve skills mismatch may include educating graduates on the
importance of labour mobility, improving the quality of graduate recruitment and selection
strategies, provision of career guidance within HE which is aligned with contemporary roles
and working practices and providing government incentives for employer-based training for
new graduates (see World Economic Forum 2014). We must not, however, ignore the demand
side of the graduate labour market with attention to strategies to better accommodate the
growing number of graduates due to widening participation policies. This could involve
changing perceptions of what are traditional graduate roles, such as a greater presence in retail
 High Educ

management, while being mindful of any negative effects on graduates of the vocational
education sector.
This study develops our understanding of the influence of WIL and paid employment
during ones studies on employment outcomes among recent graduates and the extent to which
they are underemployed. It makes the important distinction between employment and under-
employment which is often overlooked in other studies measuring the return on both WIL and
other aspects of tertiary qualifications. These are becoming increasingly important amid
policies to widen participation in HE, with concerns about credentialism and a possible
oversupply of graduates (Tomlinson 2008).
As with all studies, there are limitations. The merging of institutional and national data was
time-consuming and confined to one institution, albeit at two different time points. It is
important to acknowledge that certain specificities of the geographical labour market, or the
institution itself, could influence the results. For example, Western Australia had entered a
post-mining boom economic slump as the graduates in this study were leaving university.
Including nuanced measures for WIL and paid employment during study in national surveys of
graduate employment outcomes would enable more generalisable findings and better insight
into the broader effects of WIL and student employment. The use of graduate self-reported
rating of ‘relevance of qualification to employment’ for sample 1 is not without problems. That
a graduate may deem their degree only slightly relevant to their job may reflect on the
generalist nature of the degree or under-represent the importance of generic skills acquired.
Further, while identifying whether a graduate completed WIL during their course was precise,
there is no account for co- or extra-curricular activities such as self-organised internships or
volunteering. It is also acknowledged that barriers to participating in WIL exist, including the
costs of travel and clothing, child care commitments and imposed prerequisites of certain
levels of academic achievement (Brough et al. 2014). WIL may also appeal to those who are
more career-minded, are academically engaged and have a strong work ethic. WIL’s positive
association with better quality employment could, therefore, be attributed not to their partic-
ipation in WIL but more to their characteristics and/or support available to assist them in
attaining certain types of FT employment.
Future directions for research include exploring the influence of the different forms of WIL
on both employment and underemployment. This includes simulations, industry-based pro-
jects, incubator and business start-up programs and other authentic learning experiences which
qualify as a quality WIL experience. Studies which develop our understanding of graduate
recruiters’ preference for the different types of WIL and paid employment would also be
beneficial. These may indicate a need to educate employers on the nature and benefits of WIL
and assist in aligning the design and content of WIL programs to better meet industry needs.
Further, longitudinal studies which examine causality for underemployment among graduates
who completed, or not, different forms of WIL would be particularly useful.

References

AAGE. (2016). The 2016 AAGE Employer Survey. Camberwell: Australian Association of Australian
Employers.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2017). Labour force survey Australia June 2017, 6202.0. Canberra: ABS.
Bartolj, T., & Polanec, S. (2016a). The game of skills: a comparison of impacts of student work and academic
performance on post-college labour market outcomes. Slovenia: Institute for Economic Research.
High Educ

Bartolj, T. & Polanec, S. (2016b). Does work harm academic performance of students? Evidence using
propensity score matching. Discussion paper series DPS16.28. Belgium: Ku Leuven Department of
Economics.
Billett, S. (2011). Curriculum and pedagogical bases for effectively integrating practice-based experiences—
final report. Strawberry Hills: Australian Learning and Teaching Council.
Bourner, T., & Millican, J. (2011). Student-community engagement and graduate employability. Widening
participation and lifelong learning, 13(2), 68–85.
Bridgstock, R. (2016). Graduate employability 2.0: social networks for learning, career development and
innovation in the digital age. [Link] Accessed 13
Sept 2016.
Brooks, R., & Youngson, P. (2016). Undergraduate work placements: an analysis of the effects on career
progression. Studies in Higher Education, 41(9), 1563–1578.
Brough, M., Correa-Velez, I., Crane, P., Johnstone, E., & Marston, G. (2014). Work-integrated learning in social
work and human services. Springvale: ACEN.
Burke, C., Scurry, T., Blenkinsopp, J., & Graley, K. (2017). Critical perspectives on graduate employability. In
M. Tomlinson & L. Holmes (Eds.), Graduate employability in context (pp. 87–107). London: Palgrave
Macmillan.
CEDA. (2015). Australia’s future workforce? Melbourne: Committee for Economic Development of Australia.
Coates, H. (2015). Working on a dream: educational returns from off-campus paid work. Journal of Education
and Work, 28(1), 66–82.
Coates, H., & Edwards, D. (2011). The Graduate Pathways Survey: new insights on education and employment
outcomes five years after bachelor degree completion. Higher Education Quarterly, 65(1), 74–93.
Cunningham, J. (2016a). Genres of underemployment: a dialogical analysis of college graduate underemploy-
ment. Qualitative Research in Education, 5(1), 1–24.
Cunningham, J. (2016b). Credential disconnection: a Marxist analysis of college graduate underemployment.
Critical Studies in Education, 57(2), 224–237.
Dall'Alba, G. (2004). Understanding professional practice: investigations before and after an educational
programme. Studies in Higher Education, 29(6), 679–692.
Daly, A., Lewis, P., Corliss, M., & Heaslip, T. (2015). The private rate of return to a university degree in
Australia. Australian Journal of Education, 59(1), 97–112.
Deloitte. (2016). The 2016 Deloitte millennial survey: winning over the next generation of leaders. London:
Deloitte.
Department of Education and Training. (2016). Strategy for international education 2025. Camberra: DET.
Department of Employment. (2016a). The household, income and labour dynamics in Australia survey: selected
findings from waves 1 to 14. Melbourne: Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research.
Department of Employment. (2016b). Unpaid work experience in Australia: prevalence, nature and impact.
Canberra: Department of Employment.
Department of Industry. (2014). Engaging employers in work integrated learning: current state and future
priorities. Richmond: PhillipsKPA.
Ferguson, S. J., & Wang, S. (2014). Graduating in Canada: profile, labour market outcomes and student debt of
the class of 2009–2010. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Foundation for Young Australians. (2015). The new work order: ensuring young Australians have the skills and
experience for the jobs of the future, not the past. Melbourne: FYA.
Glyde, G., Davis, F., & King, C. (1977). Underemployment: definition and causes. Journal of Economic Issues,
11(2), 245–267.
Golden, L., Henley, J., & Lambert, S. (2013). Work schedule flexibility: a contributor to happiness. Journal of
Social Science and Research Policy, 4(2), 107–135.
Good Education Group. (2017). The good universities guide 2017 to universities and other higher education
providers. Melbourne: Good Education Group.
Gracia, L. (2010). Accounting students’ expectations and transition experiences of supervised work experience.
Accounting Education, 19(1/2), 51–64.
Graduate Careers Australia. (2016). The report of the 2015 graduate outlook survey: perspectives on graduate
recruitment. Melbourne: GCA.
Green, F., & Henseke, G. (2016). Should governments of OECD countries worry about graduate underemploy-
ment? Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 32(4), 514–537.
Guilbert, L., Bernaud, J., Gouvernet, B., & Rossier, J. (2016). Employability: review and research prospects.
International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 16(1), 69–89.
Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: a global perspective. New
Jersey: Pearson Prentice-Hall.
 High Educ

Heyes, J., Tomlinson, M., & Whitworth, A. (2016). Underemployment and well-being in the UK before and after
the Great Recession. Work, Employment & Society, 31(1), 71–89.
Hoeckel, K. (2014). Youth labour markets in the early twenty-first century. In A. Mann, J. Stanley, & L. Archer
(Eds.), Understanding employer engagement in education: theories and evidence (pp. 66–76). Abingdon:
Routledge.
International Education Association of Australia (IEAA). (2012). Internships and work placement opportunities
for international students in Victoria. Melbourne: IEAA.
Jackson, D. (2014). Factors influencing job attainment in recent bachelor graduates: evidence from Australia.
Higher Education, 68(1), 135–153.
Jackson, D. (2016a). Re-conceptualising graduate employability: the construction of pre-professional identity in
the higher education landscape of practice. Higher Education Research and Development, 35(5), 925–939.
Jackson, D. (2016b). Developing pre-professional identity in undergraduates through work-integrated learning.
Higher Education, 1–21.
Jackson, D., Rowbottom, D., Ferns, S., & Mclaren, D. (2017). Employer understanding of Work-Integrated
Learning and the challenges of engaging in WIL opportunities. Studies in Continuing Education, 39(1), 35–
51.
James, R., Bexley, E., Devlin, M., & Marginson, S. (2007). Australian university student finances 2006: final
report of a national survey of students in public universities. Canberra: Universities Australia.
Jonck, P. (2014). The mitigating effect of work-integrated learning on graduate employment in South Africa.
Africa Education Review, 11(3), 277–291.
Karmel, T., & Carroll, D. (2016). Has the graduate labour market been swamped? Adelaide: National Institute of
Labour Studies, Flinders University.
Kauhanen, M., & Nätti, J. (2015). Involuntary temporary and part-time work, job quality and well-being at work.
Social Indicators Research, 120(3), 783–799.
Kinash, S., Crane, L., Judd, M. M., & Knight, C. (2016). Discrepant stakeholder perspectives on graduate
employability strategies. Higher Education Research & Development, 35(5), 951–967.
Li, I., Mahuteau, S., Dockery, A., Junankar, P., & Mavromaras, K. (2016). Labour market outcomes of Australian
university graduates from equity groups. Perth: National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education,
Curtin University.
Matthew, S., Taylor, R., & Ellis, R. (2012). Relationships between students’ experiences of learning in an
undergraduate internship programme and new graduates’ experiences of professional practice. Higher
Education, 64(4), 529–542.
Maynard, D., Joseph, T., & Maynard, A. (2006). Underemployment, job attitudes, and turnover intentions.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(4), 509–536.
McCrindle. (2015). Social analysis. Sydney: McCrindle.
Messum, D., Wilkes, L., Peters, K., & Jackson, D. (2017). Content analysis of vacancy advertisements for
employability skills. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 7(1), 72–86.
Muldoon, R. (2009). Recognizing the enhancement of graduate attributes and employability through part-time
work while at university. Active Learning in Higher Education, 10(3), 237–252.
Nunley, J., Pugh, A., Romero, N., & Seals, R. (2017). The effects of unemployment and underemployment on
employment opportunities: results from a correspondence audit of the labor market for college graduates.
ILR Review, 70(3), 642–669.
Oliver, D. (2011). University student employment and expectations of the graduate labour market. Journal of
Industrial Relations, 53(1), 123–131.
Oliver, B. (2015). Redefining graduate employability and work-integrated learning: proposals for effective higher
education in disrupted economies. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 6(1), 56–
65.
Pegg, A., Waldock, J., Hendy-Isaac, S., & Lawton, R. (2012). Pedagogy for employability. York: Higher
Education Academy.
Peters, J., Sattler, P., & Kelland, J. (2014). Work integrated learning in Ontario’s postsecondary sector: the
pathways of recent college and university graduates. Toronto: Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario.
Scurry, T., & Blenkinsopp, J. (2011). Under-employment among recent graduates: a review of the literature.
Personnel Review, 40(5), 643–659.
Silva, P., Lopes, B., Costa, M., Melo, A., Dias, G., Brito, E. & Seabra, D. (2016b). The million-dollar question:
can internships boost employment? Studies in Higher Education, 1–20.
Silva, P., Lopes, B., Costa, M., Seabra, D., Melo, A., Brito, E., & Dias, G. (2016a). Stairway to employment?
Internships in higher education. Higher Education, 72(6), 703–721.
Sin, S., Reid, A., & Jones, A. (2012). An exploration of students’ conceptions of accounting work. Accounting
Education, 21(4), 323–340.
High Educ

Smith, E. (2009). New models of working and learning: how young people are shaping their futures differently.
Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 14(4), 429–440.
Smith, M., Brooks, S., Lichtenberg, A., McIlveen, P., Torjul, P., & Tyler, J. (2009). Career development learning:
maximising the contribution of work-integrated learning to the student experience. Wollongong: University
of Wollongong.
Smith, C., Ferns, S., & Russell, L. (2014). Assessing the impact of Work Integrated learning on student work
readiness: final report. Sydney: Office of Learning and Teaching.
Social Research Centre. (2016a). 2016 Graduate Outcomes Survey national report. Melbourne: Social Research
Centre.
Social Research Centre. (2016b). 2016 Graduate Outcomes Survey data dictionary. Melbourne: Social Research
Centre.
Sturges, J. (2016). The individualization of the career and its implications for leadership and management
development. In J. Storey (Ed.), Leadership in organizations: current issues and key trends (pp. 249–267).
London: Routledge.
Thomas, D. (2006). A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data. American Journal of
Evaluation, 27(2), 237–246.
Thompson, K., Shea, T., Sikora, D., Perrewé, P., & Ferris, G. (2013). Rethinking underemployment and over
qualification in organizations: the not so ugly truth. Business Horizons, 56(1), 113–121.
Tomlinson, M. (2008). ‘The degree is not enough’: students’ perceptions of the role of higher education
credentials for graduate work and employability. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 29(1), 49–61.
Trede, F., Macklin, R., & Bridges, D. (2012). Professional identity development: a review of the higher education
literature. Studies in Higher Education, 37(3), 365–384.
Tymon, A. (2013). The student perspective on employability. Studies in Higher Education, 38(6), 841–856.
UK Commission for Employment and Skills. (2016). Employer skills survey 2015—skills in the labour market.
London: UKCES.
Universities Australia, BCA, ACCI, AIG, & ACEN (2015). National strategy on Work Integrated Learning in
university education. [Link]
[Link]. Accessed 12 Mar 2016.
Webber, D. (2016). Are college costs worth it? How ability, major, and debt affect the returns to schooling.
Economics of Education Review, 53, 296–310.
Wilkins, R. (2007). The consequences of underemployment for the underemployed. Journal of Industrial
Relations, 49(2), 247–275.
Wilton, N. (2012). The impact of work placements on skill development and career outcomes for business and
management graduates. Studies in Higher Education, 37(5), 603–620.
World Economic Forum. (2014). Matching skills and labour market needs building social partnerships for better
skills and better jobs. Switzerland: World Economic Forum.
Yackee, J. W. (2015). Does experiential learning improve JD employment outcomes. Wisconsin Law Review,
601–625.