Name: Preston Whiteman PAG12.
2: Research report
The race to make a star on earth (and exploit it for energy)
Intro
In contemporary society, we’ve never used more electrical energy, our reliance on digital technol-
ogy for human survival has never been more important. Currently, there are only a handful of methods to
produce this electrical energy (such as coal, oil and gas) and most of them harm the atmosphere, which
isn’t very sustainable for humanity. Our sun produces energy in a more efficient and energy-dense way,
it produces its energy using nuclear fusion. It’s not only a better and more efficient way to produce energy,
but it’s also more sustainable for humanity and can be done with a simple glass of seawater and some
lithium (which contains about as much energy in a 1-litre glass of water as 300 litres of oil, so
about 1.1178 × 1010 J ). Nuclear fusion is a fairly clean energy source as it does not produce harmful atmo-
spheric emissions and only produces a small amount of short-lived radioactive waste in the form of ionising
radiation from helium and hydrogen atoms being fired out.
Nuclear fusion reactions
Nuclear fusion energy is released when two atomic nuclei (lighter than iron-56 or nickel-62 to pro-
duce energy) such as deuterium and tritium (hydrogen isotopes), combine to form one or more different
atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutron or protons). The difference in the mass of the reactants and
the products either releases or absorbs energy. The difference in mass leads to a difference in nuclear bind-
ing energy between atomic nuclei. Fusion of lighter nuclei such as the hydrogen isotopes leads to an
exothermic reaction which can be used to produce energy. The process of making this reaction happen on
Earth is very complex. For the fusion of atoms the temperature needs to be very hot and they need to be in
the form of plasma.
Nuclear fusion reactors
It requires the Lawson Criteria which is a set of requirements necessary for a net energy gain from a
fusion reactor. The Lawson Criteria was invented by an engineer named John Lawson. He basically created
an equation to describe the energy needed to keep the fusion reactor in a steady state. For a fusion reactor
to operate in steady state, the fusion plasma must be maintained at a constant temperature. Thermal en-
ergy must therefore be added at the same rate the plasma loses energy in order to maintain the fusion con-
JET fusion
ditions. This energy can be supplied by the fusion reactor
reactions (fig 1) depending on the reaction type, or
themselves,
by supplying additional heating through a variety of methods. The reason for the high temperature is so that
the nuclei are in the plasma state and also so that they have a higher kinetic energy ( E k). This means that
they can smash together at higher speeds in order to fuse into heavier atoms. This all ultimately is used to
heat up water into steam and then used to turn a turbine (like most power stations in use today)
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Modern day reactors such as the UK’s JET reactor in Oxfordshire are shaped like a torus (as shown in
figure 1). This is an example of a Tokamak reactor which is a device used to create a powerful magnetic field
in order to confine plasma into the shape of a torus in order to proceed controlled thermonuclear fusion
power. It’s currently one of the leading models of fusion reactor in fusion energy research. In late 2023 the
UK reactor set a new record for the longest fusion energy reaction which resulted in a net energy gain of 69
MJ of heat energy in 5.2 seconds using only 0.2 milligrams of fuel. This set a precedent for fusion energy as it
demonstrated that energy can be produced using fusion and at a very high level. The energy produced from
that 5.2 second reaction could provide a power output of 12.5 mega watts which is enough to power 12,000
homes.
This reactor has been shutdown now as there is a new project from ITER which is a Tokamak genera-
tor. This project sets to build on the foundations that the JET reactor and many others like it have laid. Fig 2
Small-scale model of ITER
reactor (fig 2)
shows a model of the reactor that is being built for the project. It is set to be operational by 2025 and should
yield very good results for scientists. The goal of this project is to produce 10 times as much thermal output
power (which is transferred to electrical energy) as thermal power absorbed by the plasma.
The reactor will cost about £30 billion to make which is on the scale of the International Space Sta-
tion or the Large Hadron Collider, the reason for so much money being poured into fusion research is the
fact that it’s so energy dense and could lead to such a major leap and advancement in human technology
and civilisation.
Limitations and setbacks
• Technical challenges - Achieving and maintaining the strict and star-like conditions on earth is very difficult
to sustain for a long period of time, with the current record for the longest fusion reaction on earth being
5.2 seconds.
• Energy input vs. Energy output - It’s hard to create a reactor that will have a net energy gain while main-
taining a consistent temperature for the fusion reaction. This is due to the high temperatures needed and
the large energy necessary to start the reactor.
• Economic viability - It’s hard to tell weather the fusion reactors, when built, will be able to produce enough
energy to be economically viable and a better alternative to fuels such as coal, gas and oil. There’s evi-
dence to suggest that they’re economically viable, however, with the constantly changing timelines and
budgets of projects such at ITER it is unlikely to be able to know until a reactor is produced and released to
energy providers.
• Safety concerns - Even though the ionising radiation that is released from fusion reactors will be contained
in the reactor and won’t be an issue for the public there are still concerns, like with nuclear power, about
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the safety of the energy production technique. Especially because ionising radiation can be deadly for hu-
mans.
Use of a nuclear fusion reactor
Now, let’s say that ITER is a complete success and they finally create a nuclear fusion reactor that is safe, has
a net positive energy production, is economically viable and easily reproducible. What would happen to the
world we know today? Using the data provided by ITER they’re working on a T
Conclusion
Glossary
Nuclear fusion - The fusion of two light atomic nuclei which releases energy.
Nuclear binding energy - In experimental physics it is defined as the minimum energy required to disassem-
ble the nucleus of an atom into its constituent protons and neutrons.
Plasma - superheated matter, so hot that the electrons are ripped away from the atoms forming an ionised
gas.
Tokamak - A magnetic confinement device used to produce thermonuclear fusion power.
ITER - International nuclear fusion research and engineering megaproject, members include: UK, China, EU,
Japan, South Korea, Russia and the United States of America.
References
Belan, M. (2022). This infographic shows how nuclear fusion really works. [online] World Economic Forum.
Available at: [Link] [Accessed
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Kurzgesagt - In a nutshell (2016). Fusion Power Explained – Future or Failure. YouTube. Available at:
[Link] [Accessed 8 May 2024].
Science World Report and Hoffman, M. (2013). What Is The Lawson Criteria, Or How to Make Fusion Power
Viable. [online] Science World Report. Available at:
[Link]
[Link] [Accessed 8 May 2024].
Sparkes, M. (2024). UK nuclear fusion reactor sets new world record for energy output. [online] New Scien-
tist. Available at: [Link]
record-for-energy-output/ [Accessed 8 May 2024].
Wikipedia contributors (2023). Lawson criterion. [online] Wikipedia. Available at:
[Link]
%20minimum [Accessed 8 May 2024].
Wikipedia contributors (2024). Fusion power. [online] Wikipedia. Available at:
[Link] [Accessed 8 May 2024].
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Wikipedia contributors (2024b). ITER. [online] Wikipedia. Available at: [Link]
wprov=sfti1# [Accessed 8 May 2024].Wikipedia contributors (2024c). Nuclear fusion. [online] Wikipedia.
Available at: [Link] [Accessed 8 May 2024].
