Three Main Families of Moral Theories
- Consequentialism
- Deontology
- Virtue Ethics
Take note:
Each family of theories focuses on different part of the Structure of Human Action.
A person’s character gives rise to intentions and motives which produce actions (inactions), which
have consequences.
CONSEQUENTIALISM (Consequence Theory)
- The right course of action is the one that will produce the best overall value.
Focus: maximizing favorable consequences of actions.
Consequentialist theories, unlike virtue and deontological theories, hold that only the
consequences, or outcomes, of actions matter morally. According to this view, acts are deemed to
be morally right solely on the basis of their consequences. For instance, most people would agree
that lying is wrong. But if telling a lie would help save a person's life, consequentialism says it's the
right thing to do.
Consequentialism is sometimes criticized because it can be difficult, or even impossible, to know
what the result of an action will be ahead of time. Indeed, no one can know the future with
certainty. Also, in certain situations, consequentialism can lead to decisions that are objectionable,
even though the consequences are arguably good.
Consequentialism is based on two principles:
1. Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act;
2. The better consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act.
It gives us this guidance when faced with a moral dilemma: A person should choose the action
that maximizes good consequences and it gives this general guidance on how to live: People should
live so as to maximize good consequences.
Versions:
Ethical Egoism: do what maximizes favorable consequences for yourself.
Ethical Altruism: do what maximizes favorable consequences to others.
+ Primary Version: Utilitarianism
- Principle of Utility: do what maximizes overall favorable consequences for everyone
Utilitarianism, first popularized by British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill in
the 19th century, is a theory that holds that the best way to make a moral decision is to look at the
potential consequences of each available choice, and then pick the option that either does most to
increase happiness or does least to increase suffering. Utilitarianism, also known as
consequentialism, is often summed up as a philosophy of "The greatest good for the greatest
number."
DEONTOLOGY (Duty Theory)
- The most important part of moral assessment of actions are motives, intensions, and the actions
themselves. Do they follow certain rules/obligation?
Focus: motives, intensions, rules, duty
(deontic = ‘rules’, Deon = ‘duty’)
Deontology or Deontological Ethics is an approach to Ethics that focuses on the rightness or
wrongness of actions themselves. In contemporary moral philosophy, deontology is one of those
kinds of normative theories regarding which choices are morally required, forbidden, or permitted.
Deontology states that society needs rules in order to function, and that a person can only be
called moral to the extent that he abides by those rules.
The most famous and eloquent exponent of deontology is generally agreed to be Immanuel
Kant. Kant coined the following maxim, known as the Categorical Imperative, to help people decide
which actions should be governed by rules: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can
also will that it would become a universal law." In other words, people should only do things that
they would be happy to see everyone does. For example, people shouldn't lie, because if everyone
lies all the time then society would collapse.
Deontology is simple to apply. It just requires that people follow the rules and do their duty. This
approach tends to fit well with our natural intuition about what is or isn't ethical. Kant's
deontology, sometimes called deontological ethics, starts by acknowledging that actions and their
outcomes are independent things. Basically, there are things you have to do, even though you
know they are wrong, such as shooting that intruder to protect your family. According to
deontology, you need to focus on the act, such as protecting your family, and not the likely death it
will mean for the intruder.
Versions:
Duty List Theory: follow a compiled list of moral rules/rights (ex. The 10 Commandments,
Human Rights)
+ Primary version: Kantianism
Categorical Imperative
o Universal Principle: Only act on maxims (motives/Intensions) that could be a universal
law.
o Principle of Humanity: Never treat any person merely as a means (object); treat every
person respect that they deserve as rational, autonomous beings.
VIRTUE ETHICS
- Do what a virtuous agent, someone with all the virtues, would do in the circumstance. (Virtue
tell you what to do)
Virtue Ethics. A virtue is an excellent trait of character. It is a disposition, well entrenched in
its possessor- something that, as we say, goes all the way down, to notice, expect, value, feel,
desire, choose, act, and react in certain characteristic ways. Virtue ethics emphasizes an
individual's character as the key element of ethical thinking, rather than rules about the acts
themselves (Deontology) or their consequences (Consequentialism).
To possess a virtue is to be a certain sort of person with a certain complex mindset. A
significant aspect of this mindset is the wholehearted acceptance of a distinctive range of
considerations as reasons for action. 13. Virtue ethics states that only good people can make
good moral decisions.
Therefore, the best way to be moral is to constantly seek to improve oneself. Virtue
ethicists list a number of qualities that they believe are universal, and are appreciated in all
cultures. They include wisdom, prudence, loyalty, honesty, temperance, bravery, magnanimity,
and justice. Virtue ethicists argue that if a person tries his best to embody these traits, then by
definition he will always be in a good position to make moral judgments.
