8 Components
Optical Fibers and Modes
Optical fibers are thin and flexible structured cylinders
made from glass so pure that the fibers are a lossless
transmission medium for light of an appropriate wave-
length l and for sufficiently short distances. The simplest
form of an optical fiber is the step-index fiber, in which a
core glass with an index of refraction n1 is surrounded by a
cladding glass of index n2, where n1 > n2. Light is confined
to the fiber via the process of total internal reflection
(TIR), i.e., a beam of light is totally reflected when it
impinges from the n1 side of a boundary between n1 and n2
regions if the angle of incidence u > sin–1(n2 / n1).
The propagating light solutions of Maxwell’s equations for
a step-index fiber identify distinct wave configurations or
modes that can propagate in the fiber. The lowest-order
allowed modes are shown below.
n1
HE11
TE01
TM01
neff
EH11
HE12
HE31
HE21
n2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
V - number
In this figure, the effective-mode index of refraction is neff ¼
(bl/2p), the V-number is V ¼ (2pa/l) (n12 – n22)1/2, the fiber
core radius is a, and b is the mode-propagation constant.
Note that this figure shows the allowed mode-propagation
constants for a given core radius; for a V-number less than
2.405, only one mode can propagate.
Field Guide to Fiber Optic Sensors
14 Components
Color Sensors
The most common method of detecting the wavelength l of
a single monochromatic signal involves a spectrometer
in which the optical signal is diffracted by a grating at
different angles (depending on l) and detected by either a
photodiode array or a single fixed photodiode with a
rotatable grating.
Other options include RGB sensors, in which three
photodiodes have red, green, and blue filters in front of them.
An interesting option for sensing wavelength and intensity of
a single monochromatic sensor is the photodiode color sensor.
When exposed to a monochromatic signal, this type of sensor,
which has two stacked p-n junctions, provides two distinct
outputs representing different responsivities in different
regions of the photodiode. The region that is first encountered
by the optical signal is more sensitive to red light [responsiv-
ity R1(l)], and the deeper region is more sensitive to blue
light [responsivity R2(l)]. These responsivities for a typical
device at room temperature are shown below.
0.5
R1 (λ)
0.4
responsivity, R 0.3
(amperes/watt)
0.2
R2 (λ)
0.1
0.0
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
λ(mm)
For any monochromatic signal within the region between
0.45 mm and 0.78 mm, the difference/sum of the two
detected signals will be a monotonically increasing func-
tion, thereby allowing the signal’s wavelength to be
uniquely determined. However, the two detector responsi-
vites are temperature dependent. This can be compensated
for by using the diode as a temperature sensor, i.e.,
measuring some portion of the sensor’s current–voltage
curve in the absence of illumination, determining the
temperature, and then adjusting the responsivities.
Field Guide to Fiber Optic Sensors
34 Extrinsic Multimode Sensors
In-Line Fiber Coupling Theory
When the ends of two equivalent, polished multimode fibers
are brought into proximity, the coupling loss between
them can be used as a transducer mechanism. The two
primary loss mechanisms used in simple fiber optic sensors
depend on either axial or longitudinal displacement.
s
d
lateral misalignment longitudinal misalignment
For a multimode step-index fiber with a radius a and
numerical aperture NA ¼ 0.37 [where the fiber critical
angle uc ¼ sin–1(NA)], the fractional transmission TA as a
function of axial displacement is given by
" 2 #1=2
2 1 d d d
TA ¼ cos 1
p 2a pa 2a
whereas the fractional transmission TL as a function of
longitudinal displacement is given by
2 32
1
TL ¼ 4 5
1 þ as tanuc
These fractional losses are shown in the figure below:
1.0
0.8
fractional 0.6
transmission 0.4
0.2 TL
TA
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
d/a or s/a
When both axial and longitudinal displacement are
present, the situation becomes much more complicated.
Field Guide to Fiber Optic Sensors
Multiplexing 77
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) can be used
effectively to support arrays of Mach–Zehnder and Michel-
son interferometers. In this case the light source is
operated in a chirped mode where the frequency of the
light output changes at dF/dt. By arranging each succes-
sive fiber interferometer to have a net path length
difference (L Lm), the two light beams will combine after
exiting the interferometer with a carrier frequency Fm
given by
Fm ¼ ðL Lm Þn=c
Light source
L L L
L1 L2 L3
Frequency-chirped
light source
F1
F2
F3
Detector
The frequency signal associated with each of the length
offsets is then used to separate out each of the successive
signals from the Mach–Zehnder (transmission) or Michel-
son (reflection) interferometers.
One key limitation of this approach is that its perfor-
mance is highly dependent on the stability of the light
source. In particular, if the frequency of the light source
varies in a random manner, the offset between the legs of
the interferometer generate corresponding phase noise
df ¼ 2pdF(L Lm)n/c.
Field Guide to Fiber Optic Sensors
88 Applications
Damage-Assessment Microbend Sensor
Even the simplest fiber optic sensors can be used to
support important functions. The following figure illus-
trates a configuration that can measure and localize
damage to a structure. In this case, light sources, such as
low-cost LEDs, are used to couple light into arrays of
microbend-sensitive fiber that are woven into or attached
to the structure. When an impact occurs that induces
damage, the structure is deformed, and microbend loss
changes the light level detected for that specific fiber
element. By using 2D configurations, the location of the
damage may be determined.
Microbend- Detectors
sensitive fiber
Light sources
Damage site
Beamsplitters
This configuration can also enable safety mats for use with
dangerous machinery. Microbend-sensitive optical fibers
are woven into the mat, and when an operator is too close
to the machinery and steps on the mat, the signal level goes
down, and the machinery is switched off. For this simple
application, only one light source and detector is needed.
The microbend-sensitive optical fiber is wound back and
forth through the mat as a single strand.
Another variant of this approach uses metal plates with a
specific period optimized for the maximum microbend
response for an optical fiber design. Pressure on the plate
changes the amplitude output.
Field Guide to Fiber Optic Sensors
